Dear Preppers and Survivalists,
LAPTOP FRIENDLY DISASTER SURVIVAL LIBRARY (Version 11/6/01)
Keyword Searchable
Description: A one-document library of disaster survival info for individuals/families/neighborhoods. Designed to be placed on your laptop or palm pilot for rapid post-disaster access. Keyword searchable (details below). Data is copied directly from sources you likely know ant trust, such as the Red Cross and the U. S. Army. 800 pages total, 3MB uncompressed.
Advantages: Once downloaded it doesn't require constant access to electricity or any Net access, takes much less time to search than a book, is free, floppy friendly, addresses broad range of disaster scenarios. Detailed instructions below.
Profuse thanks to you: Just by having and understanding the use of this document, you may be making the world around you a safer place. That is a contribution to the war effort, and for what it is worth I admire you for making it. If you like this library, I hope you will make the further contribution of sharing it with your friends. Send them to the online version at http://gamecamp.org/disaster.htm
Dave Ridley
Editor, Laptop Friendly Disaster Survival Library
gamecampone@aol.com
Contents:
All documents and books below copied exactly and often comprehensively from the sources listed
Johns Hopkins University Biowar FAQ http://hopkins-biodefense.org
American Red Cross Disaster Tips (approx. 150 pages from http://redcross.org)
U. S. Constitution (Complete copy)
U. S. Army Survival Manual FM 21-76 (Complete copy. From: http://155.217.58.58/cgi-bin/atdl.dll/fm/21-76/toc.htm )
Oak Ridge National Laboratory: "Nuclear War Survival Skills" (reprinted online at http://www.oism.org/nwss/s73p904.htm )
Active First Aid The official first aid manual for PARASOL EMT, an Australian EMT training firm. Complete copy.
From: http://www.parasolemt.com.au/Manual/afa.html (Would welcome a more well-known source for first aid information, provided it's of equal quality and comprehensiveness: E-mail me at gamecampone@aol.com to suggest)
The Defensive Use of Firearms (From http://www.recguns.com)
(It's good data, but we'd welcome a more well-known source for civilian firearms info. Email me at gamecampone@aol.com to suggest)
Fords MTM Preparedness Checklist (Coming soon, awaiting permission) from: http://www.fords-mtm.com/preparechecklist.htm
Gun Safety Tips - National Rifle Association: http://www.mynra.com/frame.cfm?url=http://www.nrahq.org
U.S. Army Pistol Training Manual FM 23-35 http://www.adtdl.army.mil/cgi-bin/atdl.dll/fm/23-35/fm23-35.htm
A Guide to Organizing Neighborhoods for Preparedness, Response and Recovery
- Volunteer Center of Marin County, CA http://www.preparenow.org/marin-g.html
_________
Report errors and suggest improvements: Email the editor at gamecampone@aol.com
Data still sought: Barter guide, better-known defensive firearms guide.
Instructions:
Copy this document, disaster.rtf, preferably to your laptop, palm pilot or other battery-powered computer. Then if you want a quick answer to a question (such as how to treat contaminated water or help a heat exhaustion victim) it can be right at your fingertips. And you don't have to buy or carry 5 books to make it happen.
The data here is copied directly and comprehensively from the American Red Cross website, the U.S. Army Survival Manual and other generally respected sources. Whenever possible, I turned to well-known institutions such as these for the data, knowing you would trust them as I do. For some types of info I had to turn to less-known sources, however. In every case I list the source website so you can judge for yourself. But I would welcome the chance to substitute or add data from more famous trusted institutions. Please e-mail me at gamecampone@aol.com if you can suggest a source or report any error on this site.
In order to keep the library from becoming too big to open all at once, it does not include illustrations. The original documents from which it originated do, however, and the links are always listed. In the future we may figure a way to include illustrations.
Keyword Searching
While you can certainly read this library starting at the beginning, using it without keyword searching it is like showering with a raincoat on! But keyword searchability remains one of the most underutilized advantages of computer documents. So here are some instructions and tips on how to get the most out of the technique.
1) Open this document (disaster.rtf) and scroll to the top of it.
2) Type Ctrl + F ("propeller" + F if on a Mac) or click "Edit" then "Find" using your mouse. This activates "find" dialogue box.
3) Type in a keyword or phrase. If you use a phrase, note that the computer will search out only phrases that exactly match what you type.
4) Hit enter. You'll be taken to the first instance of that keyword or phrase.
5) To go to the next instance of that keyword or phrase, hit F3. If you don't find what you're looking for at first, keep hitting F3! You can also change your keyword or phrase slightly.
If you type only the first letters of a word, you will still get taken to all words that contain those letters in that order. Example: if you type "blea" and then keep hitting F3 you will be taken, one at a time, to all instances of the word bleach and the word bleat too!
If you type a phrase such as "water treatment" you will only be taken to exact instances of that phrase, unlike the Internet you will not be taken to articles that merely include both words.
Keyword searching on most word processors can only be done "down," that's why you usually want to be at the top of the document when you start it.
Now that you're up to speed, try searching this document for any survival topic that interests you. You can use it to assist any preparedness efforts you'd like to make If you don't find what you're after, please e-mail me at gamecampone@aol.com and let me know!
Johns Hopkins University Biowar FAQ http://hopkins-biodefense.org (Some data is from the CDC and other organizations linked to by Johns Hopkins)
Frequently Asked Questions
Bioterrorism Concerns after September 11
Since the terrorist attacks of September 11, public concern regarding a potential biological
attack has heightened. The Johns Hopkins Center for Civilian Biodefense Studies received a
steady stream of phone calls from the general public seeking more information about
bioterrorism and ways to protect themselves. In response, the Center prepared the following
"Frequently Asked Questions" (FAQ) fact sheet. Individuals may also want to contact their
local health department and physician for additional information.
Should I buy a gas mask?
Should I have my own supply of antibiotics?
Is it safe for me to drink water from the tap?
What is smallpox?
If smallpox is a potential threat to the U.S., why shouldn't we all get vaccinated?
If I was vaccinated against smallpox before 1980, am I still protected?
What is anthrax?
Is anthrax contagious?
What is the National Pharmaceutical Stockpile (NPS)?
What can I do to protect myself and my family?
What if my fear about bioterrorism is having a serious impact on my family and work life?
Should I buy a gas mask?
No. A mask would only protect you if you were wearing it at the exact moment a bioterrorist
attack occurred. Unfortunately, a release of a biological agent is most likely to be done
"covertly," that is, without anyone knowing it. That means you would not know ahead of time
to put on your mask. To wear a mask continuously or "just in case" a bioterrorist attack
occurs, is impractical, if not impossible.
To work effectively, masks must be specially fitted to the wearer, and wearers must be
trained in their use. This is usually done for the military and for workers in industries and
laboratories who face routine exposure to chemicals and germs on the job. Gas masks
purchased at an Army surplus store or off the internet carry no guarantees that they will
work. In fact, one national chain of surplus stores provides the following statement: "(X) has
been selling gas masks as a novelty item since 1948. We have never been able to
warrant their effectiveness and we cannot do so at this time...We do not know what
each type of gas mask we sell might or might not be effective against...We do not know
the age of each gas mask..."
In brief, no guarantees whatsoever are provided. More serious is the fact that the masks can
be dangerous. There are reports of accidental suffocation when people have worn masks
incorrectly, as happened to some Israeli civilians during the Persian Gulf War.
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Should I have my own supply of antibiotics?
There are a number of different germs a bioterrorist might use to carry out an attack. Many
antibiotics are effective for a variety of diseases, but there is no antibiotic that is effective
against all diseases. Thus, no single pill can protect against all types of biological weapon
attacks. Keeping a supply of antibiotics on hand poses other problems because the antibiotics
have a limited "shelf life" before they lose their strength.
There is currently no justification for taking antibiotics. Also, it should be known that
antibiotics can cause side effects. They should only be taken with medical supervision.
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Is it safe for me to drink water from the tap?
It would be extremely difficult for a bioterrorist to contaminate our drinking water supplies to
cause widespread illness. There are two reasons. First of all, huge amounts of water are
pumped daily from our reservoirs, most of which is used for industrial and other purposes;
very little is actually consumed. Thus, anything deliberately put into the water supply would be
greatly diluted. Secondly, water treatment facilities routinely filter the water supply and add
chlorine in order to kill harmful germs.
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What is smallpox?
Smallpox is a disease caused by the Variola virus. Historically, 1 out of 3 people who
contracted the disease died. The disease can spread from person to person. Transmission
usually occurs only after the patient develops a fever and rash. Although there is no treatment
for the disease, a vaccine against smallpox provides excellent protection and serves to stop
the spread of the disease. While many vaccines must be given weeks or months before a
person is exposed to infection, smallpox vaccine is different. It protects a person even when
given 2 to 3 days after exposure to the disease and may prevent a fatal outcome even when
given as late as 4 to 5 days after exposure.
Smallpox was stamped out globally by 1980 and vaccination stopped everywhere in the world.
However, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) maintain an emergency
supply of smallpox vaccine. Currently there are 12-15 million doses in storage, and a program
to produce more vaccine began a year ago. For more information on smallpox, click here.
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If smallpox is a potential threat to the U.S., why shouldn't we all get
vaccinated?
The vaccine may cause serious side effects. In 1972, the U.S. decided to stop routinely
vaccinating its citizens because many people were experiencing side effects, while they had
almost no risk of getting smallpox. By 1972, the disease was present only in a few countries
of Asia and Africa. Today, health authorities would only recommend vaccination if there was
clear evidence that the disease had resurfaced and those in the U.S. were at risk of acquiring
infection.
Many people over age 30 have a vaccination scar. Vaccination consists of introducing the
virus into the top layers of the skin. Over the following few days, a blister forms at the site of
vaccination (usually the upper arm). The arm is sore, and there is fever. Very rarely, some
people get a vaccine-related infection of the brain (about 1 case per 300,000 vaccinations);
one fourth of these cases are fatal. Other potential negative effects of the vaccine are a
severe skin reaction, spread of the vaccine virus (known as Vaccinia) to other parts of the
body, and spread of the Vaccinia virus to other people.
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If I was vaccinated against smallpox before 1980, am I still protected?
Probably not. Vaccination has been shown to wear off in most people after 10 years but may
last longer if the person has been successfully vaccinated on multiple occasions. If health
authorities determine that you have been exposed to smallpox or are at risk of infection, they
would recommend that you be re-vaccinated immediately.
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What is Anthrax?
Anthrax is a disease caused by bacteria called Bacillus anthracis. The form of the disease
that health authorities are concerned that a bioterrorist attack might produce is inhalational
anthrax. Inhalational anthrax occurs when a person breathes in anthrax spores. As early as a
day or two after exposure or as late as seven weeks afterward, the spores begin to grow
rapidly and the victim develops fever, has difficulty breathing and feels miserable. Death
typically occurs within a few days after these symptoms if the person doesn't receive medical
treatment. It is believed that antibiotics can stop the disease if they are taken at the time the
anthrax spores begin to grow or very soon thereafter.
In the event of a bioterrorist attack, health authorities would conduct a rapid investigation,
determine the place and time of the release, and identify individuals who need antibiotics. The
federal government has stockpiled antibiotics for large-scale distribution in the event of a
bioterrorist attack. For more information on anthrax, click here.
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Is anthrax contagious?
No. Anthrax is not contagious. It does not spread from person to person. Healthy people who
come into contact with persons sick with anthrax cannot acquire the disease.
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What is the National Pharmaceutical Stockpile (NPS)?
The NPS is a large reserve of antibiotics, chemical antidotes and other medical supplies set
aside for emergencies. The CDC reports that it has the capacity to move these stockpiled
materials to affected areas in the U.S. within 12 hours of notification. There are a number of
different stockpiles, strategically located around the country. In addition to the medical
supplies already set aside, the federal government has made agreements with drug
manufacturers to make large amounts of additional emergency medicine. For more
information on the NPS, go to http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/nps/default.htm.
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What if my fear about bioterrorism is having a serious impact on my
family and work life?
Given the attacks upon civilians that took place on September 11, it is reasonable for citizens
to feel anxious about their personal safety. Should your fear get to the point that it stops you
from doing the things you would normally do in a day, it might be helpful to talk with someone.
Your health care provider can make a referral if you do not already have someone in mind. In
the wake of the attack on New York City, we have learned how helpful it has been to many
New Yorkers to speak with a counselor or to go to a mental health center.
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below is from
http://hopkins-biodefense.org/cdc_anthrax.pdf
From the U. S. Government's Centers for Disease Control:
CDC Guidelines for State Health Departments
Revised October 14, 2001
I. Advice to the Public
How To Handle Anthrax and Other Biological Agent Threats
Many facilities in communities around the country have received anthrax threat letters. Most
were empty envelopes; some have contained powdery substances. The purpose of these
guidelines is to recommend procedures for handling such incidents.
DO NOT PANIC
1. Anthrax organisms can cause infection in the skin, gastrointestinal system, or the
lungs. To do, so the organism must be rubbed into abraded skin, swallowed, or
inhaled as a fine, aerosolized mist. Disease can be prevented after exposure to the
anthrax spores by early treatment with the appropriate antibiotics. Anthrax is not
spread from one person to another person.
2. For anthrax to be effective as a covert agent, it must be aerosolized into very small
particles. This is difficult to do, and requires a great deal of technical skill and
special equipment. If these small particles are inhaled, life-threatening lung
infection can occur, but prompt recognition and treatment are effective.
Suspicious Letter or Package
1. Do not shake or empty the contents of any suspicious envelope or package; DO NOT try to clean up
powders or fluids..
2. PLACE the envelope or package in a plastic bag or some other type of container to
prevent leakage of contents.
3. If you do not have any container, then COVER the envelope or package with anything
(e.g., clothing, paper, trash can, etc.) and do not remove this cover.
4. Then LEAVE the room and CLOSE the door, or section off the area to prevent others
from entering (i.e., keep others away).
5. WASH your hands with soap and water to prevent spreading any powder to your face or skin.
6. What to do next…
If you are at HOME, then report the incident to local police.
· If you are at WORK, then report the incident to local police, and notify your
· building security official or an available supervisor.
7. If possible, LIST all people who were in the room or area when this suspicious letter or package was
recognized. Give this list to both the local public health authorities and law enforcement
officials for follow-up investigations and advice.
8. Remove heavily contaminated clothing and place in a plastic bag that can be sealed; give the bag to
law enforcement personnel.
9. Shower with soap and water as soon as possible. Do not use bleach or disinfectant on your skin.
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II. Advice to State and Local Health Officials
A. Asymptomatic patient WITHOUT known exposure
· Provide reassurance to the patient about the rarity of infection without known
exposure.
· Recommend the patient see a health care provider for further concerns and/or
diagnostic tests.
· Discourage use of nasal swabs for diagnosis of exposure. (Nasal swabs and blood
serum tests are used as an epidemiological tool to characterize an outbreak when there
is a known biologic agent.)
B. Asymptomatic patient WITH potential exposure
· Conduct an individual risk assessment and refer to a health care provider if post-exposure
prophylaxis is necessary.
· Decontaminating the patient, other than by washing with soap and water, is not
routinely recommended.
Post-exposure Prophylaxis (PEP) Recommendations
Initial therapy Duration
Adults (including pregnant
women 1,2 and
immmunocompromised)
Ciprofloxacin 500 mg po BID
Or
Doxycycline 100 mg po BID
60 days
Children 1,3 Ciprofloxacin 15-20 mg/kg po Q12 hrs 4
Or
Doxycycline 5 :
>8 yrs and >45 kg: 100 mg po BID
>8 yrs and # 45 kg: 2.2 mg/kg po BID
# 8 yrs: 2.2 mg/kg po BID
60 days
1. If susceptibility testing indicates susceptibility, as in the recent B. anthracis exposures in Florida, therapy
should be changed to oral amoxicillin for post-exposure prophylaxis to continue for 60 days.
2. Although tetracyclines are not recommended during pregnancy, their use may be indicated for life-threatening
illness. Adverse affects on developing teeth and bones are dose related, therefore, doxycycline might be used for
a short course of therapy (7-14 days) prior to the 6
th
month of gestation. Consult physician after the 6
th
month of
gestation for recommendations.
3. Use of tetracyclines and fluoroquinolones in children has adverse effects. These risks must be weighed
carefully against the risk for developing life-threatening disease. If a release of B. anthracis is confirmed,
children should be treated initially with ciprofloxacin or doxycycline as prophylaxis but therapy should be
changed to oral amoxicillin 80 mg/kg of body mass per day divided every 8 hours (not to exceed 500 mg three
times daily) as soon as penicillin susceptibility of the organism has been confirmed.
4. Ciprofloxacin dose should not exceed 1 gram/day in children.
5. In 1991, the American Academy of Pediatrics amended their recommendation to allow treatment of young
children with tetracyclines for serious infections, such as Rocky Mountain spotted fever, for which doxycycline
3
may be indicated. Doxycycline is preferred for its twice-a-day dosing and low incidence of gastrointestinal side
effects.
6. Laboratory Response Network for Bioterrorism (LRN) is a collaborative partnership and multilevel system
designed to link state and local public health laboratories with advanced capacity clinical, military, veterinary,
agricultural, water and food-testing laboratories. The LRN operates as a network of laboratories (laboratory
levels designated A: hospital laboratories, B: state health laboratories, C: CDC laboratory, D: CDC and
USAMRIID) with progressively stringent levels of safety, containment and technical proficiency necessary to
perform the essential rule-out, rule-in, and referral functions required for agent identification. Network access
provides all public health laboratories with the means to accept and transfer specimens to appropriate facilities
where definitive testing can be undertaken. This facilitates early detection and suspect-level identification at the
local clinical laboratory level, which is subsequently supported by more advanced capacity for rapid
presumptive and confirmatory-level testing at state and large metropolitan public health laboratories. Further
definitive characterization or highly specialized testing is provided by CDC, which serves as the national public
health reference laboratory for major threat agents. The LRN consists of over 100 core and advanced capacity
public health laboratories. In order to maintain network continuity, the respective State Public Health Laboratory
Directors serve as the designated notification hub for maintaining operational integrity at the local level as well
as communicating with CDC and FBI as appropriate.
Issues regarding the clinical use of threat agent assays: All of the biodetection assays and reagents utilized in
the LRN, are intended for use in public health surveillance and the unique need related to the public health
emergency, civilian biodefense and national security interests. These reagents are neither manufactured for
commercial distribution nor provided for use in research purposes. An individual biodetection assay (and
associated reagents) used in the standardized testing algorithm within the LRN should not be used to support a
clinical diagnosis nor initiate a medical intervention without confirmation of the laboratory-based identification
by another medically established diagnostic product or procedure.
C. Patients with symptoms compatible with anthrax
· Confirm the diagnosis by obtaining the appropriate laboratory specimens based on the
clinical form of anthrax that is suspected (inhalational, gastrointestinal, or cutaneous).
- Inhalational anthrax: blood, CSF (if meningeal signs are present); chest X-ray
- Gastrointestinal anthrax: blood
- Cutaneous anthrax: vesicular fluid and blood
Evaluation of possible anthrax infection for individuals not connected with the AMI incident
in Florida should be performed through standard laboratory tests, following the Laboratory
Response Network (LRN 6 ) Level A Clinical Guidelines for rule-out and presumptive testing
http://www.bt.cdc.gov (follow the link for Resources: Agents/Diseases - Bacillus anthracis)
a. Presumptive identification criteria (level A LRN laboratory)
1. From clinical samples, such as blood, CSF, or skin lesion (vesicular fluid
or eschar) material: encapsulated Gram-positive rods
2. From growth on sheep blood agar: large Gram-positive rods
3. Non-motile
4. Non-hemolytic on sheep blood agar
Additional LRN level B laboratory criteria for confirmation of B. anthracis are available
through State Public Health Laboratories and involve:
b. Confirmatory criteria for identification of B. anthracis (level B LRN laboratory)
1. Capsule production (visualization of capsule), and
2. Lysis by gamma-phage, or
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3. Direct fluorescent antibody assays (DFA)
Rapid screening assays, such as nucleic acid signatures and antigen detection, which can be
performed directly on clinical specimens and environmental samples, are being made
available for restricted use in LRN B and C level laboratories.
III. Signs and Symptoms of Anthrax Infection
Inhalational anthrax: A brief prodrome resembling a viral respiratory illness followed by
development of hypoxia and dyspnea, with radiographic evidence of mediastinal widening.
This, the most lethal, form of anthrax results from inspiration of 8,000-40,000 spores of B.
anthracis. The incubation of inhalational anthrax among humans is unclear, but it is reported
to range between 1 and 7 days possibly ranging up to 60 days. Host factors, dose of exposure
and chemoprophylaxis may play a role. Initial symptoms include sore throat, mild fever,
muscle aches and malaise. These may progress to respiratory failure and shock. Meningitis
frequently develops. Case-fatality estimates for inhalational anthrax are based on incomplete
information regarding exposed populations and infected populations in the few case series
and studies that have been published. However, case-fatality is extremely high, even with all
possible supportive care including appropriate antibiotics. Records of industrially acquired
inhalational anthrax in the United Kingdom before antibiotics were available reveal that 97%
of cases were fatal. With antibiotic treatment the fatality rate is estimated to be at least 75%.
Estimates of the impact of the delay in post-exposure prophylaxis or treatment on survival are
not known.
Gastrointestinal anthrax: Severe abdominal distress followed by fever and signs of
septicemia. This form of anthrax usually follows the consumption of raw or undercooked
contaminated meat and is considered to have an incubation period of 1-7 days. An
oropharyngeal and an abdominal form of the disease have been described in this category.
Involvement of the pharynx is usually characterized by lesions at the base of the tongue, sore
throat, dysphagia, fever, and regional lymphadenopathy. Lower bowel inflammation usually
causes nausea, loss of appetite, vomiting and fever, followed by abdominal pain, vomiting
blood, and bloody diarrhea. The case-fatality rate is estimated to be 25-60%, the effect of
early antibiotic treatment on that case-fatality rate is not defined.
Cutaneous anthrax: A skin lesion evolving from a papule, through a vesicular stage, to a
depressed black eschar. This is the most common naturally occurring type of infection
(>95%) and usually occurs after skin contact with contaminated meat, wool, hides, or leather
from infected animals. Incubation period ranges from 1-12 days. Skin infection begins as a
small papule, progresses to a vesicle in 1-2 days followed by a necrotic ulcer. The lesion is
usually painless, but patients also may have fever, malaise, headache and regional
lymphadenopathy. The case fatality rate for cutaneous anthrax is 20% without, and less than
1% with, antibiotic treatment.
IV. Advice to Laboratory Personnel
These guidelines provide background information and guidance to clinical laboratory
5
personnel in recognizing Bacillus anthracis in a clinical specimen. They are NOT intended to
provide training for laboratory identification of B. anthracis. Clinical lab personnel will most
likely be the first ones to perform preliminary testing on clinical specimens from patients who
may have been intentionally exposed to the organism, and will play a critical role in
facilitating rapid identification of B. anthracis. Laboratory confirmation of B. anthracis
should be performed at the State Public Health Laboratory.
Any suspected isolate of B. anthracis must be reported to the State Public Health
Laboratory IMMEDIATELY. The State Public Health Laboratory is available for
consultation or testing 24 hours per day and can be reached through the Department of
Health Communicable Disease Epidemiology 24-hour emergency number. Following an
appropriate consultation with the State Public Health Lab regarding a suspected isolate
of B. anthracis, communication should then be established with the local FBI field office
for possible law enforcement involvement.
A. Handling laboratory specimens (possible B. anthracis)
· Risk to lab personnel from handling clinical lab specimens with B. anthracis is low, but it
is important to minimize possible exposures to personnel as well as prevent contamination
of the lab. Standard lab practices are sufficient:
- Wear gloves and protective gowns when handling clinical specimens
- Wash immediately with soap and water if there is direct contact with a clinical or lab
specimen
- Avoid splashing or creating aerosols
- Perform lab tests in an annually certified Class II Biological Safety Cabinet; if that is
not possible, then use standard lab protective eyewear and a mask
- Blood cultures should be maintained in a closed system (blood culture bottles)
- Keep culture plates covered at all times; minimize exposure when extracting
specimens for testing
- Work on a smooth surface that can be cleaned easily and wipe with bleach regularly
· If lab or clinical specimen material is spilled or splashed onto lab personnel:
- Remove outer clothing carefully while still in the lab and place in a labeled, plastic
bag
- Remove rest of clothing in the locker room and place in a labeled, plastic bag
- Shower thoroughly with soap and water in the locker room
- Inform the supervisor and physician
· If exposure to contaminated sharps occurs:
- Follow standard reporting procedures for sharps exposures
- Thoroughly irrigate site with soap and DO NOT SCRUB AREA.
- Promptly begin prophylaxis for cutaneous anthrax
- Recommended treatment for cutaneous exposure: prophylaxis with ciprofloxacin
500 mg by mouth twice a day for 14 days or Doxycycline 100 mg by mouth twice
a day for 14 days.
- Notify the State Department of Health (SDOH) and the State Public Health
Laboratory (SPHL)
6
B. Role of the clinical laboratory
· Perform laboratory tests for to rule out identification of B. anthracis on clinical specimens
· Raise your index of suspicion for B. anthracis when the clinical picture (provided by the
clinician) involves a rapidly progressive respiratory illness of unknown cause in a
previously healthy person
· Refer any suspected isolates one is unable to rule out IMMEDIATELY to the SDOH and
SPHL
C. Presumptive identification of Bacillus anthracis
· Direct smears from clinical specimens
- Encapsulated broad rods in short chains, 2-4 cells. Gram stain can demonstrate
clear zones (capsule) around rods. An India ink stain should be used to further
visualize the capsule microscopically.
- B. anthracis will not usually be present in clinical specimens until late in the
course of the disease
· Smears from sheep blood agar or other routine nutrient medium
- Non-encapsulated broad rods in long chains
- When grown on nutrient agar in presence of 5% CO2 or other basal media
supplemented with 0.8% sodium bicarbonate, virulent strains will yield heavily
encapsulated rods (Note: this procedure is performed in Level B laboratories).
Gram stain morphology of B. anthracis
· Broad, gram-positive rod: 1-1.5 x 3-5 :
· Oval, central to subterminal spores: 1 x 1.5 : with no significant swelling of cell
· Spores usually NOT present in clinical specimens unless exposed to atmospheric O2
Colonial characteristics of B. anthracis
· Bacillus anthracis can be isolated primarily from blood, sputum, CSF, vesicular
fluid or eschar, and stool (if gastrointestinal anthrax).
· After incubation on a blood agar plate for 15-24 hours at 35-37 o C, well isolated
colonies are 2-5 mm in diameter; heavily inoculated areas may show growth in 6-8
hours
· Gray-white, flat or slightly convex colonies are irregularly round, with edges that
slightly undulate, and have “ground glass” appearance
· Often have comma-shaped protrusions from colony edge (“Medusa head” colonies)
· Tenacious consistency (when teased with a loop, the growth will stand up like a
beaten egg white)
· Non-hemolytic (weak hemolysis may be observed under areas of confluent growth in
aging cultures and should NOT be confused with real $-hemolysis)
· Will not grow on MacConkey agar
· Non-motile
Presumptive identification key for Bacillus anthracis
· Non-hemolytic
7
· Non-motile
· Encapsulated (requires India ink to visualize the capsule)
· Gram-positive, spore-forming rod
If B. anthracis is suspected
· The health care provider, local law enforcement, and the local and State DOH should
be notified immediately
· Do not perform further tests once you have reason to suspect B. anthracis. The
specimen should be transported to the DOH as directed (see Packaging and
Transporting Protocol)
· Level B laboratories (State DOH) will perform the following presumptive and
confirmatory tests:
-lysis by gamma phage
-capsule detection (by DFA)
-detection of cell-wall polysaccharide antigen by DFA
D. Decontamination
· Effective sporicidal decontamination solutions approved for hospital use
· Commercially-available bleach, 0.5% hypochlorite (a 1:10 dilution of household
bleach); may be corrosive to some surfaces
· Rinse off the concentrated bleach to avoid its caustic effects
Surfaces and non-sterilizable equipment
· Work surfaces should be wiped before and after use with a sporicidal decontamination
solution
· Routinely clean non-sterilizable equipment with a decontamination solution
Contaminated instruments (pipettes, needles, loops, micro slides)
· Soak in a decontamination solution until autoclaving is performed
Accidental spills of material known or suspected to be contaminated with B. anthracis
For contamination involving fresh clinical samples:
· Flood with a decontamination solution
· Soak five minutes before cleaning up
· For contamination involving lab samples, such as culture plates or blood cultures, or
spills occurring in areas that are below room temperature:
· Gently cover spill, then liberally apply decontamination solution
· Soak for one hour before cleaning up
· Any materials soiled during the clean-up must be autoclaved or incinerated
E. Disposal
· Incinerate or steam-sterilize cultures, infected material, and suspect material
8
F. Packaging and transporting protocol
Packaging and labeling specimens is the same as for any infectious substance
· If the specimen is a dry powder or paper material, place it in a plastic zip-lock bag,
and place biohazard label (see diagram)
· If the specimen is a clinical specimen, place biohazard label on the specimen
receptacle, wrap the receptacle with an absorbent material (see diagram)
· Place the bag or specimen receptacle into a leak-proof container with a tight cover that
is labeled “biohazard.”
· Place this container into a second leak proof container with a tight cover that is
labeled “biohazard.” The size of the second container should be no larger than a one-gallon
paint can.
· For a clinical specimen, an ice pack (not ice) should be placed in the second container
to keep the specimen cold
· If the specimen is not a clinical specimen, but is paper or powder, the ice pack should
be omitted
· Place the second container into a third leak proof container with a tight cover that is
labeled “biohazard.” The third container should be no larger than a five-gallon paint
can.
· Both containers should meet state and federal regulations for transport of hazardous
material, and be properly labeled.
Transporting specimens to the DOH Public Health Lab
· Will be coordinated with the DOH Public Health Lab at [state telephone number]
· Local FBI personnel may be utilized to transport specimens if bioterrorism is
9
suspected
· In cases where the specimen is shipped by commercial carrier, ship according to State
and Federal shipping regulations
G. Helpful web sites
· Biosafety in the Microbiology Lab www.cdc.gov/od/ohs
· Guideline for Isolation Precautions www.cdc.gov/ncidod/hip
· Public Health Image Library www.phil.cdc.gov
· World Health Organization (WHO): Guidelines for the Surveillance and Control of
Anthrax in Humans and Animals
www.who.int/emc-documents/zoonoses/whoemczdi986c.html
H. References for laboratory guidelines
· Laboratory protocols for clinical Laboratories for the identification of Bacillus
anthracis. CDC BT public web site: www.bt.cdc.gov
· Inglesby TV, Henderson DA, Barlett JG, Ascher MS, et al. Anthrax as a biological
weapon: Medical and public health management (consensus statement). JAMA, May
12, 1999;281(18):1735-1745.
· No authors listed. Biological warfare and terrorism: the military and public health
response. U.S. Army, Public Health Training Network, Centers for Disease Control,
Food and Drug Administration, Satellite broadcast, September 21-23, 1999.
End of data from Johns Hopkins University http://hopkins-biodefense.org
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American Red Cross Disaster Tips (approx. 150 pages from http://redcross.org)
Safety Information for Short-Term Power Outages or "Rolling Blackouts"
What is a "Rolling Blackout?"
A rolling blackout occurs when a power company turns off electricity to selected areas to save
power. The areas are selected using sophisticated computer programs and models. The
blackouts are typically for one hour, then the power is restored and another area is turned off.
Hospitals, airport control towers, police stations, and fire departments are often exempt from
these rolling blackouts. These blackouts usually occur during peak energy usage times,
usually between 4:00 p.m. and 7:00 p.m. on weekdays, but they can happen at any time of day.
Blackouts may affect the same area more than once a day, and may exceed an hour's duration.
How Do I Find Out if My Area Will Have a Rolling Blackout?
Listen to local television, radio, and check the web site of your power company. Usually, rolling
blackouts occur when power usage increases, especially during hot weather when many
people are using air conditioning to keep cool. Power companies try to give a warning when
they will turn off power to an area, but they can not always do that.
Top Safety Tips for a Blackout
Only use a flashlight for emergency lighting. Never use candles!
Turn off electrical equipment you were using when the power went out.
Avoid opening the refrigerator and freezer.
Do not run a generator inside a home or garage.
If you use a generator, connect the equipment you want to power directly to the outlets
on the generator. Do not connect a generator to a home's electrical system.
Listen to local radio and television for updated information.
How Can I Prepare Before a Blackout Happens?
Assemble essential supplies, including:
Flashlight
Batteries
Portable radio
at least one gallon of water
a small supply of food.
Due to the extreme risk of fire, do not use candles during a power outage.
If you have space in your refrigerator or freezer, consider filling plastic containers with water,
leaving about an inch of space inside each one. (Remember, water expands as it freezes, so it
is important to leave room in the container for the expanded water). Place the containers in the
refrigerator and freezer. This chilled or frozen water will help keep food cold if the power goes
out, by displacing air that can warm up quickly with water or ice that keeps cold for several
hours without additional refrigeration.
If you use medication that requires refrigeration, most can be kept in a closed refrigerator for
several hours without a problem. If unsure, check with your physician or pharmacist.
If you use a computer, keep files and operating systems backed up regularly. Consider buying
extra batteries and a power converter if you use a laptop computer. A power converter allows
most laptops (12 volts or less) to be operated from the cigarette lighter of a vehicle. Also, turn off
all computers, monitors, printers, copiers, scanners and other devices when they're not being
used. That way, if the power goes out, this equipment will have already been safely shut down.
Get a high quality surge protector for all of your computer equipment. If you use the computer a
lot, such as for a home business, consider purchasing and installing an uninterruptable power
supply (UPS). Consult with your local computer equipment dealer about available equipment
and costs.
If you have an electric garage door opener, find out where the manual release lever is located
and learn how to operate it. Sometimes garage doors can be heavy, so get help to lift it. If you
regularly use the garage as the primary means of entering your home upon return from work,
be sure to keep a key to your house with you, in case the garage door will not open.
If you have a telephone instrument or system at home or at work that requires electricity to work
(such as a cordless phone or answering machine), plan for alternate communication, including
having a standard telephone handset, cellular telephone, radio, or pager. Remember, too, that
some voice mail systems and remote dial-up servers for computer networks may not operate
when the power is out where these systems are located. So even if you have power, your
access to remote technology may be interrupted if the power that serves those areas is
disrupted. Check with remote service providers to see if they have backup power systems, and
how long those systems will operate.
Keep your car fuel tank at least half full because gas stations rely on electricity to power their
pumps.
Follow energy conservation measures to keep the use of electricity as low as possible, which
can help power company(ies) avoid imposing rolling blackouts.
Specific Information for People With Disabilities
If you use a battery-operated wheelchair, life-support system, or other power-dependent
equipment, call your power company before rolling blackouts happen. Many utility companies
keep a list and map of the locations of power-dependent customers in case of an emergency.
Ask them what alternatives are available in your area. Contact the customer service department
of your local utility company(ies) to learn if this service is available in your community.
If you use a motorized wheelchair or scooter, have an extra battery. A car battery also can be
used with a wheelchair but will not last as long as a wheelchair's deep-cycle battery. If
available, store a lightweight manual wheelchair for backup.
If you are Blind or have a visual disability, store a talking or Braille clock or large-print timepiece
with extra batteries.
If you are Deaf or have a hearing loss, consider getting a small portable battery-operated
television set. Emergency broadcasts may give information in American Sign Language (ASL)
or open captioning.
Using a Generator
If you are considering obtaining a generator, get advice from a licensed professional, such as
an electrician. Make sure the generator is listed with Underwriter's Laboratories or a similar
organization. Some municipalities, Air Quality Districts, or states have "air quality permit"
requirements. A licensed electrician will be able to give you more information on these matters.
Always plan to keep the generator outdoors -- never operate it inside, including the basement or
garage. Do not hook up a generator directly to your home's wiring. The safest thing to do is to
connect the equipment you want to power directly to the outlets on the generator. Connecting a
cord from the generator to a point on the permanent wiring system and backfeeding power to
your home is an unsafe method to supply a building during a power outage.
For more information about using generators safely, see the Generator fact sheet.
What Do I Do During A Blackout?
Turn off or disconnect any appliances, equipment (like air conditioners) or electronics you were
using when the power went out. When power comes back on, it may come back with
momentary "surges" or "spikes" that can damage equipment such as computers and motors in
appliances like the air conditioner, refrigerator, washer, or furnace.
Leave one light turned on so you'll know when your power returns.
Leave the doors of your refrigerator and freezer closed to keep your food as fresh as possible. If
you must eat food that was refrigerated or frozen, check it carefully for signs of spoilage. See the
Red Cross brochure called, "Help The Power Is Out" for more information.
Use the phone for emergencies only. Listening to a portable radio can provide the latest
information. Do not call 9-1-1 for information -- only call to report a life-threatening emergency.
Eliminate unnecessary travel, especially by car. Traffic signals will stop working during an
outage, creating traffic congestion.
Remember that equipment such as automated teller machines (ATMs) and elevators may not
work during a power outage.
If it is hot outside, take steps to remain cool. Move to the lowest level of your home, as cool air
falls. Wear lightweight, light-colored clothing. Drink plenty of water, even if you do not feel thirsty.
If the heat is intense and the power may be off for a long time, consider going to a movie
theater, shopping mall, or "cooling shelter" that may be opened in your community. Listen to
local radio or television for more information. Get more tips on the preparing for a heat wave.
Remember to provide plenty of fresh, cool water for your pets.
If it is cold outside, put on layers of warm clothing. Never burn charcoal for heating or cooking
indoors. Never use your oven as a source of heat. If the power may be out for a prolonged
period, plan to go to another location (relative, friend, or public facility) that has heat to keep
warm.
Energy Conservation Recommendations
To conserve power to help avoid a blackout, the power industry recommends:
In heating season, set the furnace thermostat at 68 degrees or lower. In cooling
season, set the thermostat at 78 degrees or higher. Consider installing a
programmable thermostat that you can set to have the furnace or air conditioning run
only when you are at home. Most power is used by heating and cooling, so adjusting the
temperatures on your thermostat is the biggest energy conservation measure you can
take.
Turn off lights and computers when not in use. This is especially true about computer
monitors - avoid using a "screen saver" and just simply turn the monitor off when you
won't be using the computer for a while. Turn the computer off completely each evening.
It is no longer true that computer equipment is damaged from turning it off and on.
Close windows when the heating or cooling system is on.
Caulk windows and doors to keep air from leaking, and replace old windows with new,
energy-efficient windows.
Clean or replace furnace and air-conditioner filters regularly.
When buying new appliances be sure to purchase energy-efficient models.
Wrap the water heater with an insulation jacket, available at most building supplies
retailers.
If you have to wash clothes, wash only full loads and clean the dryer's lint trap after each
use.
When using a dishwasher, wash full loads and use the "light" cycle. If possible, use the
"rinse only" cycle and turn off the "high temperature" rinse option. When the regular
wash cycle is done, just open the dishwasher door to allow the dishes to air dry.
Replace incandescent light bulbs with energy-efficient compact fluorescent lights.
Use one large light bulb rather than several smaller ones.
For More Information
If you would like more information about rolling blackouts and how to deal with them, contact
the power company that serves your area.
© Copyright 2001 The American National Red Cross. All Rights Reserved. CONTACT US | SITE DIRECTORY | PRIVACY POLICY
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Home > Services > Disaster Services > After a Disaster > Generators
Generators
(PDF File)
Purchasing a Generator
If you choose to buy a generator, make sure you get one that is listed with the Underwriter’s
Laboratory (UL) or Factory Mutual (FM). Look at the labels on lighting, appliances, and
equipment you plan to connect to the generator to determine the amount of power that will be
needed to operate the equipment.
For lighting, the wattage of the light bulb indicates the power needed. Appliances and
equipment usually have labels indicating power requirements on them. Choose a generator
that produces more power than will be drawn by the combination of lighting, appliances, and
equipment you plan to connect to the generator including the initial surge when it is turned on. If
your generator does not produce adequate power for all your needs, plan to stagger the
operating times for various equipment.
If you can not determine the amount of power that will be needed, ask an electrician to
determine that for you. (If your equipment draws more power than the generator can produce,
then you may blow a fuse on the generator or damage the connected equipment.)
Using a Generator
Follow the directions supplied with the generator. Under no circumstances should portable
generators be used indoors, including inside a garage. Adequate ventilation is necessary and
proper refueling practices, as described in the owner’s manual, must be followed.
It is a good idea to install one or more Carbon Monoxide (CO) alarms inside your home
(following manufacturer’s installation directions). If CO gas from the generator enters your
home and poses a health risk, the alarm will sound to warn you. Many home fires and deaths
from carbon monoxide poisoning have occurred from using a generator improperly.
Statistics from the Northeastern Ice Storm of January/February 1997 show that as many as 100
people were killed and 5,000 people injured by misuse of a generator at home.
Be sure to let the generator cool down before refueling Store fuel for the generator in an
approved safety can. Use the type of fuel recommended in the instructions or on the label on
the generator. Local laws may restrict the amount of fuel you may store, or the storage location.
Ask your local fire department for additional information about local regulations.
Store fuel for the generator out of doors in a locked shed or other protected area. Do not store
fuel in a garage, basement, or anywhere inside a home, as vapors can be released that may
cause illness and are a potential fire or explosion hazard.
Do not hook up a generator directly to your home’s wiring The safest thing to do is connect
the equipment you want to power directly to the outlets on the generator. There are several
reasons why hooking up a generator to your home’s electrical service is not a wise idea.
Home-use (non-industrial) generators do not supply enough amperage to supply sufficient
power for today’s homes (that is, to run a furnace, lighting, appliances, and other electronic
equipment). Unless your home’s power supply was installed with a disconnect to the main
power feeding lines, power you put into your home from a generator could backfeed into the
main line and cause problems for the electrical utility company, your neighbors, or yourself.
Backfeeding is supplying electrical power from a generator at the residence into the incoming
utility lines. This occurs when the necessary equipment used to isolate the generator from the
incoming power lines is not installed.
The 1999 National Electrical Code®, published by the National Fire Protection Association, is a
nationally recognized standard for safe electrical installations. The NEC® does permit an
interface between the normal power source (generally the electric utility) and an alternate power
source (such as a standby or portable generator) provided that the proper transfer equipment
that prevents backfeeding is used.
Simply connecting a cord from the generator to a point on the permanent wiring system and
backfeeding power is an unsafe method to supply a building during a utility outage. Improper
connection methods not only endanger the building occupants, but pose a serious hazard to
electric utility workers as well.
There are a number of products available that will provide either an automatic or manual
transfer between two power sources in a manner prescribed by the NEC®. When selecting a
product for this function, it should be one that has been evaluated for safe performance by a
nationally recognized testing organization such as Underwriters Laboratories.
The product must be installed according to the NEC®, all applicable state and local codes, and
the manufacturer’s instructions. Homeowners should only attempt to install such products if
they have a thorough knowledge of safe electrical installation practices for this type of
equipment. Otherwise a qualified electrician should be contacted.
If you have additional questions, please consult a licensed electrician, your local fire
department, or your community’s building safety or engineering department.
This information was developed with technical advice from the National Fire Protection
Association (publisher of the National Electric Code®).
© Copyright 2001 The American National Red Cross. All Rights Reserved. CONTACT US | SITE DIRECTORY | PRIVACY POLICY
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Children & Disasters
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Children & Disasters | Youth Services | Educator's Information
Disasters may strike quickly and without warning. These events can be frightening for adults,
but they are traumatic for children if they don't know what to do.
During a disaster, your family may have to leave your home and daily routine. Children may
become anxious, confused, or frightened. It is important to give children guidance that will help
them reduce their fears.
Children and Their Response to Disaster
Children depend on daily routines: They wake up, eat breakfast, go to school, play with friends.
When emergencies or disasters interrupt this routine, children may become anxious.
In a disaster, they'll look to you and other adults for help. How you react to an emergency gives
them clues on how to act. If you react with alarm, a child may become more scared. They see
our fear as proof that the danger is real. If you seem overcome with a sense of loss, a child may
feel their losses more strongly.
Children's fears also may stem from their imagination, and you should take these feelings
seriously. A child who feels afraid is afraid. Your words and actions can provide reassurance.
When talking with your child, be sure to present a realistic picture that is both honest and
manageable.
Feelings of fear are healthy and natural for adults and children. But as an adult, you need to
keep control of the situation. When you're sure that danger has passed, concentrate on your
child's emotional needs by asking the child what's uppermost in his or her mind. Having
children participate in the family's recovery activities will help them feel that their life will return to
"normal." Your response during this time may have a lasting impact.
Be aware that after a disaster, children are most afraid that--
The event will happen again.
Someone will be injured or killed.
They will be separated from the family.
They will be left alone.
Advice to Parents:
Prepare for Disaster
You can create a Family Disaster Plan and practice it so that everyone will remember what to do
when a disaster does occur.
Contact your local emergency management or civil defense office, or your local Red Cross
chapter for materials that describe how your family can create a disaster plan. Everyone in the
household, including children, should play a part in the family's response and recovery efforts.
Teach your child how to recognize danger signals. Make sure your child knows what smoke
detectors, fire alarms and local community warning systems (horns, sirens) sound like.
Explain how to call for help. Teach your child how and when to call for help. Check the
telephone directory for local emergency phone numbers and post these phone numbers by all
telephones. If you live in a 9-1-1 service area, tell your child to call 9-1-1. Even very young
children can be taught how and when to call for emergency assistance.
Help your child memorize important family information. Children should memorize their family
name, address and phone number. They should also know where to meet in case of an
emergency. Some children may not be old enough to memorize the information. They could
carry a small index card that lists emergency information to give to an adult or babysitter.
After the Disaster: Time for Recovery
Immediately after the disaster, try to reduce your child's fear and anxiety.
Keep the family together. While you look for housing and assistance, you may want to leave
your children with relatives or friends. Instead, keep the family together as much as possible
and make children a part of what you are doing to get the family back on its feet. Children get
anxious, and they'll worry that their parents won't return.
Calmly and firmly explain the situation. As best as you can, tell children what you know about
the disaster. Explain what will happen next. For example, say, "Tonight, we will all stay together
in the shelter." Get down to the child's eye level and talk to him or her.
Encourage children to talk. Let children talk about the disaster and ask questions as much as
they want. Encourage children to describe what they're feeling. Listen to what they say. If
possible, include the entire family in the discussion.
Include children in recovery activities. Give children chores that are their responsibility. This will
help children feel they are part of the recovery. Having a task will help them understand that
everything will be all right.
You can help children cope by understanding what causes their anxieties and fears. Reassure
them with firmness and love. Your children will realize that life will eventually return to normal. If
a child does not respond to the above suggestions, seek help from a mental health specialist
or a member of the clergy.
For a complete list of print children's materials available from the American Red Cross,
please visit the Publications section of our site.
The text on this page is in the public domain. We request that attribution to this information be
given as follows: From "Helping Children Cope With Disaster." developed by the Federal
Emergency Management Agency and the American Red Cross.
© Copyright 2001 The American National Red Cross. All Rights Reserved. CONTACT US | SITE DIRECTORY | PRIVACY POLICY
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Recommended Emergency Supplies for Schools
(Drawn from lists created by the CA Senate Select Committee on the Northridge
Earthquake, Task Force on Education, August 1994)
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Individual kits
Recommended Supplies
For classroom kits
For the whole school
Supplies for Search & Rescue
For additional information, return to the Masters of Disaster main page.
Introduction
What to store: Begin with an analysis of the hazards of the area. Is your school threatened by tornadoes?
Earthquakes? Is emergency assistance close at hand or would you have to wait for help if the entire
community has been impacted? Do you think you will need tools for clearing debris? Remember that any
school in the country could be locked down due to an intruder or gunfire in the area, so all schools should be
prepared to have their students stuck inside the building for many hours. Similarly, all schools face the
potential of a hazardous materials spill nearby, requiring the school to shelter-in-place with doors and
windows closed and heating systems off. Adjust the supplies for extreme heat or cold temperatures. If your
plan includes Search & Rescue teams for light search and rescue following an earthquake, tornado or other
damaging event, stock supplies for the number of teams assigned.
Budget: Adjust the list, prioritizing for limited budget and storage space, if necessary. Develop a plan to phase
in the supplies. Contact local service clubs and vendors for assistance.
How much to store: Make some planning assumptions. Do most of your students' families live nearby or do
some of them commute long distances? Some schools could be cut off for days if a bridge or the main
highway is blocked. If you determine that most of your students could be picked up in most emergencies
within a day, then begin by stocking supplies for one day. Some schools plan that half their student body will
be picked up by parents within one day, half the remainder within a day, and the remainder within another day;
these schools stock supplies for 100% for day one, 50% for day two, plus 25% for day three. Other schools
stock supplies for 3 days, the recommendation of many emergency management agencies. Remember to
factor in the number of staff and other adults who may be on campus.
Storage: Determine where to store emergency supplies. Every classroom should have some supplies and
there should be a cache of supplies for the whole school. Many schools in California and other states
threatened by earthquakes use outdoor storage, anticipating the possibility of having to care for students
outside the buildings. They use an existing building or a cargo container, also called a land-sea container,
purchased used and installed near the emergency assembly area. Schools with limited budgets and/or
temperature extremes may opt to store their supplies in various caches throughout the school facility, primarily
in locked closets or classrooms. Many schools stock supplies in (new) trash barrels on wheels. Do not store
water in the barrels because it may leak and destroy everything else. Make sure that there are keys to ensure
access to the supplies during an emergency, including access by programs such as day care and
after-school events. Plan an annual inventory, replacing water and other items with limited shelf life as
necessary.
Individual Kits
Some schools ask students to bring in their own kits, sometimes called "comfort kits." (These "comfort kits"
should not be confused with Red Cross "comfort kits" - consisting mostly of toiletries - to people who have
been affected by disasters.) Student-assembled "comfort kits" typically include a little food, some water, a
space blanket or large plastic trash bag, a non-toxic chemical emergency light stick and a letter or photograph
from home. These kits can be helpful, but require a great deal of time and supervision to assemble and check
when they are brought to school. Sometimes parents include perishable items by mistake, and some parents
do not send anything at all. The school will need a plan to make sure that each student has a kit. Vendors sell
expensive individual kits as well, with much of the value in the packaging.
Recommended Supplies
The following lists address classroom kits, supplies for the whole school and Search & Rescue gear.
Classroom kit:
Work gloves, leather
Latex gloves, 6 pr.
Safety goggles, 1 pr.
Small first aid kit
Pressure dressings, 3
Crow bar
Space blankets, 3
Tarp or ground cover
Student Accounting Forms, blank
Student emergency cards
Buddy classroom list
Pens, paper
Whistle
Student activities
Duct Tape, 2 rolls (for sealing doors & windows)
Scissors
Suitable container for supplies (5-gallon bucket or backpack)
Drinking Water and cups - stored separately
Toilet Supplies (large bucket, used as container for supplies and toilet when needed, with 100 plastic
bags, toilet paper, and hand washing supplies)
Portable Radio, batteries or other communication system
Flashlight, batteries
Push broom (if classroom includes wheel chairs)
Supplies for the Whole School: Water, First Aid, Sanitation, Tools, Food
Water:
½ gallon per person per day times three days, with small paper cups
First Aid:
4 x 4" compress: 1000 per 500 students
8 x 10" compress: 150 per 500 students
Elastic bandage: 2-inch: 12 per campus 4-inch: 12 per campus
Triangular bandage: 24 per campus
Cardboard splints: 24 each, sm, med. Lg.
Butterfly bandages: 50/campus
Water in small sealed containers: 100 (for flushing wounds, etc.)
Hydrogen peroxide: 10 pints/campus
Bleach, 1 small bottle
Plastic basket or wire basket stretchers or backboards: 1.5/100 students
Scissors, paramedic: 4 per campus
Tweezers: 3 assorted per campus
Triage tags: 50 per 500 students
Latex gloves: 100 per 500 students
Oval eye patch: 50 per campus
Tapes: 1" cloth: 50 rolls/campus; 2" cloth: 24 per campus
Dust masks: 25/100 students
Disposable blanket: 10 per 100 students
First Aid Books 2 standard and 2 advanced per campus
Space blankets: 1/student and staff
Heavy duty rubber gloves, 4 pair
Sanitation Supplies: (if not supplied in the classroom kits)
1 toilet kit per 100 students/staff, to include:
1 portable toilet, privacy shelter, 20 rolls toilet paper, 300 wet wipes, 300 plastic bags with ties,
10 large plastic trash bags
Soap and water, in addition to the wet wipes, is strongly advised.
Tools per campus:
3 rolls barrier tape 3" x 1000"
Pry bar, Pick ax, Sledge hammer, Shovel, Pliers, Bolt cutters, Hammer, Screwdrivers, Utility
knife, Broom Utility shut off wrench, 1/utility
Other Supplies:
3' x 6' folding tables, 3-4
Chairs, 12-16
Identification vests for staff, preferably color-coded per school plan
Clipboards with Emergency Job Descriptions
Office supplies: pens, paper, etc.
Signs for Student Request and Release
Alphabetical Dividers for Request Gate
Copies of all necessary forms
Cable to connect car battery for emergency power
Food: The bulk of stored food should be easy to serve, non-perishable and not need refrigeration or
heating after opening. Food is generally considered a low priority item, except for those with diabetes
and certain other specific medical conditions. One method used by schools is to purchase food at the
beginning of the school year and donate it to charity at the end of the year. A supply of granola bars,
power bars, or similar food which is easy to distribute, may be helpful. Some schools store hard candy,
primarily for its comfort value.
Search and Rescue Equipment
Adjust the number of S&R teams according to the size and complexity of the campus. Teams must consist of
a minimum of two persons. Training on how to do light search & rescue is required - Contact your local Fire
Department for information on whether such training is offered in your community.
Protective gear per team member:
Hard hat, OSHA approved
Identification vest
Gloves, leather work
Goggles, safety
Dust mask
Flash light, extra batteries
Duffel or tote bag to carry equipment
Gear per S&R team:
Back pack with First Aid supplies
Master keys
red cross guide to business preparedness: details at http://www.fema.gov/library/bizindex.htm
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Home > Services > Disaster Services > After a Disaster > Recovering Financially
Recovering Financially
A disaster can cause significant financial loss. Your apartment or home may be severely
damaged or destroyed. You may be forced to live in temporary housing. Income may be cut off
or significantly reduced. Important financial records could be destroyed. Take the time now to
assess your situation and ask questions. Start with your local Red Cross chapter. It can provide
assistance in a disaster and/or refer you to others in your community who could be of help.
First things first
Three steps to take immediately when disaster strikes.
Conduct an inventory
Making sure you get paid for what you've lost.
Reconstruct lost records
Resources you can use to establish fair value for your possessions.
Notify creditors and employers
Let the people you do business with know what has happened.
File an insurance claim
Tips for ensuring a fair and rapid settlement of your insurance claims.
Obtain loans and grants
Find out if you qualify for emergency financial assistance.
Avoid contractor rip-offs
Taking these steps can help prevent problems with contractors.
Reduce your tax bite
Some losses qualify for tax reductions--here's how to find out about yours.
First things first
Take these steps immediately after a disaster strikes:
1.Make sure your residence is safe to enter. If it is, remove any valuables to a safe place.
2.Be aware of potential hazards--avoid these areas until you have a chance to stabilize
them. Make temporary repairs to prevent further damage, such as patching a roof,
boarding up windows, or tearing down a damaged chimney. Keep receipts of repairs,
since most insurance companies will pay for them. The Red Cross or other voluntary
organizations may assist in helping you obtain materials to make temporary home
repairs after a disaster.
3.Notify your insurance company of your loss and get advice about making emergency
repairs. Ask the insurance company if it will pay for living expenses, such as a motel,
food, and laundry, if you are unable to live in your home. It may give you a check up front.
Also find out if this payment for living expenses will reduce the amount you ultimately
receive for damage to your property or possessions.
Conduct an inventory
If you have insurance for renters or homeowners, you'll want to make sure the insurance
company pays you fairly for all covered property and possessions damaged or destroyed in the
disaster. To do that, you'll need to prove that a loss took place and confirm the value of that loss.
The following steps will help you give the company an accurate list of the damage:
Make a preliminary list of damaged property and the degree of damage to each item. If
possible, photograph or videotape the damage.
Check this list against any list of property and possessions you may have made before
the disaster occurred.
If you don't have a pre-disaster inventory list, make one from observation and memory
as soon as possible. To jog your memory for items you had before the disaster, you
might walk the aisles of your local discount or department store or leaf through a catalog
or the classified ads section of your local newspaper.
Review any surviving photographs or videos taken in and around your home.
Ask friends and family for photographs or videotapes they may have taken of your home.
Draw floor plans and sketches of your home's interior. Repeat this process in two or
three weeks. You're likely to remember additional items.
Collect all available receipts, canceled checks, credit card statements, and invoices to
prove the value of lost possessions, including big-ticket items such as antiques or
jewelry.
Don't consider your list to be final. You may remember additional items later.
Reconstruct lost records
Records are often lost or destroyed in a disaster. But you may need to reconstruct some of
those records if you plan to file an insurance claim, take a tax deduction for your loss, or apply
for government aid. Here are some tips for recreating financial records and determining the
value of your possessions:
Look through catalogs or want ads to establish a fair value for your damaged or
destroyed items. Insurance for renters or homeowners may pay only the actual cash
value for your possessions (replacement cost discounted for age or use).
Use a Blue Book (available at banks) or consult a car dealer to determine the current
value of vehicles. Get a copy of the escrow papers for your home from your real estate
agent, the title company, the escrow company, or the bank that handled the purchase.
Go to your county assessor for property tax records to determine the value of the land
versus the value of the building.
Contact lenders and contractors to determine the value of home improvements you have
made.
Check court records for the probate values of property you may have inherited.
File Form 4506, Request for Copy or Transcript of Tax Form, with the IRS to obtain
copies of previous federal income tax returns. A small fee may be charged for this
service.
Notify creditors and employers
You may not be able to get to work because of a disaster. Be sure to notify your employer.
Notify creditors as soon as possible about lost bills or difficulties in paying bills. Explain
the situation and try to negotiate an agreement to reduce payments or spread them out
over a longer period. Most creditors will probably be willing to do this, especially if they
have other customers affected by the same disaster.
Notify the utility company if your residence is unlivable or has been destroyed so they
can stop billing immediately. Often, a utility company will transfer service to a new
address and waive initial connection charges.
File an insurance claim
Whether you rent or own, the following tips may be helpful:
Gather together all policy numbers and insurance company telephone numbers.
Find out how the company wants to process claims. In the event of a widespread
disaster, the company may set up special procedures and send in extra personnel and
claims adjusters.
File claims as promptly as possible. Claims generally are settled in the order received,
although the most severe cases may receive the highest priority.
Erect an identifying sign on your property if destruction is widespread. Because it can be
difficult for insurance companies to identify your property, a sign with your name, street
number, insurance company, and a way for the company to reach you can speed up
your claim.
File a claim even if your home is not specifically covered for the type of disaster that
occurred. For example, a standard policy for homeowners will not cover structural
damage caused by an earthquake--but it often will cover fire, water, and other damage
resulting from an earthquake.
Work with claims adjusters
If losses are small, you only may be required to provide the insurance company with a simple
written estimate for the cost of repairs or replacement. More extensive losses usually are
handled by a claims adjuster. If that's the case, the following suggestions can help ensure that
the adjuster's estimate of damages is complete and accurate:
Provide the adjuster with your list of damages, but note in writing that it's only a partial
list. You may remember more later.
Fully explain all losses and be sure the explanations are written down by either you or
the adjuster.
Take notes of all conversations with adjusters and follow up with letters to the insurance
company confirming the conversations. This increases the chances for getting a fair
settlement, but it may also delay a settlement.
Compare notes with neighbors. What are their adjusters saying? Remember policies
and coverage vary.
These suggestions will cost you more and may cause a settlement delay:
Bring in additional adjusters if you're not satisfied with initial damage estimates. If
necessary, hire a structural engineer.
Consider using an independent claims adjuster if it is a special situation. These
professionals can spot claims that homeowners might overlook, especially if the claim
is complex or involves a lot of money. Generally, they charge 10% of a settlement. Use
the same care and caution in hiring a claims adjustor as you would in choosing any
other contractor.
Settle a claim
Use your list of damaged property and possessions to be sure the settlement offer is
fair.
Appeal an adjuster's settlement offer to higher company management if you feel it's
necessary. If that still isn't satisfactory, try settling through independent mediation or
arbitration.
Don't rush to settle with your insurance company. Don't accept settlement checks as
"final." You may need to file additional claims later. Keep your right to future payments
open until time limits set by your policy require a final settlement. Consider seeking
legal advice before signing any waiver that addresses accidents or mishaps other than
natural disasters.
Put your settlement money into short-term certificates of deposit or money market funds.
Don't invest the money in financial assets that could fluctuate in value, such as stocks or
mutual funds. You will need the money soon--all of it!
Obtain loans and grants
Although not meant to replace or duplicate insurance, numerous government, nonprofit, and
private loans and grants may be available following a disaster. Watch your TV or newspaper for
announcements of their availability. Program sources include:
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
The Small Business Administration (despite the agency's name, homeowners or
owners of personal property may apply for an SBA disaster-relief loan)
Your local city or county government (loans or assistance such as property tax relief may
be available)
Private lenders
American Red Cross disaster relief
Other voluntary organizations
Avoid contractor rip-offs
Be extremely cautious about contractors you hire to repair or rebuild damaged property.
Unfortunately, a few dishonest contractors take advantage of people caught in the wake of a
disaster. Also, in cases where federal or state aid may be available, the agency involved may
require that an assessment of the damaged property be completed before any repairs are
made.
Try not to rush into starting repair work.
Get estimates from more than one licensed, bonded, reputable contractor. Don't grab
the first person who comes along. Call your local Better Business Bureau to check out a
contractor.
Find out what neighbors are paying for similar work.
Be wary of contractors claiming "I can get to you right away and do it cheap."
Write down the license plate number and driver's license number of someone offering
services.
Ask to see proof of the necessary contractor's licenses and building permits.
Make certain the contractor shows you a certificate of insurance covering liability and
workers' compensation--otherwise, you could be sued if a worker is injured while
working on your property.
Get a contract in writing. It should cover what is to be done, when work starts, cost and
payment schedules, and the quality of materials to be used.
Make sure repairs are done according to local building codes.
Be careful that your signature on a contractor's bid is not an authorization to begin work.
Don't pay more than 20% down for the contractor to begin work. Then pay periodically,
according to the progress of the work.
If the contractor insists on payment for materials up front, then go with him to buy them
or pay the supplier yourself.
Have the contractor sign a release of lien when the work is done and paid for; this will
prevent the contractor from making legal claims against your property in the event of a
dispute later.
Don't make final payment until the job is finished--and you are satisfied with it.
Be sure all work requiring city or county inspection is officially approved in writing before
making final payment to the contractor. You may even want a structural engineer to
double-check major repairs before you make a final payment.
Don't sign over an insurance settlement check to the contractor.
Reduce your tax bite You may be eligible for important tax refunds or deductions (called
casualty loss deductions) or other tax benefits that are available for any property or
possessions damaged or destroyed in a disaster.
Rules regarding casualty losses are complex. You may want to work with an advisor
such as a Certified Financial Planner® licensee, tax accountant, or certified Public
Accountant. These experts along with other information sources could help you be
aware of changes in tax laws and rules.
In general, you may deduct losses if the total amount of losses in one year is more than
$100 and more than 10% of your adjusted gross income.
You must be able to prove that a loss took place, verify its amount, establish that it was
due to a specific disaster, and prove that you own the damaged property or are liable for
it.
Keep in mind that some costs of documenting your loss, such as appraisals or
photographs, may be deductible.
You cannot take a deduction for property that has been paid for, or is eligible to be paid
for, by your insurance
Special casualty loss rules apply in a federally declared disaster area. For example, you
can amend your previous year's tax return to report current losses instead of waiting to
report the losses on your current year's return. This gives you a quick refund (generally
within 45 days) of taxes you've already paid. Also, tax filing deadlines and payment
schedules may be extended in a federal disaster area.
Take a deep breath
That is a lot of information to digest! You may not be able to do everything that is suggested.
That's OK--do what you can. Taking even limited action now will go a long way toward restoring
your financial health as fully and as quickly as possible after a disaster has occurred. For more
information, contact your local Red Cross or office of emergency management. They can
provide valuable information and assistance in the event of a disaster. The Red Cross and the
Federal Emergency Management Agency also have a brochure that gives you tips on how to
prepare financially before a disaster strikes. To find more information on the Internet, contact. . .
FEMA -- www.fema.gov
NEFE -- www.nefe.org
This information is made available through your local American Red Cross and the Federal
Emergency Management Agency. It is provided as a public service of the Red Cross and the
Public Education Center of the Denver-based National Endowment for Financial Education. All
Red Cross disaster relief is free of charge--a gift of the American people. The Federal
Emergency Management Agency provides assistance--principally low-cost loans--for disaster
recovery from Presidentially declared disasters. The National Endowment is an independent
non-profit educational organization dedicated to improving the financial well-being of
Americans.
CFP and CERTIFIED FINANCIAL PLANNER are federally registered service marks of the
Certified Financial Planner Board of Standards, Inc.
The original brochure was published by the American Red Cross, the Federal Emergency
Management Agency, and the National Endowment for Financial Education
© Copyright 2001 The American National Red Cross. All Rights Reserved. CONTACT US | SITE DIRECTORY | PRIVACY POLICY
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Home > Services > Disaster Services > After a Disaster > Winter Storms
Preventing and Thawing Frozen Pipes
(PDF File)
Frozen Pipes | Winter Storms
Why pipe freezing is a problem
Water has a unique property in that it expands as it freezes. This expansion puts tremendous
pressure on whatever is containing it, including metal or plastic pipes. No matter the "strength"
of a container, expanding water can cause pipes to break. Pipes that freeze most frequently are
those that are exposed to severe cold, like outdoor hose bibs, swimming pool supply lines,
water sprinkler lines, and water supply pipes in unheated interior areas like basements and
crawl spaces, attics, garages, or kitchen cabinets. Also, pipes that run against exterior walls
that have little or no insulation are also subject to freezing.
Pipe freezing is a particular problem in warmer climates where pipes often run through
uninsulated or underinsulated attics or crawl spaces.
Preventing Frozen Pipes
Before the onset of cold weather, prevent freezing of these water supply lines and pipes by
following these recommendations:
Drain water from swimming pool and water sprinkler supply lines following
manufacturer's or installer's directions. Do not put antifreeze in these lines unless
directed. Antifreeze is environmentally harmful, and is dangerous to humans, pets,
wildlife, and landscaping.
Remove, drain, and carefully store hoses used outdoors. Close inside valves supplying
outdoor hose bibs. Open the outside hose taps to allow water to drain. Keep the outside
valve open so that any water remaining in the pipe can expand without causing the pipe
to break.
Check around the home for other areas where water supply lines are located and are in
unheated areas. Look in the basement, crawl space, attic, garage, and under kitchen
and bathroom cabinets. Both hot and cold water pipes in these areas should be
insulated. A hot water supply line can freeze just as a cold water supply line can freeze if
the water is not running through the pipe and the water temperature in the pipe is cold.
Consider installing specific products made to insulate water pipes like a "pipe sleeve"
or installing UL-listed "heat tape," "heat cable," or similar materials on exposed water
pipes. Many products are available at your local building supplies retailer. Pipes should
be carefully wrapped, with ends butted tightly and joints wrapped with tape. Follow
manufacturer's recommendations for installing and using these products. Newspaper
can provide some degree of insulation and protection to exposed pipes - even ¼" of
newspaper can provide significant protection in areas that usually do not have frequent
or prolonged temperatures below freezing.
During Cold Weather, Take Preventive Action
Keep garage doors closed if there are water supply lines in the garage.
Open kitchen and bathroom cabinet doors to allow warmer air to circulate around the
plumbing. Be sure to move any harmful cleaners and household chemicals up out of
the reach of children.
When the weather is very cold outside, let the cold water drip from the faucet served by
exposed pipes. Running water through the pipe - even at a trickle - helps prevent pipes
from freezing because the temperature of the water running through it is above freezing.
Keep the thermostat set to the same temperature both during the day and at night. By
temporarily suspending the use of lower nighttime temperatures, you may incur a higher
heating bill, but you can prevent a much more costly repair job if pipes freeze and burst.
If you will be going away during cold weather, leave the heat on in your home, set to a
temperature no lower than 55ºF.
To Thaw Frozen Pipes
If you turn on a faucet and only a trickle comes out, make sure your main water valve is turned
on. If so, suspect a frozen pipe. Locate the suspected frozen area of the water pipe. Likely
places include pipes running against exterior walls or where your water service enters your
home through the foundation.
Keep the faucet open. As you treat the frozen pipe and the frozen area begins to melt,
water will begin to flow through the frozen area. Running water through the pipe will help
melt more ice in the pipe.
Apply heat to the section of pipe using an electric heating pad wrapped around the pipe,
electric hair dryer, a portable space heater (kept away from flammable materials), or
wrapping pipes with towels soaked in hot water. Do not use a blowtorch, kerosene or
propane heater, charcoal stove, or other open flame device. Make sure a heating pad
does not come into contact with water. A blowtorch can make water in a frozen pipe boil
and cause the pipe to explode. All open flames in homes present a serious fire danger,
as well as a severe risk of exposure to lethal carbon monoxide.
Apply heat until full water pressure is restored. If you are unable to locate the frozen
area, if the frozen area is not accessible, or if you can not thaw the pipe, call a licensed
plumber.
Check all other faucets in your home to find out if you have additional frozen pipes. If one
pipe freezes, others may freeze, too.
Future Protection
Consider relocating exposed pipes to provide increased protection from freezing. Pipes
can be relocated by a professional if the home is remodeled.
Add insulation to attics, basements, and crawl spaces. Insulation will maintain higher
temperatures in these areas.
For more information, please contact a licensed plumber or building professional or your local
American Red Cross chapter.
Content derived from:
Federal Emergency Management Agency
Mississippi State University Extension Service
MH2 Technologies, Ltd.
Myplumber.com
State Farm Insurance Company
Vancouver, BC, Waterworks Department
© Copyright 2001 The American National Red Cross. All Rights Reserved. CONTACT US | SITE DIRECTORY | PRIVACY POLICY
Fact Sheet:
Using A Chain Saw Safely
Here are some helpful tips on using a chain saw to clean up debris after a storm.
The chain saw is a time saving and efficient power tool. However, it can be unforgiving and lethal, causing
injury or death in the hands of a uninformed and unaware operator. It is not the chain saw causing the accidents or
injuries, but the environment in which they are used. (According to the U.S. Consumer Product Safety
Commission, there were more than 33,000 chain saw related injuries in 1998.)
***** Read your safety manual that came with your Chain Saw******
1. If you are going to help clear tree and wood debris, you should wear at least:
• A Helmet System (consisting of Head, Face and Hearing Protection),
• Cotton or leather gloves,
• Chain saw protective chaps or chain saw protective pants (UL Listed)
• A pair of chain saw protective work boots w/steel toes.
These are required by OSHA reg. 1910.266 for all employed chain saw operators.
These products can be found at your local chain saw dealer.
2. Make sure that your chain saw has these features, and that the features are working:
• Chain brake (manual or inertia)
• Chain catcher
• Working safety throttle switch
• Working on / off Switch
• Spark arrester
3. Make sure your chain saw carburetor is properly adjusted. (This should be done by a trained
servicing dealer.) A misadjusted carburetor will cause stalling or poor performance and could cause the
operator to be injured.
4. Fill a gas-powered chain saw when the engine is cool. If the saw is out of gas, let it cool 30 minutes before
refueling. Do not smoke when refueling the saw! And use a chain saw outdoors only.
5. Have several commercially sharpened saw chains to match your chain saw and bar. THIS IS VERY
IMPORTANT! You can immediately dull a chain saw chain by hitting the ground with the tip, or cutting
dirty wood, hitting a rock or nails. It is very tiring to cut with a dull chain and the extra pressure you apply to
the chain saw to cut faster will only increase your chance of an injury!
6. Look out for Hazards!
• Broken or hanging branches, attached vines, or a dead tree that is leaning. All of these hazards
can cause the chain saw operator to be injured.
• If you have to cut a dead tree, be very careful! The top could break off and kill you.
• If the tree is broken and under pressure, make sure you know which way the pressure is going.
If not sure, make small cuts to release some of the pressure before cutting up the section.
• Be careful of young trees that other trees have fallen on. They act like spring poles and may
propel the chain saw back into your leg. (Many professional loggers have been hurt in this manner.)
7. Felling a dangerous broken tree should be left to a professional cutter. A downed tree may weigh
several tons and easily injure or kill an unaware chain saw operator. More injuries occur during clean up after
a hurricane than during the storm.
8. Carry the chain saw with the engine stopped.
9. When bucking up (cutting) a downed tree, place a plastic wedge into the cut to keep your chain saw
from binding up. They are available at any chain saw dealer and sometime come packaged with the saw.
10. Never cut when tired or alone. Most woodcutting accidents occur late in the afternoon when most
people are pushing to finish up for the day. Always work with a partner but never around children or pets.
11. Use a chain saw from ground level only, not on a ladder or in a tree.
12. When felling a tree keep everyone at least “two tree lengths away”.
13. You should have a preplanned escape route at a 45 0 angle from the projected direction of a falling
tree. Make sure there is nothing that could trip or stop you from making a quick retreat.
14. Read your owner’s manual concerning kickback. To reduce the risk of kickback injury:
• Use a reduced kickback bar, low kickback chain and chain brake.
• Avoid contact of bar tip with any object.
• Hold the chain saw firmly with both hands.
• Do not over-reach.
• Do not cut above shoulder height.
• Check chain brake frequently.
• Follow sharpening and maintenance instruction for the chain saw.
15. When picking up heavy wood debris, get several helpers. Bend your knees and lift with your legs,
not your back. A 24" log may weigh over 100 lbs.
Cleaning up tree damage after a storm is a very demanding job. If you follow these basic tips you can avoid
injuries.
.. This information was provided courtesy of Gransfors Bruks, Inc., a manufacturer/supplier of
logging safety apparel and accessories, of Summerville SC, and is used with permission.
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Home > Services > Disaster Services > After a Disaster > Food Safety
Food Safety in a Power Outage
(PDF File)
Food Safety | Guidelines
Sudden power outages can be frustrating and troublesome, especially when they are
prolonged. Perishable foods should not be held above 40 degrees for more than 2 hours. If a
power outage is 2 hours or less, you need not be concerned, but how do you save your food
when the refrigerator is out for longer times? Being prepared can help. By planning ahead, you
can save your perishables.
What do I need?
One or more coolers. Inexpensive styrofoam coolers can do an excellent job as well.
Shelf-stable foods, such as canned goods and powdered or boxed milk. These can be
eaten cold or heated on the grill.
A digital quick-response thermometer. A digital thermometer should be a necessity in
your kitchen anyway. With these thermometers you can quickly check the internal
temperatures of food for doneness and safety.
What to do...
Do not open the refrigerator or freezer. Tell your little ones not to open the door. An
unopened refrigerator will keep foods cold enough for a couple of hours at least. A
freezer that is half full will hold for up to 24 hours and a full freezer for 48 hours.
If it looks like the power outage will be for more than 2-4 hours, pack refrigerated milk,
dairy products, meats, fish, poultry, eggs, gravy, stuffing and left-overs into your cooler
surrounded by ice.
If it looks like the power outage will be prolonged, prepare a cooler with ice for your
freezer items.
Q’s and A’s
What should be discarded after a power outage? As soon as the power returns, check
temperatures. If the food in the freezer has ice crystals and is not above 40 degrees you can
refreeze. Perishable foods in the refrigerator should not be above 40 degrees F. for more than
two hours. Use this chart to see what has to be discarded and what can be kept.
What if I go to bed and the power is still not on? Before you go to bed, pack your perishables
into your coolers if you haven't already done so and put in as much ice as you can. Also, when
you go to bed, leave a bedroom light switched on. When the power goes back on, it will wake
you, so you can check the condition of your foods in the freezer.
What if the power goes out while I’m at work or out of the house and it has been more than a
few hours before I get home? Try to determine how long the power has been out. Check the
internal temperature of the food in your refrigerator with your quick-response thermometer. A
liquid such as milk or juice is easy to check. Spot check other items like steaks or left-overs
also. If the internal temperature is above 40 degrees, it is best to throw it out.
What if the power goes out and comes back on while I am out? If your freezer is fairly full and
you know it was not longer than 24 hours, the food should be OK. There will be loss of quality
with refreezing, but the food will be safe. If the refrigerator was out for more than 2-4 hours, you
are best to discard the perishables.
Prepared by Giant Food, Inc., Landover, Maryland, June 1999. Used with permission. Original
content adapted from "Help, Power Outage!" Food News for Consumers, Summer 1989, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Food Safety and Inspection Service. ARC 1098 September 1999
© Copyright 2001 The American National Red Cross. All Rights Reserved. CONTACT US | SITE DIRECTORY | PRIVACY POLICY
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Home > Services > Disaster Services > Be Prepared > Family Disaster Planning
Food and Water in an Emergency
(PDF File)
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Family Disaster Planning | Disaster Supplies Kit | Food Supplies
Storing Supplies | Water Storage | Your Evacuation Plan
Looking for a Home | Food and Water in an Emergency
If an earthquake, hurricane, winter storm or other disaster strikes your community, you might
not have access to food, water and electricity for days, or even weeks. By taking some time now
to store emergency food and water supplies, you can provide for your entire family. This
brochure was developed by the Federal Emergency Management Agency in cooperation with
the American Red Cross and the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Having an ample supply of clean water is a top priority in an emergency. A normally active
person needs to drink at least two quarts of water each day. Hot environments can double that
amount. Children, nursing mothers and ill people will need even more. You will also need
water for food preparation and hygiene. Store a total of at least one gallon per person, per day.
You should store at least a two-week supply of water for each member of your family.
If supplies run low, never ration water. Drink the amount you need today, and try to find more for
tomorrow. You can minimize the amount of water your body needs by reducing activity and
staying cool.
Water Supplies
How to Store Water
Store your water in thoroughly washed plastic, glass, fiberglass or enamel-lined metal
containers. Never use a container that has held toxic substances. Plastic containers, such as
soft drink bottles, are best. You can also purchase food-grade plastic buckets or drums.
Seal water containers tightly, label them and store in a cool, dark place. Rotate water every six
months.
Emergency Outdoor Water Sources
If you need to find water outside your home, you can use these sources. Be sure to treat the
water according to the instructions on page 3 before drinking it.
Rainwater
Streams, rivers and other moving bodies of water
Ponds and lakes
Natural springs
Avoid water with floating material, an odor or dark color. Use saltwater only if you distill it first.
You should not drink flood water.
Hidden Water Sources in Your Home
If a disaster catches you without a stored supply of clean water, you can use the water in your
hot-water tank, pipes and ice cubes. As a last resort, you can use water in the reservoir tank of
your toilet (not the bowl).
Do you know the location of your incoming water valve? You'll need to shut it off to stop
contaminated water from entering your home if you hear reports of broken water or sewage
lines.
To use the water in your pipes, let air into the plumbing by turning on the faucet in your house at
the highest level. A small amount of water will trickle out. Then obtain water from the lowest
faucet in the house.
To use the water in your hot-water tank, be sure the electricity or gas is off, and open the drain at
the bottom of the tank. Start the water flowing by turning off the water intake valve and turning on
a hot-water faucet. Do not turn on the gas or electricity when the tank is empty.
Three Ways to Treat Water
In addition to having a bad odor and taste, contaminated water can contain microorganisms
that cause diseases such as dysentery, typhoid and hepatitis. You should treat all water of
uncertain purity before using it for drinking, food preparation or hygiene.
There are many ways to treat water. None is perfect. Often the best solution is a combination of
methods.
Two easy treatment methods are outlined below. These measures will kill most microbes but
will not remove other contaminants such as heavy metals, salts and most other chemicals.
Before treating, let any suspended particles settle to the bottom, or strain them through layers of
paper towel or clean cloth.
Boiling: Boiling is the safest method of treating water. Bring water to a rolling boil for 3-5
minutes, keeping in mind that some water will evaporate. Let the water cool before drinking.
Boiled water will taste better if you put oxygen back into it by pouring the water back and forth
between two clean containers. This will also improve the taste of stored water.
Disinfection: You can use household liquid bleach to kill microorganisms. Use only regular
household liquid bleach that contains 5.25 percent sodium hypochlorite. Do not use scented
bleaches, colorsafe bleaches or bleaches with added cleaners.
Add 16 drops of bleach per gallon of water, stir and let stand for 30 minutes. If the water does
not have a slight bleach odor, repeat the dosage and let stand another 15 minutes.
The only agent used to treat water should be household liquid bleach. Other chemicals, such
as iodine or water treatment products sold in camping or surplus stores that do not contain
5.25 percent sodium hypochlorite as the only active ingredient, are not recommended and
should not be used.
While the two methods described above will kill most microbes in water, distillation will remove
microbes that resist these methods, and heavy metals, salts and most other chemicals.
Distillation: Distillation involves boiling water and then collecting the vapor that condenses back
to water. The condensed vapor will not include salt and other impurities. To distill, fill a pot
halfway with water. Tie a cup to the handle on the pot's lid so that the cup will hang right-side-up
when the lid is upside-down (make sure the cup is not dangling into the water) and boil the
water for 20 minutes. The water that drips from the lid into the cup is distilled.
Food Supplies
When Food Supplies Are Low
If activity is reduced, healthy people can survive on half their usual food intake for an extended
period and without any food for many days. Food, unlike water, may be rationed safely, except
for children and pregnant women.
If your water supply is limited, try to avoid foods that are high in fat and protein, and don't stock
salty foods, since they will make you thirsty. Try to eat salt-free crackers, whole grain cereals
and canned foods with high liquid content.
You don't need to go out and buy unfamiliar foods to prepare an emergency food supply. You
can use the canned foods, dry mixes and other staples on your cupboard shelves. In fact,
familiar foods are important. They can lift morale and give a feeling of security in time of stress.
Also, canned foods won't require cooking, water or special preparation. Following are
recommended short-term food storage plans.
Special Considerations
As you stock food, take into account your family's unique needs and tastes. Try to include foods
that they will enjoy and that are also high in calories and nutrition. Foods that require no
refrigeration, preparation or cooking are best.
Individuals with special diets and allergies will need particular attention, as will babies,
toddlers and elderly people. Nursing mothers may need liquid formula, in case they are unable
to nurse. Canned dietetic foods, juices and soups may be helpful for ill or elderly people.
Make sure you have a manual can opener and disposable utensils. And don't forget
nonperishable foods for your pets.
How to Cook If the Power Goes Out
or emergency cooking you can use a fireplace, or a charcoal grill or camp stove can be used
outdoors. You can also heat food with candle warmers, chafing dishes and fondue pots.
Canned food can be eaten right out of the can. If you heat it in the can, be sure to open the can
and remove the label first.
Short-Term Food Supplies
Even though it is unlikely that an emergency would cut off your food supply for two weeks, you
should prepare a supply that will last that long.
The easiest way to develop a two-week stockpile is to increase the amount of basic foods you
normally keep on your shelves.
Storage Tips
Keep food in a dry, cool spot - a dark area if possible.
Keep food covered at all times.
Open food boxes or cans care-fully so that you can close them tightly after each use.
Wrap cookies and crackers in plastic bags, and keep them in tight containers.
Empty opened packages of sugar, dried fruits and nuts into screw-top jars or air-tight
cans to protect them from pests.
Inspect all food for signs of spoilage before use.
Use foods before they go bad, and replace them with fresh supplies, dated with ink or
marker. Place new items at the back of the storage area and older ones in front.
Nutrition Tips
During and right after a disaster, it will be vital that you maintain your strength. So
remember:
Eat at least one well-balanced meal each day.
Drink enough liquid to enable your body to function properly (two quarts a day).
Take in enough calories to enable you to do any necessary work.
Include vitamin, mineral and protein supplements in your stockpile to assure adequate
nutrition.
Shelf-life of Foods for Storage
Here are some general guidelines for rotating common emergency foods.
Use within six months:
Powdered milk (boxed)
Dried fruit (in metal container)
Dry, crisp crackers (in metal container)
Potatoes
Use within one year:
Canned condensed meat and vegetable soups
Canned fruits, fruit juices and vegetables
Ready-to-eat cereals and uncooked instant cereals (in metal containers)
Peanut butter
Jelly
Hard candy and canned nuts
Vitamin C
May be stored indefinitely (in proper containers and conditions):
Wheat
Vegetable oils
Dried corn
Baking powder
Soybeans
Instant coffee, tea and cocoa
Salt
Noncarbonated soft drinks
White rice
Bouillon products
Dry pasta
Powdered milk (in nitrogen-packed cans)
Disaster Supplies
It's 2:00 a.m. and a flash flood forces you to evacuate your home-fast. There's no time to gather
food from the kitchen, fill bottles with water, grab a first-aid kit from the closet and snatch a
flashlight and a portable radio from the bedroom. You need to have these items packed and
ready in one place before disaster strikes.
Pack at least a three-day supply of food and water, and store it in a handy place. Choose foods
that are easy to carry, nutritious and ready-to-eat. In addition, pack these emergency items:
Medical supplies and first aid manual
Hygiene supplies
Portable radio, flashlights and extra batteries
Shovel and other useful tools
Household liquid bleach to treat drinking water § Money and matches in a waterproof
container
Fire extinguisher
Blanket and extra clothing
Infant and small children's needs (if appropriate)
Manual can opener
If the Electricity Goes Off . . .
FIRST, use perishable food and foods from the refrigerator.
THEN, use the foods from the freezer. To minimize the number of times you open the freezer
door, post a list of freezer contents on it. In a well-filled, well-insulated freezer, foods will usually
still have ice crystals in their centers (meaning foods are safe to eat) for at least three days.
FINALLY, begin to use non-perishable foods and staples.
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Home > Services > Disaster Services > Be Prepared > Animal Safety
Animal Safety
Pets and Disaster: Be Prepared
Animal Safety: Pets and Disaster | Pets: First aid | Farm Animals: Preparedness
The following information has been prepared by the Humane Society of the United States in
cooperation with the American Red Cross
Our pets enrich our lives in more ways than we can count. In turn, they depend on us for their
safety and well-being. Here's how you can be prepared to protect your pets when disaster
strikes.
Be Prepared with a Disaster Plan
The best way to protect your family from the effects of a disaster is to have a disaster plan. If you
are a pet owner, that plan must include your pets. Being prepared can save their lives.
Different disasters require different responses. But whether the disaster is a hurricane or a
hazardous spill, you may have to evacuate your home.
In the event of a disaster, if you must evacuate, the most important thing you can do to protect
your pets is to evacuate them, too. Leaving pets behind, even if you try to create a safe place for
them, is likely to result in their being injured, lost, or worse. So prepare now for the day when
you and your pets may have to leave your home.
1. Have a Safe Place To Take Your Pets
Red Cross disaster shelters cannot accept pets because of states' health and safety
regulations and other considerations. Service animals who assist people with disabilities are
the only animals allowed in Red Cross shelters. It may be difficult, if not impossible, to find
shelter for your animals in the midst of a disaster, so plan ahead. Do not wait until disaster
strikes to do your research.
Contact hotels and motels outside your immediate area to check policies on accepting
pets and restrictions on number, size, and species. Ask if "no pet" policies could be
waived in an emergency. Keep a list of "pet friendly" places, including phone numbers,
with other disaster information and supplies. If you have notice of an impending
disaster, call ahead for reservations.
Ask friends, relatives, or others outside the affected area whether they could shelter your
animals. If you have more than one pet, they may be more comfortable if kept together,
but be prepared to house them separately.
Prepare a list of boarding facilities and veterinarians who could shelter animals in an
emergency; include 24-hour phone numbers.
Ask local animal shelters if they provide emergency shelter or foster care for pets in a
disaster. Animal shelters may be overburdened caring for the animals they already have
as well as those displaced by a disaster, so this should be your last resort.
2. Assemble a Portable Pet Disaster Supplies Kit Whether you are away from home for a day
or a week, you'll need essential supplies. Keep items in an accessible place and store them in
sturdy containers that can be carried easily (duffle bags, covered trash containers, etc.). Your
pet disaster supplies kit should include:
Medications and medical records (stored in a waterproof container) and a first aid kit.
Sturdy leashes, harnesses, and/or carriers to transport pets safely and ensure that your
animals can't escape.
Current photos of your pets in case they get lost.
Food, potable water, bowls, cat litter/pan, and can opener.
Information on feeding schedules, medical conditions, behavior problems, and the
name and number of your veterinarian in case you have to foster or board your pets.
Pet beds and toys, if easily transportable.
3. Know What To Do As a Disaster Approaches
Often, warnings are issued hours, even days, in advance. At the first hint of disaster, act
to protect your pet.
Call ahead to confirm emergency shelter arrangements for you and your pets.
Check to be sure your pet disaster supplies are ready to take at a moment's notice.
Bring all pets into the house so that you won't have to search for them if you have to
leave in a hurry.
Make sure all dogs and cats are wearing collars and securely fastened, up-to-date
identification. Attach the phone number and address of your temporary shelter, if you
know it, or of a friend or relative outside the disaster area. You can buy temporary tags or
put adhesive tape on the back of your pet's ID tag, adding information with an indelible
pen.
You may not be home when the evacuation order comes. Find out if a trusted neighbor would
be willing to take your pets and meet you at a prearranged location. This person should be
comfortable with your pets, know where your animals are likely to be, know where your pet
disaster supplies kit is kept, and have a key to your home. If you use a petsitting service, they
may be available to help, but discuss the possibility well in advance.
Planning and preparation will enable you to evacuate with your pets quickly and safely. But bear
in mind that animals react differently under stress. Outside your home and in the car, keep
dogs securely leashed. Transport cats in carriers. Don't leave animals unattended anywhere
they can run off. The most trustworthy pets may panic, hide, try to escape, or even bite or
scratch. And, when you return home, give your pets time to settle back into their routines.
Consult your veterinarian if any behavior problems persist.
Caring for Birds in an Emergency
Birds should be transported in a secure travel cage or carrier. In cold weather, wrap a blanket
over the carrier and warm up the car before placing birds inside. During warm weather, carry a
plant mister to mist the birds' feathers periodically. Do not put water inside the carrier during
transport. Provide a few slices of fresh fruits and vegetables with high water content. Have a
photo for identification and leg bands. If the carrier does not have a perch, line it with paper
towels and change them frequently. Try to keep the carrier in a quiet area. Do not let the birds
out of the cage or carrier.
About Other Pets
Reptiles
Snakes can be transported in a pillowcase but they must be transferred to more secure
housing when they reach the evacuation site. If your snakes require frequent feedings, carry
food with you. Take a water bowl large enough for soaking as well as a heating pad. When
transporting house lizards, follow the same directions as for birds.
Pocket Pets
Small mammals (hamsters, gerbils, etc.) should be transported in secure carriers suitable for
maintaining the animals while sheltered. Take bedding materials, food bowls, and water
bottles.
A Final Word
If you must evacuate, do not leave your animals behind. Evacuate them to a prearranged safe
location if they cannot stay with your during the evacuation period. (remember, pets are not
allowed in Red Cross shelters.) If there is a possibility that disaster may strike while you are out
of the house, there are precautions you can take to increase your pets' chances of survival, but
they are not a substitute for evacuating with your pets. For more information, contact The
Humane Society of the United States, Disaster Services, 2100 L Street NW, Washington, DC
20037.
In a statement of understanding, The American Red Cross recognizes The Humane Society of
the United States as the nation's largest animal protection organization responsible for the
safety and well-being of animals, including disaster relief. The American Red Cross is
committed to transforming the caring and concern of the American people into immediate
action.
More information about pets from The Humane Society of the United States.
More information about pets from The American Veterinary Medical Association.
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Home > Services > Disaster Services > After a Disaster > Water Treatment
Water Treatment
(PDF File)
In addition to having a bad odor, and taste, water from questionable sources may be
contaminated by a variety of microorganisms, including bacteria and parasites that cause
diseases such as dysentery, cholera, typhoid, and hepatitis. All water of uncertain purity should
be treated before use.
To treat water, follow these steps:
1.Filter the water using a piece of cloth or coffee filter to remove solid particles.
2.Bring it to a rolling boil for about one full minute.
3.Let it cool at least 30 minutes. Water must be cool or the chlorine treatment described
below will be useless.
4.Add 16 drop of liquid chlorine bleach per gallon of water, or 8 drops per 2-liter bottle of
water. Stir to mix. Sodium hypochlorite of the concentration of 5.25% to 6% should be the
only active ingredient in the bleach. There should not be any added soap or fragrances.
A major bleach manufacturer has also added Sodium Hydroxide as an active ingredient,
which they state does not pose a health risk for water treatment.
5.Let stand 30 minutes.
6.If it smells of chlorine. You can use it. If it does not smell of chlorine, add 16 more drop
of chlorine bleach per gallon of water (or 8 drops per 2-liter bottle of water), let stand 30
minutes, and smell it again. If it smells of chlorine, you can use it. If it does not smell of
chlorine, discard it and find another source of water.
If local public health department information differs from this advice, the local information
should prevail.
For more information, contact your local Red Cross chapter and ask for a copy of the brochure
entitled, "Food and Water in an Emergency" (A5055).
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Home > Services > Disaster Services > Be Prepared > Family Disaster Planning
Water Storage Before Disaster Strikes
Family Disaster Planning | Disaster Supplies Kit | Food Supplies
Storing Supplies | Water Storage | Your Evacuation Plan
Looking for a Home | Food and Water in an Emergency
Use directions provided by your local or state public health agency. In the case where your local
or state public health agency does not have information, follow the recommendations below.
What kinds of containers are recommended to store water in?
Make sure the water storage container you plan to use is of food grade quality, such as 2-liter
soda bottles, with tight-fitting screw-cap lids. Milk containers are not recommended because
they do not seal well.
Should water be treated before storing it?
If your local water is treated commercially by a water treatment utility, you do not have to treat the
water before storing it. Treating commercially-treated water with bleach is superfluous and not
necessary. Doing so does not increase storage life. It is important to change and replace
stored water every six months or more frequently.
If your local water is not treated commercially by a water treatment facility, that is, if your water
comes from a public well or other public, non-treated system, follow instructions about water
storage provided by your public health agency or water provider. They may recommend treating
it with a small amount of liquid household bleach. Still, it is important to change and replace
stored water every six months or more frequently.
If your local water comes from a private well or other private source, consult with your local
public health agency about recommendations regarding storage of water. Some water sources
have contaminants (minerals or parasites) that can not be neutralized by treatment with liquid
household chlorine bleach. Only your local public health agency should make
recommendations about whether your local water can be safely stored, for how long, and how
to treat it.
Can I use bottled water?
If you plan to use commercially prepared "spring" or "drinking" water, keep the water in its
original sealed container. Change and replace the water at least once a year. Once opened,
use it and do not store it further.
For more information, contact your local Red Cross chapter and ask for the brochure titled,
"Food and Water in an Emergency" (A5055).
For more information, please contact your local Red Cross chapter. Ask for a copy of the
following brochures: “Your Family Disaster Plan” (A4466); “Your Family Disaster Supplies Kit”
(A4463) and “Food and Water in an Emergency” (A5055).
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Home > Services > Disaster Services > Be Prepared > Special Needs & Concerns: Seniors
Special Needs & Concerns
Disaster Preparedness for Seniors by Seniors
Find foreign language versions of this document
People With Disabilities | Seniors
This information was developed by the Rochester-Monroe County Chapter, American Red
Cross.
Dear Friends,
We are a group of older adults who experienced a two-week power outage when a massive ice
storm hit the Greater Rochester, New York, area. We were unprepared for such a disaster. If we
had only taken a few simple steps to prepare ourselves for such an event, we could have
eliminated many of the hardships we had to endure.
We are just like many of you. Some of us are in good health but aren't quite a agile as we used
to be; some of us have hearing or vision problems; others use a cane or wheelchair. Whatever
our limitations, however, we need to be prepared. We can be prepared.
For six months we have researched and discussed disasters and preparedness with the
American Red Cross. To avoid getting caught unprepared, we urge you to immediately review
the enclosed information and fill in the appropriate local emergency numbers. Be sure to keep
this helpful reference tool in a handy place for quick reference.
Sincerely,
Vi, Melvin Q., Julia L., Nancy C., Marion V., Jam, Dorothy M., Janet H., Fran, Roger H., Mary S.,
and LaVinia
Take Responsibility
Prepare NOW for a sudden emergency
Learn how to protect yourself and cope with disaster by planning ahead.
Even if you have physical limitations, you can still protect yourself.
Disaster can strike quickly and without warning!
Local officials and relief workers will be on the scene after a disaster, but they cannot reach
everyone right away.
Take responsibility--Save your life!
Keep in touch with your neighbors and look out for each other.
Knowing What to Do Is Your Best Protection And Your Responsibility.
Every day some part of the country is affected by one or more of the following emergencies:
Hurricanes
Earthquakes
Winter Storms
Tornadoes
Thunderstorms
Flooding
Toxic Spills
Fires
Which three are most likely to happen in your area?
Preparing for a disaster that is most likely to happen in your area will help you be prepared for
any disaster. Remember anything can happen at any time.
See the section, "For More Information," at the end of this document to obtain information on
potential disasters that can happen in your area.
Notification
How You May Be Notified Of A Possible Emergency
NOAA weather radio.
These special radios provide the earliest warning with an alarm that will alert you
in case of anticipated bad weather. To learn more, call your local National
Weather Service office.
Commercial radio and television stations.
Know your designed Emergency Alert System stations (EAS).
My EAS Radio Station is:
My EAS Television Station:
Door to door warning from local emergency officials.
Strictly follow their instructions!
Be aware of anyone in your neighborhood who may need special help. If available, take advantage of
advance registration systems in your area for those who need help.
Family Disaster Plan
Plan Ahead!!!
The next time disaster strikes, you may not have much time to act. Prepare now for a sudden
emergency.
By planning ahead you can avoid waiting in long lines for critical supplies, such as food, water
and medicine. Remember to review your plan regularly.
Use the following checklist to get started:
Your Disaster Checklist
Assemble a disaster supplies kit.
Arrange for someone to check on you.
Plan and practice the best escape routes from your home.
Plan for transportation if you need to evacuate to a Red Cross shelter.
Find the safe places in your home for each type of emergency.
Have a plan to signal the need for help.
Post emergency phone numbers near the phone.
If you have home health care service, plan ahead with your agency for emergency
procedures.
Teach those who may need to assist you in an emergency how to operate necessary
equipment. Be sure they will be able to reach you.
Medical Emergency Supplies
For your safety and comfort, you need to have emergency supplies packed and ready in one
place before disaster hits.
You should assemble enough supplies to last for at least three days.
Assemble the supplies you would need in an evacuation, both medical and general
supplies.
Store them in an easy-to-carry container, such as a backpack of duffel bag.
Be sure your bag has an ID tag.
Label any equipment, such as wheelchairs, canes or walkers, that you would need.
For Your Medical Needs
First-aid kit
Prescription medicines, list of medications including dosage, list of any allergies
Extra eyeglasses and hearing-aid batteries
Extra wheelchair batteries, oxygen
List of the style and serial numbers of medical devices such as pacemakers
Medical insurance and Medicare cards
List of doctors and relatives or friends who should be notified if you are injured
Any other items you may need
General Disaster Supplies
Battery-powered radio and flashlight with extra batteries for each
Change of clothing, rain gear, and sturdy shoes
Blanket or sleeping bag
Extra set of keys
Cash, credit cards, change for the pay phone
Personal hygiene supplies
Phone numbers of local and non-local relatives or friends
Insurance agent's name and number
Other items you want to include
It may not be necessary to evacuate, or you may be ordered to stay in your home. If this
happens, you will need in addition to the above items:
Water supply: one gallon per day per person. Remember, plan for at least 3 days. Store
water in sealed, unbreakable containers that you are able to handle. Identify the storage
date and replace every six months.
Non-perishable food supply--including any special foods you require. Choose foods that
are easy to store and carry, nutritious and ready-to-eat. Rotate them regularly. See
section, "For More Information".
Manual can opener you are able to use.
Non-perishable food for any pets.
Shelter In Place
In a chemical emergency, you may be told to shelter in place. This means staying where you
are and making yourself as safe as possible until the emergency passes or you are told to
evacuate.
In this situation it is safer to remain indoors than to go outside where the air is unsafe to
breathe.
If You are Told To Shelter In Place
Close all windows in your home.
Turn off all fans, heating, and air conditioning systems.
Close the fireplace damper.
Go to an above-ground room (not the basement) with the fewest windows and doors.
Take your Disaster Supplies Kit with you.
Wet some towels and jam them in the crack under the doors. Tape around doors,
windows, exhaust fans or vents. Use plastic garbage bags to cover windows, outlets
and heat registers.
If you are told there is danger of explosion, close the window shades, blinds or curtains.
To avoid injury, stay away from the windows.
Stay in the room and listen to your radio until you are told all is safe or you are told to
evacuate.
Red Cross Shelters may be opened if
A disaster affects a large number of people.
The emergency is expected to last several days.
Be Prepared to Go to a Shelter if. . .
Your area is without electrical power.
There is a chemical emergency affecting your area.
Flood water is rising.
Your home has been severely damaged.
Police or other local officials tell you to evacuate.
Services Provided at a Red Cross Shelter
Food.
Temporary shelter.
Basic First Aid.
To Learn About Red Cross Shelters Serving Your Area
Listen to your battery-powered radio.
Check with your local Red Cross chapter.
All American Red Cross emergency services are provided free of charge.
If You Need To Evacuate
Coordinate with your home care provider for evacuation procedures.
Try to car pool if possible.
If you must have assistance for special transportation call the American Red Cross or
your local officials.
Wear appropriate clothing and sturdy shoes.
Take your Disaster Supplies Kit.
Lock your home.
Use the travel routes specified or special assistance provided by local officials. Don't
take any short cuts, they may be unsafe.
Notify shelter authorities of any need you may have. They will do their best to
accommodate you and make you comfortable.
If You Are Sure You Have Enough Time...
Shut off water, gas, and electricity if instructed to do so and if you know how. Gas must
be turned back on by a professional.
Let others know when you left and where you are going.
Make arrangements for pets. Animals other than working animals may not be allowed in
public shelters.
Residential Fires
One emergency we could all face at any time is a home fire. A home fire could be a special
challenge for one with physical limitations. However, there are some things we can do to
improve our safety:
Before a Fire
Plan two escape routes out of each room. If you cannot use stairways, make special
arrangements for help in advance. Never use elevators.
Sleep with the bedroom door closed. This gives you extra minutes of protection from
toxic fumes and fire.
Test your smoke detector battery regularly, and as a reminder, change batteries on the
same day each year. Vacuum it occasionally to remove dust.
In Case Of Fire
Remain calm.
Drop to the floor and crawl. Most fire fatalities are due to breathing toxic fumes and
smoke. The cleanest air is near the floor. Breathing toxic fumes and smoke is more
dangerous than the risk of injury in getting to the floor quickly.
Feel any door before you open it. If it is hot, find another way out.
If your smoke detector goes off, never waste time to get dressed or collect valuables or
pets. Get out of the house immediately.
Do not try to fight the fire! Call for help from a neighbor's phone.
Never go back into a burning building for any reason.
If your clothes catch on fire, drop to the floor and roll to suffocate the fire. Keep rolling
(running from the fire only "fans" the flames and makes it worse).
If you are in a wheelchair or cannot get out of your house, stay by the window near the
floor. If you are able, signal the need to help.
Grandchildren's Safety
It is estimated that 3.4 million children live in a household headed by grandparents. And, many
children visit their grandparents often. The following safety advice for children can help
grandparents prepare a safe environment at home for children:
Store matches and lighters up high, away from children.
Move cleaning chemicals like cleansers, soap, drain cleaner, and other poisons to high
cupboards OR install a child-proof lock if you must keep these items in low cabinets.
Store prescription medicines and over-the-counter drugs like aspirin, cough medicines,
and stomachache remedies in a cabinet out of reach of children.
If children are playing outside or in a pool when skies grow dark or you hear thunder,
ask them to come indoors right away.
Install plastic covers over all exposed electrical outlets.
Children Can Help Grandparents, too:
Have children test each smoke detector in your home to make sure it is working by
using a broom handle to push the test button. See that the battery is changed in each
detector that doesn't work.
Ask children to draw a floor plan of your home and show two ways out of every room in
case of fire.
Summary and Reminders
Take responsibility by planning now.
Listen for information on radio and TV about hazardous weather and other events, and
heed the advice of local officials. Leave right away if told to do so.
In some communities, people who need help or transportation during an evacuation are
asked to register that need with their local government. Call your local emergency
management office for information and suggestions about what to do during an
evacuation.
Gather essential supplies, and be sure to keep a copy of your eyeglass prescription, list
of medications and their dosage, and other important papers to take with you if you have
to leave your home.
For More Information:
If you would like more information on disaster planning or on the disasters likely to happen in
your area, the following information is available
Emergency Preparedness Checklist
Your Family Disaster Plan
Your Family Disaster Supplies Kit
Food and Water in an Emergency
Are You Ready for a Tornado?
Are You Ready for a Flood?
Are You Ready for an Earthquake?
Are You Ready for a Fire?
Are You Ready for a Hurricane?
Are You Ready for a Winter Storm?
The following may be ordered free from the U.S. Fire Administration
Smoke Detectors and Fire Safety: A Guide for Older Americans
Pub. #L-126
FEMA/U.S. Fire Administration
P.O. Box 2012
Jessup, MD 20794-2012
NOAA Weather Radio information from
NOAA Weather Radio
Stock #: NOAA PA 76015
Contact your local National Weather Service office.
Includes frequency information, type of information broadcast and where to obtain a
NOAA Weather Radio.
For more information from the National Weather Service.
The following may be ordered from FEMA
FEMA
P.O. Box 2012
Jessup, MD 20794-2012
Preparedness for People with Disabilities (earthquake)
Pub. # FEMA-75
Hurricane Awareness-Action Guidelines for Senior Citizens
Item #8-0440
Or, consult FEMA.
Emergency information may also be obtained from your utility company.
Emergency Phone Numbers
Local emergency services number:_______________________
Ambulance:____________________________________________
Nearest relative:_______________________________________
Local contact:_________________________________________
Out of state contact:____________________________________
Doctors:_______________________________________________
Local Red Cross Chapter:_______________________________
Insurance Agent:_______________________________________
Other:_________________________________________________
Medications List With Dosage
Production of this information was funded by a grant from the Special Projects Fund of the
American National Red Cross to the Rochester-Monroe County Chapter of the American Red
Cross and was developed in cooperation with:
Monroe County Office of Emergency Preparedness
Monroe County Community Home Health Agency
Monroe County Office for the Aging
Visiting Nurse Service
Catholic Family Center
Rochester Gas and Electric
Rochester Telephone
© Copyright 2001 The American National Red Cross. All Rights Reserved. CONTACT US | SITE DIRECTORY | PRIVACY POLICY
Disaster Services --
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Home > Services > Disaster Services > Be Prepared > Special Needs & Concerns: People With
Disabilities
Special Needs & Concerns
Disaster Preparedness for People With Disabilities
People With Disabilities | Seniors
Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Downloadable Versions (wpd) (pdf)
Understanding Disasters
Creating a Personal Support Network
Completing a Personal Assessment
Personal Disaster Preparation
Disaster Supplies
Making Your Home or Office Safer
Glossary
Appendixes
Appendix A: Disaster Supplies Kits and Other Essential Supplies
Appendix B: Disaster Supplies Calendar
Appendix C: Important Lists
Preface
Disaster Preparedness for People With Disabilities has been designed to help people who
have physical, visual, auditory, or cognitive disabilities to prepare for natural disasters and their
consequences. In 1984, the Los Angeles Chapter of the American Red Cross created a booklet
titled Disaster Preparedness for the Disabled and Elderly. That booklet, which is no longer in
print, served as the foundation for material contained here. In the last 12 years, new information
has been published about disaster preparation for people with disabilities, and relevant
documents, guidelines, and other materials have been reviewed and added, as appropriate, in
this updated booklet. Anyone who has a disability or anyone who works with, lives with, or
assists a person with a disability can use this booklet. It contains information that can help you
organize a personal disaster plan and includes plans for the care of service animals and/or
pets during a disaster. This booklet is designed with checklists and extra space for you or your
helper to use to organize information that will help you prepare for a disaster. You may copy
these pages from the booklet as needed to distribute or post somewhere handy. If you have
questions about any of the content or recommendations in this booklet, please contact your
Local American Red Cross Chapter.
© Copyright 2001 The American National Red Cross. All Rights Reserved. CONTACT US | SITE DIRECTORY | PRIVACY POLICY
above was from http://www.redcross.org/services/disaster/afterdis/recover.html
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Home > Services > Disaster Services > Disaster Safety > Chemical Emergencies
Chemical Emergencies
(PDF File)
Why Talk About Chemical Emergencies?
What Is a Home Chemial Emergency, and a Major Chemical
Emergency?
Awareness Information
Preventing Chemical Emergencies in the Home
What to Do During a Home Chemical Emergency
Plan for Major Chemical Emergencies
Media and Communicaty Education Ideas
What to Do During a Major Chemical Emergency
What to Do if You Are at the Scene of a Chemical Accident
How to Shelter-in-Place
Evacuation During a Chemical Emergency
What to Do After a Major Chemical Emergency
Why Talk About Chemical Emergencies?
Hazardous materials are chemical substances, which if released or misused, can pose a threat
to the environment. These chemicals are used in industry, agriculture, medicine, research, and
consumer goods. As many as 500,000 products pose physical or health hazards and can be
defined as "hazardous chemicals." Each year, over 1,000 new synthetic chemicals are
introduced. Hazardous materials come in the form of explosives, flammable and combustible
substances, poisons, and radioactive materials. These substances are most often released as a
result of transportation accidents or because of chemical accidents in manufacturing plants.
Hazardous materials are most often released as a result of transportation accidents or because of chemical
accidents in manufacturing plants.
Back to Top
What Is a Home Chemial Emergency, and a Major Chemical Emergency?
Chemicals are a natural and important part of our environment. Even though we often don't think
about it, we use chemicals every day. They can be found in our kitchens, medicine cabinets,
basements, and garages. Chemicals help us keep our food fresh and our bodies clean. They
help our plants grow and fuel our cars. And chemicals make it possible for us to live longer,
healthier lives.
A home chemical emergency arises when chemicals are used improperly. Some chemicals that
are safe, and even helpful in small amounts, can be harmful in larger quantities or under certain
conditions. In fact, most chemical accidents occur in our own homes, and they can be prevented.
A major chemical emergency is an accident that releases a hazardous amount of a chemical into
the environment. Accidents can happen underground, on railroad tracks or highways, and at
manufacturing plants. These accidents sometimes result in a fire or explosion, but many times
you cannot see or smell anything unusual.
In the event of a major chemical emergency, you will be notified by the authorities. To get your
attention, a siren could sound, you may be called by telephone, or emergency personnel may
drive by and give instructions over a loudspeaker. Officials might even come to your door.
Learn more about your risk of chemical emergencies by contacting your local poison control
center, local authorities on hazardous materials, the Environmental Protection Agency, your local
emergency manager, or local American Red Cross chapter.
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Awareness Information
You may be exposed to a chemical even though you may not be able to see or smell anything
unusual. You may be exposed in three ways:
1.Breathing the chemical.
2.Swallowing contaminated food, water, or medication.
3.Touching the chemical, or coming into contact with clothing or things that have touched
the chemical.
Learn about chemicals and chemical emergencies:
Chemicals are everywhere. They are an important part of life.
The most common chemical accidents occur in our own homes, and they can be
prevented.
The best way to avoid chemical accidents is to read and follow the directions for use,
storage, and disposal of the product. Mixing products can be hazardous.
If you find someone who appears to have been injured from chemical exposure, make sure
you are not in danger before administering first aid. If you think there might be potential danger,
call 9-1-1 or your local emergency number. If there is no danger, give first aid as needed.
The best way to protect yourself and your family is to be prepared. Knowing what to watch for and
how to respond will keep you alert to potential chemical hazards.
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Preventing Chemical Emergencies in the Home
Learn about household chemical risk. Contact authorities on hazardous household
materials, such as the Environmental Protection Agency, for information about potentially
dangerous household products and their antidotes. Ask about the advisability of
maintaining antidotes in your home for cleaners and germicides, deodorizers, detergents,
drain and bowl cleaners, gases, home medications, laundry bleaches, liquid fuels, and
paint removers and thinners.
Keep all medicines, cosmetics, cleaning products, and other household chemicals out
of sight and out of reach of children. The most common home chemical emergencies
involve small children eating medicines. Experts in the field of chemical manufacturing
suggest that moving hazardous materials out of sight could eliminate up to 75 percent of
all poisonings of small children.
Flush medicines that are no longer being used or that are outdated down the toilet, and
place the empty container in the trash. Outdated medicines can sometimes cause ill
effects. Flushing them will eliminate the risk of people or animals picking them out of
garbage.
Store household chemicals according to the instructions on the label. Non-food
products should be stored tightly closed in their original container so you can always
identify the contents of each container and how to properly use the product.
Avoid mixing common household chemical products. Some combinations of these
products, such as ammonia and chlorine bleach, can create toxic gases.
Always read the directions before using a new product. To avoid inhaling dangerous
vapors, do not use some products in a small, confined space. Other products should not
be used without gloves and eye protection to help prevent the chemical from touching your
body.
Read instructions on how to dispose of chemicals properly. Improper disposal can
result in harm to yourself or members of your family, accidental contamination of the local
water supply, or harm to other people. It is also important to dispose of products properly
to preserve the environment and protect wildlife. Plus, some products can be recycled,
which helps protect the environment. If you have questions about how to properly dispose
of a chemical, call the facility or the environmental or recycling agency.
Small amounts of the following products can be safely poured down the drain with
plenty of water: antifreeze, bathroom and glass cleaner, bleach, drain cleaner,
fertilizer, household disinfectant, laundry and dishwashing detergent, rubbing
alcohol, rug and upholstery cleaner, and toilet bowl cleaner.
Small amounts of the following products should be disposed of by wrapping the
container in newspaper and plastic and placing it in the trash: brake fluid, car wax
or polish, dish and laundry soap, drain cleaner, fertilizer, furniture and floor polish,
insect repellent, nail polish, oven cleaner, paint thinners and strippers, pesticides,
power cleaners, toilet bowl cleaner, water-based paint, and wood preservatives.
Dispose of the following products at a recycling center or a collection site:
kerosene, motor or fuel oil, car battery or battery acid, diesel fuel, transmission
fluid, large amounts of paint, paint thinner or stripper, power steering fluid,
turpentine, gun cleaning solvents, and tires.
Empty spray cans by pressing the button until nothing comes out, then place the
can in the trash. Do not place spray cans into a burning barrel, incinerator, or trash
compactor because they may explode.
Never smoke while using household chemicals. Avoid using hair spray, cleaning
solutions, paint products, or pesticides near the open flame of an appliance, pilot light,
lighted candle, fireplace, wood burning stove, etc. Although you may not be able to see
or smell them, vapor particles in the air could catch fire or explode.
If you should spill a chemical, clean it up immediately with rags, being careful to
protect your eyes and skin. Allow the fumes in the rags to evaporate outdoors in a safe
place, then dispose of them by wrapping them in a newspaper and placing them in a
sealed plastic bag. Dispose of these materials with your trash.
Buy only as much of a chemical as you think you will use. If you have product left over, try
to give it to someone who will use it. Storing hazardous chemicals increases risk to
chemical emergencies.
Keep an A-B-C-rated fire extinguisher in the home and car, and get training from your
local fire department on how to use them. Should chemicals ignite, you will have an
opportunity to extinguish the fire before it spreads, avoiding greater damage.
Post the number of the nearest poison control center by all telephones. In an
emergency situation you may not have time to look up critical phone numbers.
Learn to detect the presence of a hazardous material. Many hazardous materials do not
have a taste or an odor. Some materials can be detected because they cause physical
reactions such as watering eyes or nausea. Some hazardous materials exist beneath the
surface of the ground and can be recognized by an oil or foam-like appearance.
Recognizing them immediately will allow you to take steps to avoid direct contact and limit
your exposure to potentially hazardous chemicals.
Learn to recognize the symptoms of toxic poisoning:
Difficulty in breathing.
Irritation of the eyes, skin, throat, or respiratory tract.
Changes in skin color.
Headache or blurred vision.
Dizziness.
Clumsiness or lack of coordination.
Cramps or diarrhea.
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What to Do During a Home Chemical Emergency
If your child should eat or drink a non-food substance, find any containers immediately
and take them to the phone. The poison control center may need specific information
from the container to give you the best emergency advice.
Call the poison control center, emergency medical services (EMS), 9-1-1, or the
operator. They will give you emergency advice while you wait for professional help.
Follow the emergency operator's or dispatcher's instructions carefully. Often the first
aid advice found on containers may not be appropriate. Do not give anything by mouth
until you have been advised by medical professionals.
If a hazardous substance comes into contact with an eye, it is important to take
immediate action. Delaying first aid can greatly increase the likelihood of injury. Flush the
eye with clear, lukewarm water for a minimum of 15 minutes, unless authorities instruct
you not to use water on the particular chemical involved. Continue the cleansing process
even if the victim indicates he or she is no longer feeling any pain, then seek medical
attention.
If there is danger of a fire or explosion, get out of the house immediately. Do not waste
time collecting items or calling the fire department when you are in danger.
If there is a fire or explosion, call the fire department from outside (a cellular phone or
a neighbor's phone). Once you are safely away from danger, call for professional help.
Stay away from the house to avoid the possibility of breathing toxic fumes.
Wash hands, arms, or other parts of the body that may have been exposed to the
chemical. Chemicals may continue to irritate the skin until they are washed off.
Discard any clothing that may have been contaminated. Some chemicals may not wash
out completely. Discarding clothes will prevent potential future exposure.
Administer first aid treatment to victims of chemical burns.
Call 9-1-1 for emergency help.
Remove clothing and jewelry from around the injury.
Pour clean, cool water over the burn for 15 to 30 minutes.
Loosely cover the burn with a sterile or clean dressing. Be sure that the dressing
will not stick to the burn.
Refer victim to a medical professional for further treatment.
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Plan for Major Chemical Emergencies
Learn about your community's risk from major chemical emergencies. Contact your
emergency management agency or American Red Cross chapter for information on
chemical plants and hazardous material transportation routes in your area.
Find out evacuation plans for your workplace and your children's schools. Different
locations have different plans. Know where you or your children may be taken in the event
of a major chemical emergency.
Develop an evacuation plan. (See "Evacuation" in the "Family Disaster Plan" section.)
Everyone in your family should know where to go if they have to leave. Trying to make
plans at the last minute can be upsetting and create confusion.
Learn about industry and community warning signals. Different communities may have
different ways of providing warnings. Many communities have sirens intended for outdoor
warning purposes. Use a NOAA weather radio with a tone-alert feature to keep you aware
of warnings while you are indoors.
Discuss chemical emergencies with your family. Everyone should know what to do in case all
family members are not together. Discussing major chemical emergencies ahead of time helps
reduce fear and anxiety and lets everyone know how to respond.
Assemble a Disaster Supplies Kit
Please see the "Disaster Supplies Kit" section for general supplies kit information. Specific
supplies for a chemical emergency should include the following:
Disaster Supply Kit basics
Evacuation Supply Kit
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Media and Community Education Ideas
Publish a special section in your local newspaper with emergency information on
hazardous materials. Localize the information by printing the phone numbers of the local
poison control center, emergency services offices, the American Red Cross, and local
hospitals.
Interview a member of your community's Local Emergency Planning Committee about
what hazardous substances may be in your community, where they are kept in large
quantities, and by what routes they are transported through the area.
Publish a chart of warning symbols and terms.
Publish a series on hazardous materials that can be found in the home and the proper
antidotes for them.
Stage a demonstration to show people how to seal off their homes properly by working
with emergency building materials, such as sandbags, plywood, and plastic sheeting.
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What to Do During a Major Chemical Emergency
If you hear a siren or other warning signal, turn on a radio or television for further
emergency information. You will be notified of a major chemical emergency by the
authorities. To get your attention, a siren could sound, you may be called by telephone, or
emergency personnel may drive by and give instructions over a loudspeaker. Officials
might even come to your door.
Listen carefully to the radio or television. The Emergency Alert System (EAS), which has
replaced the Emergency Broadcast System, may be activated. You will be given specific
instructions for your particular situation.
Strictly follow instructions. Your life could depend on it.
You will be told the following:
The type of health hazard.
The area affected.
How to protect yourself.
Evacuation routes (if necessary).
Shelter locations.
Type and location of medical facilities.
The phone numbers to call if you need extra help.
Call EMS, 9-1-1, or the operator only for a possible life-threatening emergency. Do not
call the telephone company, and do not call EMS, 9-1-1, or the operator for information.
Telephone lines are frequently overwhelmed in disaster situations. They need to be clear
for emergency calls to get through.
Your children may be sheltered in place or evacuated from school. If protective actions
are being taken at your children's school, do not go to the school or call the school. For
further information, listen to local emergency radio and TV stations to learn when and
where you can pick up your children.
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What to Do if You Are at the Scene of a Chemical Accident
Call 9-1-1 or the local fire department to report the nature and location of the accident
as soon as possible. Alerting local authorities to a major chemical emergency
immediately may help reduce potential injury or damage. Stay on the phone until the
operator tells you to hang up.
Move away from the accident scene and help others away. Minimizing the time you are
exposed reduces your risk of injury from breathing toxic chemicals. Some chemicals may
ignite or explode.
Stay away from the spilled substance and avoid touching it. If you are not sure of a
substance or its effects, wait for authorities on the scene to advise you of proper medical
care or attention to minimize injury.
Try to avoid inhaling gases, fumes, or smoke. If possible, cover your mouth with a cloth
while leaving the area. Many chemicals can damage breathing passages.
Stay away from accident victims until the hazardous material has been identified. Once
a substance has been identified and authorities indicate it is safe to go near victims, you
can move victims to fresh air and call for emergency medical care. Remove contaminated
clothing and shoes and place them in a plastic bag.
Cleanse victims who have come in contact with chemicals. Pour cold water over the
skin or eyes with running water for at least 15 minutes, unless authorities instruct you not
to use water on the particular chemical involved. Use the same treatment for eye burns
and remove any contact lenses. Be careful to flush the eye from the nose outward. If no
large amount of clean water is available, gently brush the chemical off the skin and away
from the victim and you. If the chemical is on the face, neck, or shoulders, ask the victim to
close his or her eyes before brushing off the chemical. Minimizing your exposure will
decrease potential injury.
Try to stay upstream, uphill, and upwind of the accident. Chemicals may be carried by
water, gravity, or wind. Minimize your exposure.
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How to Shelter-in-Place
One of the basic instructions you may be given in a chemical emergency is to shelter-in-place.
This is a precaution aimed to keep you and your family safe while remaining in your home. If you
are told to shelter-in-place, go inside, close all windows and vents and turn off all fans, heating or
cooling systems. Take family members and pets to a safe room, seal windows and doors, and
listen to local radio (or television) stations, or a NOAA Weather Radio for instructions.
While gathering your family, you can provide a minimal amount of breathing protection
by covering your mouth and nose with a damp cloth. Many chemicals can cause
damage to breathing passages.
Immediately after the shelter-in-place announcement is issued, fill up bathtubs or large
containers for an additional water supply, and turn off the intake valve to the house.
Water supplies may become contaminated. Preserve the water you have available.
If gas or vapors could have entered the building, take shallow breaths through a cloth
or a towel. Many chemicals can cause damage to breathing passages.
Avoid eating or drinking any food or water that may be contaminated. Injury may occur
from eating or drinking toxic chemicals.
Seal house so contaminants cannot enter:
Close and lock all windows and doors in your home.
Turn off all fans, heating and air conditioning systems.
Close the fireplace damper.
Seal gaps and cracks under doorways and windows with wet towels and duct
tape.
Seal gaps around window and air conditioning units, bathroom and kitchen
exhaust fans, and stove and dryer vents with duct tape and plastic sheeting,
wax paper, or aluminum wrap.
Close off nonessential rooms such as storage areas, laundry rooms, and extra
bedrooms.
Turn off ventilation systems.
Go to an above-ground room (not the basement) with the fewest windows and doors.
Some chemicals are heavier than air, and may seep into basements, even if the windows
are closed.
Take your Disaster Supplies Kit with you. These items may make you more comfortable
while you are waiting for further instructions.
Stay in the room and listen to your radio or television until you are told all is safe, or you
are told to evacuate. Local officials may call for evacuation in specific areas at greatest
risk in your community. Following the advice of local authorities is your safest choice.
If you are told there is danger of explosion, close the window shades, blinds, or
curtains. To avoid injury, stay away from the windows. If windows break due to the
explosion, the shades will help prevent glass from shattering into your home.
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Evacuation During a Chemical Emergency
If you are told to evacuate immediately, take your Disaster Supplies Kit. Pack only the bare
essentials, such as medications, and leave your home quickly. Follow the route authorities
recommend. Don't take shortcuts on the way to the shelter, they may be blocked or expose you to
dangerous chemicals.
It is important to stay calm, listen carefully, and follow all instructions. Authorities will
decide if evacuation is necessary, based primarily on the type and amount of chemical
released and how long it is expected to affect an area. Other considerations are the length
of time it should take to evacuate the area, weather conditions, and the time of day.
Authorities will advise you of the safest steps to take for your particular situation.
If an evacuation order is issued, listen to your radio to make sure the evacuation order
applies to you, and to understand if you are to evacuate immediately or if you have time
to pack some essentials. Stay tuned to a radio or television for information on evacuation
routes, temporary shelters, and procedures. Following the advice of local authorities is
your safest choice.
Avoid using the telephone. Use your phone only in life-threatening emergencies, and
then call the poison control center, EMS, 9-1-1, or the operator immediately. Telephone
lines are frequently overwhelmed in disaster situations. They need to be clear for
emergency calls to get through.
If you are told to evacuate, do so immediately. Local officials may call for evacuation in
specific areas at greatest risk in your community. Following the advice of local authorities
is your safest protection.
Take your Disaster Supplies Kit. These items may make you more comfortable while you
are away from home.
Only if you have time, seal your house so contaminants cannot enter:
Shut off all vents.
Close fireplace dampers.
You don't need to turn off your refrigerator or freezer, but you should turn off all
other appliances and lights as you leave.
Close and lock your windows and doors.
Move quickly and calmly. Leaving the area as quickly as possible will reduce your chance
of exposure to hazardous materials. Staying calm and rational will help you move safely
and avoid delays or accidents caused by irrational behavior.
Do not assume that a shelter will have everything you need. While shelters provide a
safe place to stay and food, specialty items for infants and individuals on restricted diets
may not be available. In most major chemical emergencies, shelters will provide only
emergency items such as meals, cots, and blankets.
If you need a ride, ask a neighbor. If no neighbor is available to help you, listen to local
radio or television stations for further instructions.
Check on neighbors to make sure they have been notified, and offer help to those with
disabilities or other special needs. Elderly people and people with disabilities may
require additional assistance, and people who care for them or who have large families
may need assistance in emergency situations.
Take only one vehicle to the evacuation site. Traffic may be very heavy and parking at a
shelter may be limited. Reduce further congestion and keep your family together by
eliminating additional vehicles.
Close your car windows and air vents, and turn off the heater or air conditioner. Many
chemicals can cause damage to breathing passages.
For your safety, follow the exact route you are told to take. Shortcuts may put you in the
path of danger.
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What to Do After a Major Chemical Emergency
Return home only when authorities say it is safe. Local officials on the scene are the
best source of information for your particular situation.
Follow local instructions concerning the safety of food and water. Contaminated food or
water can cause illness.
Clean up and dispose of residue carefully. Follow instructions from emergency officials
concerning cleanup methods. Local officials will best know proper procedures for your
particular situation.
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Produced by the National Disaster Education Coalition: American Red Cross, FEMA, IAEM, IBHS,
NFPA, NWS, USDA/CSREES, and USGS
This information is in the public domain and is intended to be used and shared without copyright
restrictions. If you wish to cite the source when you use this material, the following is suggested:
From: Talking About Disaster: Guide for Standard Messages. Produced by the National Disaster
Education Coalition, Washington, D.C., 1999.
© Copyright 2001 The American National Red Cross. All Rights Reserved. CONTACT US | SITE DIRECTORY | PRIVACY POLICY
Below is from the Red Cross http://www.redcross.org/services/disaster/keepsafe/drought.html
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Home > Services > Disaster Services > Disaster Safety > Drought
Drought: Fact Sheet on Water Conservation
(PDF File)
Many people have asked the American Red Cross for tips on conserving water for
environmental reasons, as well as when drought conditions threaten. The following tips were
developed by a coalition of specialists on water conservation in Florida, and are also consistent
with the recommendations that were developed through the National Disaster Education
Coalition's "Drought Forum":
Indoor Use
General
Never pour water down the drain when there may be another use for it. Use it to water
your indoor plants or garden.
Make sure your home is leak-free. When you are certain that no water is being used in
your home, take a reading of the water meter. Wait 30 minutes and then take a second
reading. If the meter reading changes, you have a leak!
Repair dripping faucets by replacing washers. One drop per second wastes 2,700
gallons of water per year!
Bathroom
Check for toilet leaks by adding food coloring to the tank. If you have a leak, the color will
appear in the bowl within 30 minutes. (Flush immediately to avoid stains.)
If the toilet handle frequently sticks in the flush position letting water run constantly,
replace or adjust it.
Leaky toilets usually can be fixed inexpensively by replacing the flapper.
Install a toilet displacement device to cut down on the amount of water needed for each
flush. (Contrary to popular opinion a brick should not be used because it can dissolve
and the loose pieces can cause damage to the internal parts. Instead, place a
one-gallon plastic jug of water into the tank to displace toilet flow or purchase a device
available at most hardware and home centers designed for this purpose.) Be sure
installation does not interfere with the operating parts.
Consider purchasing a low-volume toilet that uses less than half the water of older
models. NOTE: In many areas, low-volume units are required by law.
Take shorter showers.
Replace your showerhead with an ultra-low-flow version.
Place a bucket in the shower to catch excess water for watering plants.
In the shower, turn the water on to get wet; turn off to lather up; then turn the water back
on to rinse. Repeat when washing your hair.
Don't let the water run while brushing your teeth, washing your face or shaving.
Avoid flushing the toilet unnecessarily. Dispose of tissues, insects, and other similar
waste in the trash rather than the toilet.
Kitchen
Operate automatic dishwashers only when they are fully loaded. Use the "light wash"
feature if available to use less water.
When hand washing dishes, save water by filling two containers - one with soapy water
and the other with rinse water containing a small amount of chlorine bleach.
Most dishwashers can clean soiled dishes very well, so dishes do not have to be rinsed
before washing. Just remove large particles of food, and put the soiled dishes in the
dishwasher.
Store drinking water in the refrigerator. Don't let the tap run while you are waiting for
water to cool.
Do not use running water to thaw meat or other frozen foods. Defrost food overnight in
the refrigerator, or use the defrost setting on your microwave.
Do not waste water waiting for it to get hot. Capture it for other uses such as plant
watering or heat it on the stove or in a microwave.
Clean vegetables in a pan filled with water rather than running water from the tap.
Re-use the water that vegetables are washed in for cleaning or watering plants.
Kitchen sink disposals require lots of water to operate properly. Start a compost pile as
an alternate method of disposing of food waste, or simply dispose of food in the
garbage.
Laundry
Operate automatic clothes washers only when they are fully loaded or set the water level
for the size of your load.
Long Term Indoor Water Conservation
Retrofit all household faucets by installing aerators with flow restrictors.
Consider installing an instant hot water heater on your sink
Insulate your water pipes to reduce heat loss and prevent them from breaking if you
have a sudden and unexpected spell of freezing weather.
If you are considering installing a new heat pump or air-conditioning system, the new
air-to-air models are just as efficient as the water-to-air type and do not waste water.
Install a water-softening systems only when the minerals in the water would damage
your pipes. Turn the softener off while on vacation.
When purchasing a new appliance, choose one that is more energy and water efficient.
Outdoor Use
General
If you have a well at home, check your pump periodically. If the pump turns on and off
while water is not being used, you have a leak.
Car Washing
Use a shut-off nozzle on your hose that can be adjusted down to a fine spray, so that
water flows only as needed. When finished, turn it off at the faucet instead of at the
nozzle to avoid leaks. Check hose connectors to make sure plastic or rubber washers
are in place to prevent leaks.
Consider using a commercial car wash that recycles water. If you wash your own car,
park on the grass so that you will be watering it at the same time.
Lawn Care
Don't overwater your lawn. Lawns only need to be watered every five to seven days in the
summer, and every 10 to 14 days in the winter. A heavy rain eliminates the need for
watering for up to two weeks. Most of the year, lawns only need one inch of water per
week. Buy a rain gauge so that you can better determine when to water.
Water in several short sessions rather than one long one in order for your lawn to better
absorb moisture. For example, water in ten-minute sessions spaced 30 minutes apart,
rather than one straight 30-minute session.
Water lawns during the designated hours.
Position sprinklers so water lands on the lawn and shrubs and not on paved areas.
Avoid sprinklers that spray a fine mist; most of the mist evaporates before it reaches the
lawn. Check sprinkler systems and timing devices regularly to be sure they operate
properly. Florida law now requires that "anyone who purchases and installs an
automatic lawn sprinkler system MUST install a rain sensor device or switch which will
override the irrigation cycle when adequate rainfall has occurred."
Raise the lawn mower blade to at least three inches, or to its highest level. A higher cut
encourages grass roots to grow deeper, shades the root system, and holds soil
moisture.
Avoid over fertilizing your lawn. Applying fertilizer increases the need for water. Apply
fertilizers that contain slow-release, water-insoluble forms of nitrogen.
Use a broom or blower instead of a hose to clean leaves and other debris from your
driveway or sidewalk.
Do not leave sprinklers or hoses unattended. A garden hose can pour out 600 gallons
or more in only a few hours. Use a bell timer to remind yourself to turn sprinklers off.
Pool
If you have a swimming pool, consider installing a new water-saving pool filter. A single
backflushing with a traditional filter uses 180 to 250 gallons of water.
Cover pools and spas to reduce evaporation of water.
Long Term Outdoor Conservation
Plant it smart. Plant native and/or drought-tolerant grasses, ground covers, shrubs and
trees. Once established, they do not need water as frequently and usually will survive a
dry period without watering. They also require less fertilizer or herbicides. Landscape
with plants that are heat and drought tolerant and that do not require much water to live.
Small plants require less water to become established. Group plants together based on
similar water needs.
Install irrigation devices that are the most water efficient for each use. Micro and drip
irrigation and soaker hoses are examples of efficient devices.
Use mulch to retain moisture in the soil. (Help preserve native cypress forests by
selecting other types of mulch such as treated melaleuca.) Mulch also helps control
weeds that compete with landscape plants for water.
Avoid purchasing recreational water toys that require a constant stream of water.
Avoid installing ornamental water features (such as fountains) unless they use recycled
water.
Within the Community
Participate in public water conservation meetings conducted by your local government,
utility or water management district.
Follow water conservation and water shortage rules in effect. You are included in the
restrictions even if your water comes from a private well.
Encourage your employer to promote water conservation in the workplace.
Patronize businesses that practice water conservation, such as restaurants that only
serve water upon request.
Report water losses (broken pipes, open hydrants, errant sprinklers, abandoned
free-flowing wells, etc.) to the property owner, local authorities or your water
management district.
Encourage your school system and local government to help develop and promote a
water conservation ethic.
Support projects that will lead to an increased use of reclaimed wastewater for irrigation
and other uses.
Support efforts that create a concern for water conservation among tourists.
Promote water conservation in community newsletters, on bulletin boards, and by
example. Encourage your friends, neighbors, and co-workers to "be water smart."
Conserve water because it is the right thing to do - even when someone else is footing
the bill, such as when you are staying at a hotel.
Try to do one thing each day that will result in saving water. Every drop counts!
Water Restrictions
In some communities where drought conditions exist, officials may recommend measures to
restrict use of water. These recommendations may include such procedures as watering lawns
and washing cars on odd or even days of the week, at night, or on weekends. The restrictions
may limit hours or prohibit use of water, or require use of hand watering instead of using
sprinkler systems that use much more water. You should check with your local authorities or
water utility for information on water restrictions that may be imposed for your area.
More Information
Please contact your local water authority or utility district, or your local emergency management
agency for information specific to your area.
© Copyright 2001 The American National Red Cross. All Rights Reserved. CONTACT US | SITE DIRECTORY | PRIVACY POLICY
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Home > Services > Disaster Services > Disaster Safety > Earthquake
Earthquake Versión en Español
(PDF File)
See California Preparedness Materials for more earthquake
safety and preparedness information.
Prepare a Home Earthquake Plan
Choose a safe place in every room--under a sturdy table or
desk or against an inside wall where nothing can fall on you.
Practice DROP, COVER, AND HOLD ON at least twice a year. Drop under a sturdy
desk or table, hold on, and protect your eyes by pressing your face against your arm.
If there's no table or desk nearby, sit on the floor against an interior wall away from
windows, bookcases, or tall furniture that could fall on you. Teach children to DROP,
COVER, AND HOLD ON!
Choose an out-of-town family contact.
Consult a professional to find out additional ways you can protect your home, such
as bolting the house to its foundation and other structural mitigation techniques.
Take a first aid class from your local Red Cross chapter. Keep your training current.
Get training in how to use a fire extinguisher from your local fire department.
Inform babysitters and caregivers of your plan.
Eliminate Hazards, Including--
Bolting bookcases, china cabinets, and other tall furniture to wall studs.
Installing strong latches on cupboards.
Strapping the water heater to wall studs.
Prepare a Disaster Supplies Kit For Home and Car, Including--
First aid kit and essential medications.
Canned food and can opener.
At least three gallons of water per person.
Protective clothing, rainwear, and bedding or sleeping bags.
Battery-powered radio, flashlight, and extra batteries.
Special items for infant, elderly, or disabled family members.
Written instructions for how to turn off gas, electricity, and water if authorities advise
you to do so. (Remember, you'll need a professional to turn natural gas service back
on.)
Keeping essentials, such as a flashlight and sturdy shoes, by your bedside.
Know What to Do When the Shaking Begins
DROP, COVER, AND HOLD ON! Move only a few steps to a nearby safe place. Stay
indoors until the shaking stops and you're sure it's safe to exit. Stay away from
windows. In a high-rise building, expect the fire alarms and sprinklers to go off
during a quake.
If you are in bed, hold on and stay there, protecting your head with a pillow.
If you are outdoors, find a clear spot away from buildings, trees, and power lines.
Drop to the ground.
If you are in a car, slow down and drive to a clear place (as described above). Stay in
the car until the shaking stops.
Identify What to Do After the Shaking Stops
Check yourself for injuries. Protect yourself from further danger by putting on long
pants, a long-sleeved shirt, sturdy shoes, and work gloves.
Check others for injuries. Give first aid for serious injuries.
Look for and extinguish small fires. Eliminate fire hazards. Turn off the gas if you
smell gas or think it's leaking. (Remember, only a professional should turn it back
on.)
Listen to the radio for instructions.
Expect aftershocks. Each time you feel one, DROP, COVER, AND HOLD ON!
Inspect your home for damage. Get everyone out if your home is unsafe.
Use the telephone only to report life-threatening emergencies.
Your Local Red Cross Chapter Can Provide Additional Materials in English and Spanish:
"Are You Ready for a Fire?" (ARC 4456)
"Your Family Disaster Plan" (ARC 4466)
"Your Family Disaster Supplies Kit" (ARC 4463)
Materials for Children:
"Be Ready 1-2-3" involves puppets who give important safety information to children
ages 3-8 about residential fire safety, winter storms, and earthquakes.
"Disaster Preparedness Coloring Book" (PDF File) (ARC 2200, English, or ARC 2200S,
Spanish (PDF File)) for children ages 3-10.
"Adventures of the Disaster Dudes" (ARC 5024) video and Presenter's Guide for use
by an adult with children in grades 4-6.
"After the Quake" Coloring Book (ARC 2201, English, or ARC 2201S, Spanish)
And remember . . . when an earthquake, tornado, flood, fire, or other emergency happens in
your community, you can count on your local American Red Cross chapter to be there to
help you and your family. Your Red Cross is not a government agency and depends on
contributions of your time, money, and blood. For more information, please contact your
local American Red Cross chapter or emergency management office.
If you would like permission to use the information about earthquakes on this page in a
newsletter or other publication, or on your Website, please e-mail us at:
internet@usa.redcross.org
© Copyright 2001 The American National Red Cross. All Rights Reserved. CONTACT US | SITE DIRECTORY | PRIVACY POLICY
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Home > Services > Disaster Services > Disaster Safety > Fire
Fire Versión en Español
(PDF File)
Make Your Home Fire Safe
Smoke alarms save lives. Install a smoke alarm outside
each sleeping area and on each additional level of your
home.
If people sleep with doors closed, install smoke alarms
inside sleeping areas, too.
Use the test button to check each smoke alarm once a month. When necessary, replace
batteries immediately. Replace all batteries at least once a year.
Vacuum away cobwebs and dust from your smoke alarms monthly.
Smoke alarms become less sensitive over time. Replace your smoke alarms every ten
years.
Consider having one or more working fire extinguishers in your home. Get training from
the fire department in how to use them.
Consider installing an automatic fire sprinkler system in your home.
Plan Your Escape Routes
Determine at least two ways to escape from every room of your home.
Consider escape ladders for sleeping areas on the second or third floor. Learn how to
use them and store them near the window.
Select a location outside your home where everyone would meet after escaping.
Practice your escape plan at least twice a year.
Escape Safely
Once you are out, stay out! Call the fire department from a neighbor'
s home.
If you see smoke or fire in your first escape route, use your second way out. If you must
exit through smoke, crawl low under the smoke to your exit.
If you are escaping through a closed door, feel the door before opening it. If it is warm,
use your second way out.
If smoke, heat, or flames block your exit routes, stay in the room with the door closed.
Signal for help using a bright-colored cloth at the window. If there is a telephone in the
room, call the fire department and tell them where you are.
Your Local Red Cross Chapter Can Provide Additional Materials in English and Spanish:
"Fire Safety Pictorial Brochure" (ARC 5036) designed for people of low literacy. Contains
few words, and those are in both English and Spanish.
"Safe Living in Your Manufactured Home" (ARC 4465) gives fire, flood, and tornado
safety information for people who live in manufactured (mobile) homes.
"Wildfire...Are You Prepared?" (ARC 5020)
"Your Family Disaster Plan" (ARC 4466)
"Your Family Disaster Supplies Kit" (ARC 4463)
Materials for Children:
"Be Ready 1-2-3" features a children's workbook (ARC 5017), Instructor's Manual (ARC
5018), "How-To" Guide (ARC 5019), and "completion certificate" (C-814) that involve
puppets who give important safety information to children ages 3-8 about residential fire
safety, winter storms, and earthquakes.
"Fire Safety Activity Poster" (ARC 5034) is an 18" x 24" poster designed for children ages
4-8 on one side, and 8-12 on the other. Contains a maze, puzzle, word find, and coloring
pages. In English and Spanish.
Fire Prevention Week Campaign Kit (ARC 5016)
Contains ideas, stories, sample news releases, camera-ready artwork, and information
for use during Fire Prevention Week, and, since most of the information in the kit is
undated, throughout the year.
"Disaster Preparedness Coloring Book" (PDF File) (ARC 2200, English, or ARC 2200S,
Spanish) for children ages 3-10.
"Adventures of the Disaster Dudes" (ARC 5024) video and Presenter's Guide for use by
an adult with children in grades 4-6.
And remember . . . when a fire, earthquake, tornado, flood, or other emergency happens in your
community, you can count on your local American Red Cross chapter to be there to help you
and your family. Your Red Cross is not a government agency and depends on contributions of
your time, money, and blood. For more information, please contact your local American Red
Cross chapter or emergency management office.
If you would like permission to use the information about fires on this page in a newsletter or
other publication, or on your Website, please e-mail us at: internet@usa.redcross.org
© Copyright 2001 The American National Red Cross. All Rights Reserved. CONTACT US | SITE DIRECTORY | PRIVACY POLICY
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Home > Services > Disaster Services > Disaster Safety > Floods
Flood and Flash Flood Versión en Español
(PDF File)
Table of Contents
Know What To Expect
How to Reduce Potential Flood Damage
How Long Will a Flood Take to Develop?
Flash Floods
Prepare a Family Disaster Plan
Assemble a Disaster Supplies Kit
What to Do When a Flood Watch Is Issued
What to Do When a Flood Warning Is Issued
What to Do When a Flash Flood Watch Is Issued
What to Do When a Flash Flood Warning Is Issued
More Information
See Also...
Flash Floods and Floods... the Awesome Power, In-depth information about floods and flash
floods from the National Weather Service
Project Safeside: Keeping You Ahead of the Storm. Information from the American Red Cross
and The Weather Channel on flood safety
If you have been affected by a flood, see also:
"Repairing Your Flooded Home"
Know What to Expect
Know your area's flood risk--if unsure, call your local Red Cross chapter, emergency
management office, or planning and zoning department.
If it has been raining hard for several hours, or steadily raining for several days, be alert
to the possibility of a flood.
Listen to local radio or TV stations for flood information.
Reduce Potential Flood Damage By--
Raising your furnace, water heater, and electric panel if they are in areas of your home
that may be flooded.
Consult with a professional for further information if this and other damage reduction
measures can be taken.
Floods Can Take Several Hours to Days to Develop
A flood WATCH means a flood is possible in your area.
A flood WARNING means flooding is already occurring or will occur soon in your area.
Flash Floods Can Take Only a Few Minutes to a Few Hours to Develop
A flash flood WATCH means flash flooding is possible in your area.
A flash flood WARNING means a flash flood is occurring or will occur very soon.
Prepare a Family Disaster Plan
Check to see if you have insurance that covers flooding. If not, find out how to get flood
insurance.
Keep insurance policies, documents, and other valuables in a safe-deposit box.
Assemble a Disaster Supplies Kit Containing--
First aid kit and essential medications.
Canned food and can opener.
At least three gallons of water per person
Protective clothing, rainwear, and bedding or sleeping bags.
Battery-powered radio, flashlight, and extra batteries.
Special items for infants, elderly, or disabled family members.
Written instructions for how to turn off electricity, gas and water if authorities advise you
to do so. (Remember, you'll need a professional to turn them back on.)
Identify where you could go if told to evacuate. Choose several places . . . a friend's
home in another town, a motel, or a shelter.
When a Flood WATCH Is Issued . . .
Move your furniture and valuables to higher floors of your home.
Fill your car's gas tank, in case an evacuation notice is issued.
When a Flood WARNING Is Issued . . .
Listen to local radio and TV stations for information and advice. If told to evacuate, do so
as soon as possible.
When a Flash Flood WATCH Is Issued . . .
Be alert to signs of flash flooding and be ready to evacuate on a moment's notice.
When a Flash Flood WARNING Is Issued . . .
Or if you think it has already started, evacuate immediately. You may have only seconds
to escape. Act quickly!
Move to higher ground away from rivers, streams, creeks, and storm drains. Do not drive
around barricades . . . they are there for your safety.
If your car stalls in rapidly rising waters, abandon it immediately and climb to higher
ground.
Your Local Red Cross Chapter Can Provide Additional Materials in English and Spanish:
"Safe Living in Your Manufactured Home" (ARC 4465) gives fire, flood, and tornado
safety information for people who live in manufactured (mobile) homes.
"Are You Ready for a Thunderstorm?" (ARC 5009)
"Are You Ready for a Hurricane?" (ARC 4454)
"Are You Ready for a Tornado?" (ARC 4457)
"Avoiding Flood Damage" (ARC 1215)
"Your Family Disaster Plan" (ARC 4466)
"Your Family Disaster Supplies Kit" (ARC 4463)
"Repairing Your Flooded Home" (ARC 4477, English, ARC 4477S, Spanish). This is a
66-page book designed for homeowners who may engage in flood clean-up and repair
of flood-damaged homes.
Materials for Children:
"Disaster Preparedness Coloring Book" (PDF File) (ARC 2200, English, or ARC 2200S,
Spanish (PDF File)) for use by children 3-10.
"Adventures of the Disaster Dudes" (ARC 5024) video and Presenter's Guide for use by
an adult with children in grades 4-6.
"After the Flood" Coloring Book (ARC 2204, English, or ARC 2204S, Spanish)
And remember . . . when a flood, earthquake, tornado, fire, or other emergency happens in your
community, you can count on your local American Red Cross chapter to be there to help you
and your family. Your Red Cross is not a government agency and depends on contributions of
your time, money, and blood. For more information, please contact your local American Red
Cross chapter or emergency management office.
If you would like permission to use the information about floods/flash floods on this page in a
newsletter or other publication, or on your Website, please e-mail us at:
internet@usa.redcross.org
© Copyright 2001 The American National Red Cross. All Rights Reserved. CONTACT US | SITE DIRECTORY | PRIVACY POLICY
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> Heat Waves
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Wild Fires
Winter Storms
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Home > Services > Disaster Services > Disaster Safety > Heat Waves
Heat Waves Versión en Español
(PDF File)
Table of Contents
Know What the Terms Mean
What To Do When a Heat Wave Is Predicted or Happening
Signals of Heat Emergencies
Treatment of Heat Emergencies
More Information
See also...
Project Safeside: Keeping You Ahead of the Storm. Information from the American Red Cross
and The Weather Channel on heat safety
Know What These Terms Mean...
Heat wave: Prolonged period of excessive heat and humidity. The National Weather
Service steps up its procedures to alert the public during these periods of excessive
heat and humidity.
Heat index: A number in degrees Fahrenheit (F) that tells how hot it really feels when
relative humidity is added to the actual air temperature. Exposure to full sunshine can
increase the heat index by 15 degrees F.
Heat cramps: Heat cramps are muscular pains and spasms due to heavy exertion.
Although heat cramps are the least severe, they are an early signal that the body is
having trouble with the heat.
Heat exhaustion: Heat exhaustion typically occurs when people exercise heavily or work
in a hot, humid place where body fluids are lost through heavy sweating. Blood flow to
the skin increases, causing blood flow to decrease to the vital organs. This results in a
form of mild shock. If not treated, the victim may suffer heat stroke.
Heat stroke: Heat stroke is life-threatening. The victim's temperature control system,
which produces sweating to cool the body, stops working. The body temperature can
rise so high that brain damage and death may result if the body is not cooled quickly.
Sunstroke: Another term for heat stroke.
If a Heat Wave Is Predicted or Happening...
Slow down. Avoid strenuous activity. If you must do strenuous activity, do it during the
coolest part of the day, which is usually in the morning between 4:00 a.m. and 7:00 a.m.
Stay indoors as much as possible. If air conditioning is not available, stay on the lowest
floor, out of the sunshine. Try to go to a public building with air conditioning each day for
several hours. Remember, electric fans do not cool the air, but they do help sweat
evaporate, which cools your body.
Wear lightweight, light-colored clothing. Light colors will reflect away some of the sun's
energy.
Drink plenty of water regularly and often. Your body needs water to keep cool.
Drink plenty of fluids even if you do not feel thirsty.
Water is the safest liquid to drink during heat emergencies. Avoid drinks with alcohol or
caffeine in them. They can make you feel good briefly, but make the heat's effects on
your body worse. This is especially true about beer, which dehydrates the body.
Eat small meals and eat more often. Avoid foods that are high in protein, which increase
metabolic heat.
Avoid using salt tablets unless directed to do so by a physician.
Signals of Heat Emergencies...
Heat exhaustion: Cool, moist, pale, or flushed skin; heavy sweating; headache; nausea
or vomiting; dizziness; and exhaustion. Body temperature will be near normal.
Heat stroke: Hot, red skin; changes in consciousness; rapid, weak pulse; and rapid,
shallow breathing. Body temperature can be very high-- as high as 105 degrees F. If the
person was sweating from heavy work or exercise, skin may be wet; otherwise, it will
feel dry.
Treatment of Heat Emergencies...
Heat cramps: Get the person to a cooler place and have him or her rest in a comfortable
position. Lightly stretch the affected muscle and replenish fluids. Give a half glass of
cool water every 15 minutes. Do not give liquids with alcohol or caffeine in them, as they
can make conditions worse.
Heat exhaustion: Get the person out of the heat and into a cooler place. Remove or
loosen tight clothing and apply cool, wet cloths, such as towels or sheets. If the person
is conscious, give cool water to drink. Make sure the person drinks slowly. Give a half
glass of cool water every 15 minutes. Do not give liquids that contain alcohol or caffeine.
Let the victim rest in a comfortable position, and watch carefully for changes in his or her
condition.
Heat stroke: Heat stroke is a life-threatening situation. Help is needed fast. Call 9-1-1 or
your local emergency number. Move the person to a cooler place. Quickly cool the body.
Immerse victim in a cool bath, or wrap wet sheets around the body and fan it. Watch for
signals of breathing problems. Keep the person lying down and continue to cool the
body any way you can. If the victim refuses water or is vomiting or there are changes in
the level of consciousness, do not give anything to eat or drink.
Your Local Red Cross Chapter Can Provide Additional Materials in English and Spanish:
"Your Family Disaster Plan" (ARC 4466)
"Your Family Disaster Supplies Kit" (ARC 4463)
Materials for Children:
"Disaster Preparedness Coloring Book" (PDF File) (ARC 2200, English, or ARC 2200S,
Spanish (PDF File)) for children ages 3-10.
"Adventures of the Disaster Dudes" (ARC 5024) video and Presenter's Guide for use by
an adult with children in grades 4-6.
And remember . . . when a heatwave, earthquake, tornado, flood, fire, or other emergency
happens in your community, you can count on your local American Red Cross chapter to be
there to help you and your family. Your Red Cross is not a government agency and depends on
contributions of your time, money, and blood. For more information, please contact your local
American Red Cross chapter or emergency management office.
If you would like permission to use the information about heat waves on this page in a
newsletter or other publication, or on your Website, please e-mail us at:
internet@usa.redcross.org
© Copyright 2001 The American National Red Cross. All Rights Reserved. CONTACT US | SITE DIRECTORY | PRIVACY POLICY
Disaster Services --
Disaster Safety
Interactive Map
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Heat Waves
> Hurricanes
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Tornado
Tsunami
Volcanoes
Wild Fires
Winter Storms
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Red Cross
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Home > Services > Disaster Services > Disaster Safety > Hurricane
Hurricane Versión en Español
(PDF File)
Table of Contents
Know What a Watch or Warning Means
Prepare a Personal Evacuation Plan
Assemble a Disaster Supplies Kit
How to Prepare for High Winds
What to Do When a Hurricane Watch Is Issued
What to Do When A Hurricane Warning Is Issued
What to Do After a Hurricane Is Over
More Information
See also...
Hurricanes...Unleashing Nature's Fury, in-depth information about huricanes from the National
Weather Service
PDF version with full color photos of National Weather Service in-depth brochure on hurricanes
(Caution: this takes a long time to download)
PDF Version of "Against the Wind: Protecting Your Home From Hurricane Wind Damage"
Project Safeside: Keeping You Ahead of the Storm. Information from the American Red Cross
and The Weather Channel on hurricanes
Here's what you can do to prepare for such an emergency.
Know What Hurricane WATCH and WARNING Mean
WATCH: Hurricane conditions are possible in the specified area of the WATCH, usually
within 36 hours.
WARNING: Hurricane conditions are expected in the specified area of the WARNING,
usually within 24 hours.
Prepare a Personal Evacuation Plan
Identify ahead of time where you could go if you are told to evacuate. Choose several
places--a friend's home in another town, a motel, or a shelter.
Keep handy the telephone numbers of these places as well as a road map of your
locality. You may need to take alternative or unfamiliar routes if major roads are closed
or clogged.
Listen to NOAA Weather Radio or local radio or TV stations for evacuation instructions. If
advised to evacuate, do so immediately.
Assemble a Disaster Supplies Kit Including the Following Items:
First aid kit and essential medications.
Canned food and can opener.
At least three gallons of water per person.
Protective clothing, rainwear, and bedding or sleeping bags.
Battery-powered radio, flashlight, and extra batteries.
Special items for infants, elderly, or disabled family members.
Written instructions on how to turn off electricity, gas and water if authorities advise you
to do so. (Remember, you'll need a professional to turn them back on.)
Prepare for High Winds
Install hurricane shutters or purchase precut 1/2" outdoor plywood boards for each
window of your home. Install anchors for the plywood and predrill holes in the plywood
so that you can put it up quickly.
Make trees more wind resistant by removing diseased and damaged limbs, then
strategically removing branches so that wind can blow through.
Know What to Do When a Hurricane WATCH Is Issued
Listen to NOAA Weather Radio or local radio or TV stations for up-to-date storm
information.
Prepare to bring inside any lawn furniture, outdoor decorations or ornaments, trash
cans, hanging plants, and anything else that can be picked up by the wind.
Prepare to cover all windows of your home. If shutters have not been installed, use
precut plywood as described above. Note: Tape does not prevent windows from
breaking, so taping windows is not recommended.
Fill your car's gas tank.
Recheck manufactured home tie-downs.
Check batteries and stock up on canned food, first aid supplies, drinking water, and
medications.
Know What to Do When a Hurricane WARNING Is Issued
Listen to the advice of local officials, and leave if they tell you to do so.
Complete preparation activities.
If you are not advised to evacuate, stay indoors, away from windows.
Be aware that the calm "eye" is deceptive; the storm is not over. The worst part of the
storm will happen once the eye passes over and the winds blow from the opposite
direction. Trees, shrubs, buildings, and other objects damaged by the first winds can be
broken or destroyed by the second winds.
Be alert for tornadoes. Tornadoes can happen during a hurricane and after it passes
over. Remain indoors, in the center of your home, in a closet or bathroom without
windows.
Stay away from flood waters. If you come upon a flooded road, turn around and go
another way. If you are caught on a flooded road and waters are rising rapidly around
you, get out of the car and climb to higher ground.
Know What to Do After a Hurricane Is Over
Keep listening to NOAA Weather Radio or local radio or TV stations for instructions.
If you evacuated, return home when local officials tell you it is safe to do so.
Inspect your home for damage.
Use flashlights in the dark; do not use candles.
Your Local Red Cross Chapter Can Provide Additional Materials in English and Spanish:
"Against the Wind: Protecting Your Home from Hurricane Wind Damage" (PDF File)
(ARC 5023)
"Are You Ready for a Thunderstorm?" (ARC 5009)
"Are You Ready for a Flood or Flash Flood?" (ARC 4458)
"Are You Ready for a Tornado?" (ARC 4457)
"Your Family Disaster Plan" (ARC 4466)
"Your Family Disaster Supplies Kit" (ARC 4463)
Materials for Children:
"Jason and Robin's Awesome Hurricane Adventure" workbook (ARC 5044) and video
(ARC 5044V) designed for children in grades 4-6.
"Disaster Preparedness Coloring Book" (PDF File) (ARC 2200, English, or ARC 2200S,
Spanish (PDF File)) by children ages 3-10.
"Adventures of the Disaster Dudes" (ARC 5024) video and Presenter's Guide for use by
an adult with children in grades 4-6.
"After the Storm" Coloring Book (ARC 2206, English, or ARC 2206S, Spanish)
© Copyright 2001 The American National Red Cross. All Rights Reserved. CONTACT US | SITE DIRECTORY | PRIVACY POLICY
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Home > Services > Disaster Services > Disaster Safety > Mudslide
Landslide and Debris Flow (Mudslide)
(PDF File)
Why Talk About Landslides?
What Are Landslides and Debris Flows, and What Causes Them
Awareness Information
Plan for a Landslide
How to Protect Your Property
Media and Community Education Ideas
What to Do Before Intense Storms
What to Do During Intense Storms
What to Do if You Suspect Imminent Landslide Danger
What to Do During a Landslide
What to Do After a Landslide
Why Talk About Landslides?
Landslides are a serious geologic hazard common to almost every state in the United States. It is
estimated that nationally they cause up to $2 billion in damages and from 25 to 50 deaths
annually. Globally, landslides cause billions of dollars in damage and thousands of deaths and
injuries each year. Individuals can take steps to reduce their personal risk. Know about the
hazard potential where you live, take steps to reduce your risk, and practice preparedness plans.
Landslides are a serious geologic hazard common to almost every state in the United States. It is estimated
that nationally they cause up to $2 billion in damages and from 25 to 50 deaths annually.
Back to Top
What Are Landslides and Debris Flows, and What Causes Them?
Some landslides move slowly and cause damage gradually, whereas others move so rapidly
that they can destroy property and take lives suddenly and unexpectedly. Gravity is the force
driving landslide movement. Factors that allow the force of gravity to overcome the resistance of
earth material to landslide movement include: saturation by water, steepening of slopes by
erosion or construction, alternate freezing or thawing, earthquake shaking, and volcanic
eruptions.
Landslides are typically associated with periods of heavy rainfall or rapid snow melt and tend to
worsen the effects of flooding that often accompanies these events. In areas burned by forest and
brush fires, a lower threshold of precipitation may initiate landslides.
Debris flows, sometimes referred to as mudslides, mudflows, lahars, or debris avalanches, are
common types of fast-moving landslides. These flows generally occur during periods of intense
rainfall or rapid snow melt. They usually start on steep hillsides as shallow landslides that liquefy
and accelerate to speeds that are typically about 10 miles per hour, but can exceed 35 miles per
hour. The consistency of debris flows ranges from watery mud to thick, rocky mud that can carry
large items such as boulders, trees, and cars. Debris flows from many different sources can
combine in channels, and their destructive power may be greatly increased. They continue
flowing down hills and through channels, growing in volume with the addition of water, sand,
mud, boulders, trees, and other materials. When the flows reach flatter ground, the debris
spreads over a broad area, sometimes accumulating in thick deposits that can wreak havoc in
developed areas.
Among the most destructive types of debris flows are those that accompany volcanic eruptions. A
spectacular example in the United States was a massive debris flow resulting from the 1980
eruptions of Mount St. Helens, Washington. Areas near the bases of many volcanoes in the
Cascade Mountain Range of California, Oregon, and Washington are at risk from the same types
of flows during future volcanic eruptions.
Wildfires can also lead to destructive debris-flow activity. In July 1994, a severe wildfire swept
Storm King Mountain, west of Glenwood Springs, Colorado, denuding the slopes of vegetation.
Heavy rains on the mountain in September resulted in numerous debris flows, one of which
blocked Interstate 70 and threatened to dam the Colorado River.
Learn whether landslides or debris flows have occurred in your area by contacting local officials,
state geological surveys or departments of natural resources, and university departments of
geology.
Back to Top
Awareness Information
Areas that are generally prone to landslide hazards include existing old landslides; the bases
of steep slopes; the bases of drainage channels; and developed hillsides where leach-field
septic systems are used.
Areas that are typically considered safe from landslides include areas that have not moved in
the past; relatively flat-lying areas away from sudden changes in slope; and areas at the top or
along ridges, set back from the tops of slopes.
Learn what to watch for prior to major landsliding. Look for patterns of storm-water drainage on
slopes near your home, noting especially the places where runoff water converges, increasing
flow over soil-covered slopes. Check hillsides around your home for any signs of land movement,
such as small landslides or debris flows or progressively tilting trees.
Back to Top
Plan for a Landslide
Develop a Family Disaster Plan. Please see the "Family Disaster Plan"section for general family
planning information. Develop landslide-specific planning. Learn about landslide risk in your
area. Contact local officials, state geological surveys or departments of natural resources, and
university departments of geology. Landslides occur where they have before, and in identifiable
hazard locations. Ask for information on landslides in your area, specific information on areas
vulnerable to landslides, and request a professional referral for a very detailed site analysis of
your property, and corrective measures you can take, if necessary.
If you are at risk from landslides:
Talk to your insurance agent. Debris flow may be covered by flood insurance policies
from the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP).
Develop an evacuation plan. (See "Evacuation" in the "Family Disaster Plan" section.) You
should know where to go if you have to leave. Trying to make plans at the last minute can
be upsetting and create confusion.
Discuss landslides and debris flow with your family. Everyone should know what to do in
case all family members are not together. Discussing disaster ahead of time helps
reduce fear and lets everyone know how to respond during a landslide or debris flow.
Assemble a Disaster Supplies Kit
Please see the section "Disaster Supplies Kit" for general supplies kit information.
Landslide-specific supplies should include the following:
Disaster Suplies Kit basics
Evacuation Supplies Kit
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How to Protect Your Property
If your property is in a landslide-prone area, contract with a private consulting
company specializing in earth movement for opinions and advice on landslide
problems and on corrective measures you can take. Such companies would likely be
those specializing in geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, or civil
engineering. Local officials could possibly advise you as to the best kind of professional
to contact in your area. Taking steps without consulting a professional could make your
situation worse.
Install flexible pipe fittings to avoid gas or water leaks. Flexible fittings will be less likely
to break.
Back to Top
Media and Community Education Ideas
In an area prone to landslides, publish a special newspaper section with emergency
information on landslides and debris flows. Localize the information by including the
phone numbers of local emergency services offices, the American Red Cross chapter,
and hospitals.
Report on what city and county governments are doing to reduce the possibility of
landslides. Interview local officials about local land- use zoning regulations.
Interview local officials and major insurers regarding the National Flood Insurance
Program. Find out if debris flow is covered by flood insurance policies from the National
Flood Insurance Program and contact your local emergency management office to learn
more about the program.
Work with local emergency services and American Red Cross officials to prepare special
reports for people with mobility impairments on what to do if evacuation is ordered.
Support your local government in efforts to develop and enforce land-use and building
ordinances that regulate construction in areas susceptible to landslides and debris flows.
Buildings should be located away from steep slopes, streams and rivers,
intermittent-stream channels, and the mouths of mountain channels.
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What to Do Before Intense Storms
Become familiar with the land around you. Learn whether landslides and debris flows
have occurred in your area by contacting local officials, state geological surveys or
departments of natural resources, and university departments of geology. Knowing the
land can help you assess your risk for danger.
Watch the patterns of storm-water drainage on slopes near your home, and especially
the places where runoff water converges, increasing flow over soil-covered slopes.
Watch the hillsides around your home for any signs of land movement, such as small
landslides or debris flows, or progressively tilting trees. Watching small changes could
alert you to the potential of a greater landslide threat.
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What to Do During Intense Storms
Stay alert and awake. Many debris-flow fatalities occur when people are sleeping. Listen
to a NOAA Weather Radio or portable, battery-powered radio or television for warnings of
intense rainfall. Be aware that intense, short bursts of rain may be particularly dangerous,
especially after longer periods of heavy rainfall and damp weather.
If you are in areas susceptible to landslides and debris flows, consider leaving if it is
safe to do so. Remember that driving during an intense storm can be hazardous. If you
remain at home, move to a second story if possible. Staying out of the path of a landslide
or debris flow saves lives.
Listen for any unusual sounds that might indicate moving debris, such as trees
cracking or boulders knocking together. A trickle of flowing or falling mud or debris may
precede larger landslides. Moving debris can flow quickly and sometimes without
warning.
If you are near a stream or channel, be alert for any sudden increase or decrease in
water flow and for a change from clear to muddy water. Such changes may indicate
landslide activity upstream, so be prepared to move quickly. Don't delay! Save yourself, not
your belongings.
Be especially alert when driving. Embankments along roadsides are particularly
susceptible to landslides. Watch the road for collapsed pavement, mud, fallen rocks, and
other indications of possible debris flows.
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What to Do if You Suspect Imminent Landslide Danger
Contact your local fire, police, or public works department. Local officials are the best
persons able to assess potential danger.
Inform affected neighbors. Your neighbors may not be aware of potential hazards.
Advising them of a potential threat may help save lives. Help neighbors who may need
assistance to evacuate.
Evacuate. Getting out of the path of a landslide or debris flow is your best protection.
Back to Top
What to Do During a Lanslide
Quickly move out of the path of the landslide or debris flow. Moving away from the path
of the flow to a stable area will reduce your risk.
If escape is not possible, curl into a tight ball and protect your head. A tight ball will
provide the best protection for your body.
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What to Do After a Landslide
Stay away from the slide area. There may be danger of additional slides.
Check for injured and trapped persons near the slide, without entering the direct slide
area. Direct rescuers to their locations.
Help a neighbor who may require special assistance--infants, elderly people, and
people with disabilities. Elderly people and people with disabilities may require
additional assistance. People who care for them or who have large families may need
additional assistance in emergency situations.
Listen to local radio or television stations for the latest emergency information.
Watch for flooding, which may occur after a landslide or debris flow. Floods
sometimes follow landslides and debris flows because they may both be started by the
same event.
Look for and report broken utility lines to appropriate authorities. Reporting potential
hazards will get the utilities turned off as quickly as possible, preventing further hazard
and injury.
Check the building foundation, chimney, and surrounding land for damage. Damage to
foundations, chimneys, or surrounding land may help you assess the safety of the area.
Replant damaged ground as soon as possible since erosion caused by loss of ground
cover can lead to flash flooding.
Seek the advice of a geotechnical expert for evaluating landslide hazards or designing
corrective techniques to reduce landslide risk. A professional will be able to advise you
of the best ways to prevent or reduce landslide risk, without creating further hazard.
Back to Top
Produced by the National Disaster Education Coalition: American Red Cross, FEMA, IAEM, IBHS,
NFPA, NWS, USDA/CSREES, and USGS
This information is in the public domain and is intended to be used and shared without copyright
restrictions. If you wish to cite the source when you use this material, the following is suggested:
From: Talking About Disaster: Guide for Standard Messages. Produced by the National Disaster
Education Coalition, Washington, D.C., 1999.
© Copyright 2001 The American National Red Cross. All Rights Reserved. CONTACT US | SITE DIRECTORY | PRIVACY POLICY
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Home > Services > Disaster Services > Disaster Safety > Severe Thunderstorm
Severe Thunderstorm Versión en Español
(PDF File)
Table of Contents
Before Lightning Strikes
When a Storm Approaches
What To Do if Caught Outside
Protecting Yourself Outside
What To Do After the Storm Passes
What To Do if Someone Is Struck by Lightning
More Information
Before Lightning Strikes...
Keep an eye on the sky. Look for darkening
skies, flashes of light, or increasing wind.
Listen for the sound of thunder.
If you can hear thunder, you are close
enough to the storm to be struck by
lightning. Go to safe shelter immediately.
Listen to NOAA Weather Radio, commercial
radio, or television for the latest weather
forecasts.
When a Storm Approaches...
Find shelter in a building or car. Keep car
windows closed and avoid convertibles.
Telephone lines and metal pipes can
conduct electricity. Unplug appliances. Avoid using the telephone or any electrical
appliances. (Leaving electric lights on, however, does not increase the chances of your
home being struck by lightning.)
Avoid taking a bath or shower, or running water for any other purpose.
Turn off the air conditioner. Power surges from lightning can overload the compressor,
resulting in a costly repair job!
Draw blinds and shades over windows. If windows break due to objects blown by the
wind, the shades will prevent glass from shattering into your home.
If Caught Outside...
If you are in the woods, take shelter under the shorter trees.
If you are boating or swimming, get to land and find shelter immediately!
Protecting Yourself Outside...
Go to a low-lying, open place away from trees, poles, or metal objects. Make sure the
place you pick is not subject to flooding.
Be a very small target! Squat low to the ground. Place your hands on your knees with
your head between them. Make yourself the smallest target possible.
Do not lie flat on the ground--this will make you a larger target!
After the Storm Passes...
Stay away from storm-damaged areas.
Listen to the radio for information and instructions.
If Someone is Struck by Lightning...
People struck by lightning carry no electrical charge and can be handled safely.
Call for help. Get someone to dial 9-1-1 or your local Emergency Medical Services (EMS)
number.
The injured person has received an electrical shock and may be burned, both where
they were struck and where the electricity left their body. Check for burns in both places.
Being struck by lightning can also cause nervous system damage, broken bones, and
loss of hearing or eyesight.
Give first aid. If breathing has stopped, begin rescue breathing. If the heart has stopped
beating, a trained person should give CPR. If the person has a pulse and is breathing,
look and care for other possible injuries. Learn first aid and CPR by taking a Red Cross
first aid and CPR course. call your local Red Cross chapter for class schedules and
fees.
Your Local Red Cross Chapter Can Provide Additional Materials in English and Spanish:
"Are You Ready for a Tornado?" (ARC 4457)
"Are You Ready for a Flood or Flash Flood?" (ARC 4458)
"Your Family Disaster Plan" (ARC 4466)
"Your Family Disaster Supplies Kit" (ARC 4463)
Materials for Children:
"Disaster Preparedness Coloring Book" (PDF File) (ARC 2200, English, or Spanish) for
children ages 3-10.
"Adventures of the Disaster Dudes" (ARC 5024) video and Presenter's Guide for use by
an adult with children in grades 4-6.
And remember . . . when a thunderstorm, earthquake, tornado, flood, fire, or other emergency
happens in your community, you can count on your local American Red Cross chapter to be
there to help you and your family. Your Red Cross is not a government agency and depends on
contributions of your time, money, and blood. For more information, please contact your local
American Red Cross chapter or emergency management office.
If you would like permission to use the information about thunderstorms on this page in a
newsletter or other publication, or on your Website, please e-mail us at:
internet@usa.redcross.org
© Copyright 2001 The American National Red Cross. All Rights Reserved. CONTACT US | SITE DIRECTORY | PRIVACY POLICY
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Home > Services > Disaster Services > Disaster Safety > Tornado
Tornado Versión en Español
(PDF File)
Table of Contents
Prepare a Home Tornado Plan
Assemble a Disaster Supplies Kit
Stay Tuned for Storm Warnings
What To Do When a Storm Watch Is Issued
What To Do When a Storm Warning Is Issued
After a Tornado Passes
More Information
See also...
Thunderstorms...Tornadoes...Lightning...Nature's Most Violent Storms, in-depth information
about tornados from the National Weather Service
PDF version with full color photos of National Weather Service in-depth brochure on tornadoes
(Caution: this takes a long time to download)
Project Safeside: Keeping you Ahead of the Storm. Information from the American Red Cross
and The Weather Channel on tornadoes
Prepare a Home Tornado Plan
Pick a place where family members could gather if a tornado is headed your way. It
could be your basement or, if there is no basement, a center hallway, bathroom, or
closet on the lowest floor. Keep this place uncluttered.
If you are in a high-rise building, you may not have enough time to go to the lowest floor.
Pick a place in a hallway in the center of the building.
Assemble a Disaster Supplies Kit Containing--
First aid kit and essential medications.
Canned food and can opener.
At least three gallons of water per person.
Protective clothing, bedding, or sleeping bags.
Battery-powered radio, flashlight, and extra batteries.
Special items for infant, elderly, or disabled family members.
Written instructions on how to turn off electricity, gas, and water if authorities advise you
to do so. (Remember, you'll need a professional to turn natural gas service back on.)
Stay Tuned for Storm Warnings
Listen to your local radio and TV stations for updated storm information.
Know what a tornado WATCH and WARNING means:
A tornado WATCH means a tornado is possible in your area.
A tornado WARNING means a tornado has been sighted and may be headed for
your area. Go to safety immediately.
Tornado WATCHES and WARNINGS are issued by county or parish.
When a Tornado WATCH Is Issued...
Listen to local radio and TV stations for further updates.
Be alert to changing weather conditions. Blowing debris or the sound of an approaching
tornado may alert you. Many people say it sounds like a freight train.
When a Tornado WARNING Is Issued...
If you are inside, go to the safe place you picked to protect yourself from glass and other
flying objects. The tornado may be approaching your area.
If you are outside, hurry to the basement of a nearby sturdy building or lie flat in a ditch or
low-lying area.
If you are in a car or mobile home, get out immediately and head for safety (as above).
After the Tornado Passes...
Watch out for fallen power lines and stay out of the damaged area.
Listen to the radio for information and instructions.
Use a flashlight to inspect your home for damage.
Do not use candles at any time.
Your Local Red Cross Chapter Can Provide Additional Materials in English and Spanish:
"Safe Living in Your Manufactured Home" (ARC 4465) gives fire, flood, and tornado
safety information for people who live in manufactured (mobile) homes.
"Are You Ready for a Thunderstorm?" (ARC 5009)
"Are You Ready for a Flood or Flash Flood?" (ARC 4458)
"Your Family Disaster Plan" (ARC 4466)
"Your Family Disaster Supplies Kit" (ARC 4463)
Materials for Children:
"Disaster Preparedness Coloring Book" (PDF File) (ARC 2200, English, or Spanish) for
children ages 3-10.
"Adventures of the Disaster Dudes" (ARC 5024) video and Presenter's Guide for use by
an adult with children in grades 4-6.
"After the Tornado" Coloring Book (ARC 2205, English, or ARC 2205S, Spanish)
To get copies of American Red Cross Community Disaster Education materials, contact your local Red Cross
chapter.
And remember . . . when a tornado, flood, earthquake, fire, or other emergency happens in your
community, you can count on your local American Red Cross chapter to be there to help you
and your family. Your Red Cross is not a government agency and depends on contributions of
your time, money, and blood. For more information, please contact your local American Red
Cross chapter or emergency management office.
If you would like permission to use the information about tornadoes on this page in a
newsletter or other publication, or on your Website, please e-mail us at:
internet@usa.redcross.org
© Copyright 2001 The American National Red Cross. All Rights Reserved. CONTACT US | SITE DIRECTORY | PRIVACY POLICY
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Home > Services > Disaster Services > Disaster Safety > Tsunami
Tsunami
(PDF File)
Why Talk About Tsunamis?
What Are Tsunamis, and What Causes Them?
Awareness Information
Plan for a Tsunami
How to Protect Your Property
Media and Community Education Ideas
What to Do if You Feel a Strong Coastal Earthquake
What to Do When a Tsunami WATCH Is Issued
What to Do When a Tsunami WARNING Is Issued
What to Do After a Tsunami
Why Talk About Tsunamis?
Twenty-four tsunamis have caused damage in the United States and its territories during the last
204 years. Just since 1946, six tsunamis have killed more than 350 people and caused a half
billion dollars of property damage in Hawaii, Alaska, and the West Coast. As a tsunami nears the
coastline, it may rise to several feet or, in rare cases, tens of feet, and can cause great loss of life
and property damage when it comes ashore. Tsunamis can travel upstream in coastal estuaries
and rivers, with damaging waves extending farther inland than the immediate coast. A tsunami
can occur during any season of the year and at any time, day or night.
Since 1946, six tsunamis have killed more than 350 people and damaged a half billion dollars of property in
Hawaii, Alaska, and the West Coast.
Back to Top
What Are Tsunamis, and What Causes Them?
Tsunamis are ocean waves produced by earthquakes or underwater landslides. The word is
Japanese and means "harbor wave," because of the devastating effects these waves have had
on low-lying Japanese coastal communities. Tsunamis are often incorrectly referred to as tidal
waves, but a tsunami is actually a series of waves that can travel at speeds averaging 450 (and
up to 600) miles per hour in the open ocean. In the open ocean, tsunamis would not be felt by
ships because the wavelength would be hundreds of miles long, with an amplitude of only a few
feet. This would also make them unnoticeable from the air. As the waves approach the coast,
their speed decreases and their amplitude increases. Unusual wave heights have been known
to be over 100 feet high. However, waves that are 10 to 20 feet high can be very destructive and
cause many deaths or injuries.
Tsunamis are most often generated by earthquake-induced movement of the ocean floor.
Landslides, volcanic eruptions, and even meteorites can also generate a tsunami. If a major
earthquake is felt, a tsunami could reach the beach in a few minutes, even before a warning is
issued. Areas at greatest risk are less than 25 feet above sea level and within one mile of the
shoreline. Most deaths caused by a tsunami are because of drowning. Associated risks include
flooding, contamination of drinking water, fires from ruptured tanks or gas lines, and the loss of
vital community infrastructure (police, fire, and medical facilities).
From an initial tsunami generating source area, waves travel outward in all directions much like
the ripples caused by throwing a rock into a pond. As these waves approach coastal areas, the
time between successive wave crests varies from 5 to 90 minutes. The first wave is usually not
the largest in the series of waves, nor is it the most significant. Furthermore, one coastal
community may experience no damaging waves while another, not that far away, may experience
destructive deadly waves. Depending on a number of factors, some low-lying areas could
experience severe inland inundation of water and debris of more than 1,000 feet.
Learn whether tsunamis have occurred in your area by contacting your local emergency
management office, National Weather Service office, or American Red Cross chapter. If you are in
a tsunami risk area, learn how to protect yourself, your family, and your property.
Back to Top
Awareness Information
The West Coast/Alaska Tsunami Warning Center (WC/ATWC) is responsible for tsunami
warnings for California, Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, and Alaska.
The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) is responsible for providing warnings to
international authorities, Hawaii, and U.S. territories within the Pacific basin. The two Tsunami
Warning Centers coordinate the information being disseminated.
All tsunamis are potentially dangerous, even though they may not damage every coastline they
strike. Damaging tsunamis are very rare. Our coastlines are vulnerable, but tsunamis are
infrequent. Understand the hazard and learn how to protect yourself, but don't let the threat of
tsunamis ruin your enjoyment of the beach.
The WC/ATWC and PTWC may issue the following bulletins:
WARNING: A tsunami was or may have been generated, which could cause damage;
therefore, people in the warned area are strongly advised to evacuate.
WATCH: A tsunami was or may have been generated, but is at least two hours travel time
to the area in watch status. Local officials should prepare for possible evacuation if their
area is upgraded to a warning.
ADVISORY: An earthquake has occurred in the Pacific basin, which might generate a
tsunami. WC/ATWC and PTWC will issue hourly bulletins advising of the situation.
INFORMATION: A message with information about an earthquake that is not expected to
generate a tsunami. Usually only one bulletin is issued.
Be familiar with the tsunami warning signs. A strong earthquake lasting 20 seconds or more
near the coast may generate a tsunami. A noticeable rapid rise or fall in coastal waters is also a
sign that a tsunami is approaching.
Tsunamis most frequently come onshore as a rapidly rising turbulent surge of water choked with
debris. They are not V-shaped or rolling waves, and are not "surfable."
Tsunamis may be locally generated or from a distant source. In 1992, the Cape Mendocino,
California, earthquake produced a tsunami that reached Eureka in about 20 minutes, and
Crescent City in 50 minutes. Although this tsunami had a wave height of about one foot and was
not destructive, it illustrates how quickly a wave can arrive at nearby coastal communities and
how long the danger can last.
In 1957, a distant-source tsunami generated by an earthquake in the Aleutian Islands in Alaska
struck Hawaii, 2,100 miles away. Hawaii experienced $5 million in damages from that tsunami.
Back to Top
Plan for a Tsunami
Develop a Family Disaster Plan. Please see the "Family Disaster Plan" section for general family
planning information. Tsunami-specific planning should include the following:
Learn about tsunami risk in your community. Contact your local emergency
management office or American Red Cross chapter. Find out if your home, school,
workplace or other frequently visited locations are in tsunami hazard areas. Know the
height of your street above sea level and the distance of your street from the coast or other
high-risk waters. Evacuation orders may be based on these numbers.
If you are visiting an area at risk from tsunamis, check with the hotel, motel, or
campground operators for tsunami evacuation information and how you would be
warned. It is important to know designated escape routes before a warning is issued.
If you are at risk from tsunamis, do the following:
Plan an evacuation route from your home, school, workplace, or any other place you'll
be where tsunamis present a risk. If possible, pick an area 100 feet above sea level or
go up to two miles inland, away from the coastline. If you can't get this high or far, go as
high as you can. Every foot inland or upwards may make a difference. You should be able
to reach your safe location on foot within 15 minutes. After a disaster, roads may become
impassable or blocked. Be prepared to evacuate by foot if necessary. Footpaths normally
lead uphill and inland, while many roads parallel coastlines. Follow posted tsunami
evacuation routes; these will lead to safety. Local emergency management officials can
help advise you as to the best route to safety and likely shelter locations.
Practice your evacuation route. Familiarity may save your life. Be able to follow your
escape route at night and during inclement weather. Practicing your plan makes the
appropriate response more of a reaction, requiring less thinking during an actual
emergency situation.
Use a NOAA Weather Radio with a tone-alert feature to keep you informed of local
watches and warnings. The tone alert feature will warn you of potential danger even if you
are not currently listening to local radio or television stations.
Talk to your insurance agent. Homeowners' policies do not cover flooding from a
tsunami. Ask about the National Flood Insurance Program.
Discuss tsunami with your family. Everyone should know what to do in case all family
members are not together. Discussing tsunamis ahead of time will help reduce fear and
anxiety, and let everyone know how to respond. Review flood safety and preparedness
measures with your family.
Assemble a Disaster Supplies Kit
Please see the section "Disaster Supplies Kit" for general supplies kit information.
Tsunami-specific supplies should include the following:
Evacuation Supplies Kit in an easy-to-carry contanier (backpack) near your door
Disaster Suplies Kit basics
Back to Top
How to Protect Your Property
Avoid building or living in buildings within several hundred feet of the coastline. These
areas are more likely to experience damage from tsunamis, strong winds, or coastal
storms.
Make a list of items to bring inside in the event of a tsunami. A list will help you
remember anything that can be swept away by tsunami waters.
Elevate coastal homes. Most tsunami waves are less than 10 feet. Elevating your house
will help reduce damage to your property from most tsunamis.
Follow flood preparedness precautions. Tsunamis are large amounts of water that crash
onto the coastline, creating floods.
Have an engineer check your home and advise about ways to make it more resistant
to tsunami water. There may be ways to divert waves away from your property. Improperly
built walls could make your situation worse. Consult with a professional for advice.
Back to Top
Media and Community Education Ideas
If your community is at risk, build and publicize locations of tsunami evacuation routes.
Post signs directing people to higher ground away from the coast.
Review land use in tsunami hazard areas so no critical facilities, such as hospitals and
police stations; or high occupancy buildings, such as auditoriums or schools; or
petroleum-storage tank farms are located where there is a tsunami hazard. Tsunami
damage can be minimized through land use planning, preparation, and evacuation.
Publish a special section in your local newspaper with emergency information on
tsunamis. Localize the information by printing the phone numbers of local emergency
services offices, the American Red Cross chapter, and hospitals.
Periodically inform your community of local public warning systems.
Work with local emergency services and American Red Cross officials to prepare special
reports for people with mobility impairments on what to do if an evacuation is ordered, and
develop plans to assist them with evacuation if necessary.
Interview local officials and insurance companies about the proper types of insurance to
cover a flood-related loss. Include information on the economic effects of disaster.
Back to Top
What to Do if You Feel a Strong Coastal Earthquake
If you feel an earthquake that lasts 20 seconds or longer when you are on the coast:
Drop, cover, and hold on. You should first protect yourself from the earthquake.
When the shaking stops, gather your family members and evacuate quickly. Leave
everything else behind. A tsunami may be coming within minutes. Move quickly to higher
ground away from the coast.
Be careful to avoid downed power lines and stay away from buildings and bridges from
which heavy objects might fall during an aftershock.
Back to Top
What to Do When a Tsunami WATCH Is Issued
Listen to a NOAA Weather Radio, Coast Guard emergency frequency station, or other
reliable source for updated emergency information. As the energy of a tsunami is
transferred through open water, it is not detectable. Seismic action may be the only
advance warning before the tsunami approaches the coastline.
Check your Disaster Supplies Kit. Some supplies may need to be replaced or restocked.
Locate family members and review evacuation plans. Make sure everyone knows there
is a potential threat and the best way to safer ground.
If you have special evacuation needs (small children, elderly people, or persons with
disabilities), consider early evacuation. Evacuation may take longer, allow extra time.
If time permits, secure unanchored objects around your home or business. Tsunami
waves can sweep away loose objects. Securing these items or moving them inside will
reduce potential loss or damage.
Be ready to evacuate. Being prepared will help you to move more quickly if a tsunami
warning is issued.
Back to Top
What to Do When a Tsunami WARNING Is Issued
Listen to a NOAA Weather Radio, Coast Guard emergency frequency station, or other
reliable source for updated emergency information. Authorities will issue a warning only
if they believe there is a real threat from tsunami.
Follow instructions issued by local authorities. Recommended evacuation routes may
be different from the one you use, or you may be advised to climb higher.
If you are in a tsunami risk area, do the following:
If you hear an official tsunami warning or detect signs of a tsunami, evacuate at
once. A tsunami warning is issued when authorities are certain that a tsunami
threat exists, and there may be little time to get out.
Take your Disaster Supplies Kit. Having supplies will make you more comfortable
during the evacuation.
Get to higher ground as far inland as possible. Officials cannot reliably predict
either the height or local effects of tsunamis. Watching a tsunami from the beach
or cliffs could put you in grave danger. If you can see the wave, you are too close to
escape it.
Return home only after local officials tell you it is safe. A tsunami is a series of waves that may
continue for hours. Do not assume that after one wave the danger is over. The next wave may be
larger than the first one.
Back to Top
What to Do After a Tsunami
Continue listening to a NOAA Weather Radio, Coast Guard emergency frequency
station, or other reliable source for emergency information. The tsunami may have
damaged roads, bridges, or other places that may be unsafe.
Help injured or trapped persons. Give first aid where appropriate. Call for help. Do not
move seriously injured persons unless they are in immediate danger of further injury.
Help a neighbor who may require special assistance--infants, elderly people, and
people with disabilities. Elderly people and people with disabilities may require
additional assistance. People who care for them or who have large families may need
additional assistance in emergency situations.
Use the telephone only for emergency calls. Telephone lines are frequently
overwhelmed in disaster situations. They need to be clear for emergency calls to get
through.
Stay out of the building if waters remain around it. Tsunami waters, like flood waters,
can undermine foundations, causing buildings to sink, floors to crack, or walls to
collapse.
When re-entering buildings or homes, use extreme caution. Tsunami-driven flood
waters may have damaged buildings where you least expect it. Carefully watch every step
you take.
Wear sturdy shoes. The most common injury following a disaster is cut feet.
Use battery-powered lanterns or flashlights when examining buildings.
Battery-powered lighting is the safest and easiest, preventing fire hazard for the
user, occupants, and building.
Examine walls, floors, doors, staircases, and windows to make sure that the
building is not in danger of collapsing.
Inspect foundations for cracks or other damage. Cracks and damage to a
foundation can render a building uninhabitable.
Look for fire hazards. There may be broken or leaking gas lines, flooded electrical
circuits, or submerged furnaces or electrical appliances. Flammable or explosive
materials may come from upstream. Fire is the most frequent hazard following
floods.
Check for gas leaks. If you smell gas or hear a blowing or hissing noise, open a
window and quickly leave the building. Turn off the gas using the outside main
valve if you can, and call the gas company from a neighbor's home. If you turn off
the gas for any reason, it must be turned back on by a professional.
Look for electrical system damage. If you see sparks or broken or frayed wires,
or if you smell burning insulation, turn off the electricity at the main fuse box or
circuit breaker. If you have to step in water to get to the fuse box or circuit breaker,
call an electrician first for advice. Electrical equipment should be checked and
dried before being returned to service.
Check for sewage and water line damage. If you suspect sewage lines are
damaged, avoid using the toilets and call a plumber. If water pipes are damaged,
contact the water company and avoid using water from the tap. You can obtain safe
water from undamaged water heaters or by melting ice cubes.
Use tap water if local health officials advise it is safe.
Watch out for animals, especially poisonous snakes, that may have come into
buildings with the water. Use a stick to poke through debris. Tsunami flood
waters flush snakes and animals out of their homes.
Watch for loose plaster, drywall, and ceilings that could fall.
Take pictures of the damage, both of the building and its contents, for
insurance claims.
Open the windows and doors to help dry the building.
Shovel mud while it is still moist to give walls and floors an opportunity to dry.
Check food supplies. Any food that has come in contact with flood waters may be
contaminated and should be thrown out.
Back to Top
Produced by the National Disaster Education Coalition: American Red Cross, FEMA, IAEM, IBHS,
NFPA, NWS, USDA/CSREES, and USGS
This information is in the public domain and is intended to be used and shared without copyright
restrictions. If you wish to cite the source when you use this material, the following is suggested:
From: Talking About Disaster: Guide for Standard Messages. Produced by the National Disaster
Education Coalition, Washington, D.C., 1999.
© Copyright 2001 The American National Red Cross. All Rights Reserved. CONTACT US | SITE DIRECTORY | PRIVACY POLICY
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Home > Services > Disaster Services > Disaster Safety > Volcano
Volcano
(PDF File)
Explosive volcanoes blast hot solid and molten rock fragments and
gases into the air. As a result, ashflows can occur on all sides of a
volcano and ash can fall hundreds of miles downwind. Dangerous
mudflows and floods can occur in valleys leading away from
volcanoes. If you live near a known volcano, active or dormant, be
prepared to follow instructions from your local emergency officials.
Before:
Learn about your community warning systems and emergency plans.
Be prepared for the hazards that can accompany volcanoes:
Mudflows and flash floods
Landslides and rockfalls
Earthquakes
Ashfall and acid rain
Tsunamis
Make evacuation plans. If you live in a known volcanic hazard area, plan a route out and have a
backup route in mind.
Develop an emergency communication plan. In case family members are separated from one
another during a volcanic eruption (a real possibility during the day when adults are at work and
children are at school), have a plan for getting back together. Ask an out-of-state relative or
friend to serve as the “family contact,” because after a disaster, it’s often easier to call long
distance. Make sure everyone knows the name, address, and phone number of the contact
person.
Have disaster supplies on hand:
Flashlight and extra batteries
First aid kit and manual
Emergency food and water
Non-electric can opener
Essential medicines
Dust mask
Sturdy shoes
Get a pair of goggles and a throw-away breathing mask for
each member of the household in case of ashfall.
Contact your local emergency management office
or American Red Cross chapter for more
information on volcanoes.
During:
Follow the evacuation order issued by authorities.
Avoid areas downwind and river valleys
downstream of the volcano.
If caught indoors:
Close all windows, doors, and dampers.
Put all machinery inside a garage or barn.
Bring animals and livestock into closed shelters.
If trapped outdoors:
Seek shelter indoors.
If caught in a rockfall, roll into a ball to protect your head.
If caught near a stream, be aware of mudflows. Move up slope, especially if you hear the
roar of a mudflow.
Protect yourself during ashfall:
Wear long-sleeved shirts and long pants.
Use goggles to protect your eyes.
Use a dust mask or hold a damp cloth over your face to help breathing.
Keep car or truck engines off.
Stay out of the area defined as a restricted zone by
government officials. Effects of a volcanic eruption can be
experienced many miles from a volcano. Mudflows and
flash flooding, wildland fires, and even deadly hot ashflow
can reach you even if you cannot see the volcano during an
eruption. Avoid river valleys and low lying areas. Trying to
watch an erupting volcano up close is a deadly idea.
Listen to a battery-operated radio or television for
the latest emergency information.
After: If possible, stay away from volcanic ashfall
areas.
When outside:
Cover your mouth and nose. Volcanic ash
can irritate your respiratory system.
Wear goggles to protect your eyes.
Keep skin covered to avoid irritation from
contact with ash.
Clear roofs of ashfall. Ashfall is very heavy and can
cause buildings to collapse. Exercise great caution
when working on a roof.
Avoid driving in heavy ashfall. Driving will stir up more ash that can clog engines and stall
vehicles.
If you have a respiratory ailment, avoid contact with any amount of ash. Stay indoors until local
health officials advise it is safe to go outside.
Remember to help your neighbors who may require special assistance - infants, elderly
people, and people with disabilities.
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Home > Services > Disaster Services > Disaster Safety > Wildfire
Wildfire
(PDF File)
More and more people are making their homes in woodland
settings in or near forests, rural areas, or remote mountain sites.
There, homeowners enjoy the beauty of the environment but face the
very real danger of wildfire.
Wildfires often begin unnoticed. They spread quickly, igniting brush, trees, and homes. Reduce
your risk by preparing now before wildfire strikes. Meet with your family to decide what to do and
where to go if wildfires threaten your area. Follow the steps listed below to protect your family,
home, and property.
Practice Wildfire Safety
People start most wildfires . . . find out how you can promote and practice wildfire safety.
Contact your local fire department, health department, or forestry office for information on
fire laws. Make sure that fire vehicles can get to your home. Clearly mark all driveway
entrances and display your name and address.
Report hazardous conditions that could cause a wildfire.
Teach children about fire safety. Keep matches out of their reach.
Post fire emergency telephone numbers.
Plan several escape routes away from your home by car and by foot.
Talk to your neighbors about wildfire safety. Plan how the neighborhood could work
together after a wildfire. Make a list of your neighbors' skills, such as medical or
technical. Consider how you could help neighbors who have special needs, such as
elderly or disabled persons. Make plans to take care of children who may be on their
own if parents can't get home.
Protect Your Home
Regularly clean roof and gutters.
Inspect chimneys at least twice a year. Clean them at least once a year. Keep the
dampers in good working order. Equip chimneys and stovepipes with a spark arrester
that meets the requirements of National Fire Protection Association Code 211. (Contact
your local fire department for exact specifications.)
Use 1/2-inch mesh screen beneath porches, decks, floor areas, and the home itself.
Also, screen openings to floors, roof, and attic.
Install a smoke detector on each level of your home, especially near bedrooms; test
monthly and change the batteries at least once each year.
Teach each family member how to use the fire extinguisher (ABC type) and show them
where it's kept.
Keep a ladder that will reach the roof.
Consider installing protective shutters or heavy fire-resistant drapes.
Keep handy household items that can be used as fire tools: a rake, axe, handsaw or
chainsaw, bucket, and shovel.
Before Wildfire Threatens
Design and landscape your home with wildfire safety in mind.
Select materials and plants that can help contain fire rather than fuel it.
Use fire resistant or non-combustible materials on the roof and exterior structure of the
dwelling. Or treat wood or combustible material used in roofs, siding, decking, or trim
with UL-approved fire-retardant chemicals.
Plant fire-resistant shrubs and trees. For example, hardwood trees are less flammable
than pine, evergreen, eucalyptus or fir trees.
Create a 30- to 1OO-Foot Safety Zone Around Your Home.
Within this area, you can take steps to reduce potential exposure to flames and radiant
heat. Homes built in pine forests should have a minimum safety zone of 100 feet. If your
home sits on a steep slope, standard protective measures may not suffice. Contact your
local fire department or forestry of fice for additional information.
Rake leaves, dead limbs, and twigs. Clear all flammable vegetation.
Remove leaves and rubbish from under structures and dispose of them properly.
Thin a 15-foot space between tree crowns, and remove limbs within 15 feet of the
ground.
Remove dead branches that extend over the roof.
Prune tree branches and shrubs within 15 feet of a stovepipe or chimney outlet.
Ask the power company to clear branches from powerlines.
Remove vines from the walls of the home.
Mow grass regularly.
Clear a 10-foot area around propane tanks and the barbecue. Place a screen over the
grill--use non-flammable material with mesh no coarser than one-quarter inch.
Regularly dispose of newspapers and rubbish at an approved site. Follow local burning
regulations.
Place stove, fireplace, and grill ashes in a metal bucket, soak in water for two days, then
bury the cold ashes in mineral soil.
Store gasoline, oily rags, and other flammable materials in approved safety cans. Place
cans in a safe location away from the base of buildings.
Stack firewood at least 100 feet away and uphill from your home. Clear combustible
material within 20 feet. Use only UL-approved woodburning devices.
Plan Your Water Needs
Identify and maintain an adequate outside water source such as a small pond, cistern,
well, swimming pool, or hydrant.
Have a garden hose that is long enough to reach any area of the home and other
structures on the property.
Install freeze-proof exterior water outlets on at least two sides of the home and near
other structures on the property. Install additional outlets at least 50 feet from the home.
Consider obtaining a portable gasoline-powered pump in case electrical power is cut
off.
When Wildfire Threatens
If you are warned that a wildfire is threatening your area, listen to your battery-operated
radio for reports and evacuation information. Follow the instructions of local officials.
Back your car into the garage or park it in an open space facing the direction of escape.
Shut doors and roll up windows. Leave the key in the ignition. Close garage windows
and doors, but leave them unlocked. Disconnect automatic garage door openers.
Confine pets to one room. Make plans to care for your pets in case you must evacuate.
Arrange temporary housing at a friend or relative's home outside the threatened area.
If Advised to Evacuate, Do So Immediately
Wear protective clothing--sturdy shoes, cotton or woolen clothing, long pants, a
long-sleeved shirt, gloves, and a handkerchief to protect your face.
Take your Disaster Supplies Kit.
Lock your home.
Tell someone when you left and where you are going.
Choose a route away from fire hazards. Watch for changes in the speed and direction of
fire and smoke.
If You're sure You Have Time, Take Steps to Protect Your Home
Inside:
Close windows, vents, doors, venetian blinds or non-combustible window coverings,
and heavy drapes. Remove lightweight curtains.
Shut off gas at the meter. Turn off pilot lights.
Open fireplace damper. Close fireplace screens.
Move flammable furniture into the center of the home away from windows and
sliding-glass doors.
Turn on a light in each room to increase the visibility of your home in heavy smoke.
Outside:
Seal attic and ground vents with pre-cut plywood or commercial seals.
Turn off propane tanks.
Place combustible patio furniture inside.
Connect the garden hose to outside taps.
Set up the portable gasoline-powered pump.
Place lawn sprinklers on the roof and near above-ground fuel tanks. Wet the roof.
Wet or remove shrubs within 15 feet of the home.
Gather fire tools.
Emergency Supplies
When wildfire threatens, you won't have time to shop or search for supplies. Assemble a
Disaster Supplies Kit with items you may need if advised to evacuate. Store these supplies in
sturdy, easy-to-carry containers such as backpacks, dufflebags, or trash containers.
Include:
A three-day supply of water (one gallon per person per day) and food that won't spoil.
One change of clothing and footwear per person and one blanket or sleeping bag per
person.
A first aid kit that includes your family's prescription medications.
Emergency tools including a battery-powered radio, flashlight, and plenty of extra
batteries.
An extra set of car keys and a credit card, cash, or traveler's checks.
Sanitation supplies.
Special items for infant, elderly or disabled family members.
An extra pair of eyeglasses.
Keep important family documents in a waterproof container. Assemble a smaller
version of your kit to keep in the trunk of your car.
Create a Family Disaster Plan
Wildfire and other types of disasters--hurricane, flood, tornado, ealthquake, hazardous
matenals spill, winter storm--can strike quickly and without warning. You can cope with disaster
by preparing in advance and working together. Meet with your family to create a disaster plan.
To get started. . .
Contact your local Red Cross chapter
Find out about the hazards in your community.
Ask how you would be warned.
Find out how to prepare for each type of disaster.
Meet With Your Family
Discuss the types of disasters that could occur.
Explain how to prepare and respond to each type of disaster.
Discuss where to go and what to bring if advised to evacuate.
Practice what you have discussed.
Plan How Your Family Will Stay in Contact if Separated by Disaster
Pick two meeting places:
1.A place a safe distance from your home in case of a home fire.
2.A place outside your neighborhood in case you can't return home.
Choose an out-of-state friend as a "check-in contact" for everyone to call.
Complete These Steps
Post emergency telephone numbers by every phone.
Show responsible family members how and when to shut off water, gas, and electricity
at main switches.
Contact your local fire department to learn about home fire hazards.
Learn first aid and CPR. Contact your local American Red Cross chapter for information
and training.
Your Local Red Cross Chapter Can Provide Additional Materials in English and Spanish:
"Are You Ready for a Fire?" (ARC 4456)
"Fire Safety Pictorial Brochure" (ARC 5036) designed for people of low literacy. Contains
few words, and those are in both English and Spanish.
"Safe Living in Your Manufactured Home" (ARC 4465) gives fire, flood, and tornado
safety information for people who live in manufactured (mobile) homes.
"Your Family Disaster Plan" (ARC 4466)
"Your Family Disaster Supplies Kit" (ARC 4463)
Materials for Children:
Fire Prevention Week Campaign Kit (ARC 5016)
Contains ideas, stories, sample news releases, camera-ready artwork, and information
for use during Fire Prevention Week, and, since most of the information in the kit is
undated, throughout the year.
"Be Ready 1-2-3" features a children's workbook (ARC 5017), Instructor's Manual (ARC
5018), "How-To" Guide (ARC 5019), and "completion certificate" (C-814) that involve
puppets who give important safety information to children ages 3-8 about residential fire
safety, winter storms, and earthquakes.
"Fire Safety Activity Poster" (ARC 5034) is an 18" x 24" poster designed for children ages
4-8 on one side, and 8-12 on the other. Contains a maze, puzzle, word find, and coloring
pages. In English and Spanish.
"Disaster Preparedness Coloring Book" (PDF File) (ARC 2200, English, or ARC 2200S,
Spanish) for children ages 3-10.
"Adventures of the Disaster Dudes" (ARC 5024) video and Presenter's Guide for use by
an adult with children in grades 4-6.
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Home > Services > Disaster Services > Disaster Safety > Winter Storm
Winter Storm Versión en Español
(PDF File)
Table of Contents
Prepare a Winter Storm Plan
Assemble a Disaster Supplies Kit
Stay tuned for Storm Warnings
Know what Winter Storm Watches and Warnings mean
When a Winter Storm Watch is issued
When a Winter Storm Warning is issued
If you DO get stuck
More Information
See also...
Winter Storms... the Deceptive Killers, in-depth information about winter storm safety from the
National Weather Service
Prepare a Winter Storm Plan
Have extra blankets on hand.
Ensure that each member of your household has a warm coat, gloves or mittens, hat,
and water-resistant boots.
Assemble a Disaster Supplies Kit Containing--
First aid kit and essential medications.
Battery-powered NOAA Weather radio, flashlight, and extra batteries.
Canned food and can opener.
Bottled water (at least one gallon of water per person per day to last at least 3 days).
Extra warm clothing, including boots, mittens, and a hat.
Assemble a Disaster Supplies Kit for your car, too.
Have your car winterized before winter storm season.
Stay Tuned for Storm Warnings. . .
Listen to NOAA Weather Radio and your local radio and TV stations for updated storm
information.
Know What Winter Storm WATCHES and WARNINGS Mean
A winter storm WATCH means a winter storm is possible in your area.
A winter storm WARNING means a winter storm is headed for your area.
A blizzard WARNING means strong winds, blinding wind-driven snow, and dangerous
wind chill are expected. Seek shelter immediately!
When a Winter Storm WATCH is Issued...
Listen to NOAA Weather Radio, local radio, and TV stations, or cable TV such as The
Weather Channel for further updates.
Be alert to changing weather conditions.
Avoid unnecessary travel.
When a Winter Storm WARNING is Issued...
Stay indoors during the storm.
If you must go outside, several layers of lightweight clothing will keep you warmer than a
single heavy coat. Gloves (or mittens) and a hat will prevent loss of body heat. Cover
your mouth to protect your lungs.
Understand the hazards of wind chill, which combines the cooling effect of wind and
cold temperatures on exposed skin.
As the wind increases, heat is carried away from a person's body at an accelerated
rated, driving down the body temperature.
Walk carefully on snowy, icy, sidewalks.
After the storm, if you shovel snow, be extremely careful. It is physically strenuous work,
so take frequent breaks. Avoid overexertion.
Avoid traveling by car in a storm, but if you must...
Carry a Disaster Supplies Kit in the trunk.
Keep your car's gas tank full for emergency use and to keep the fuel line from
freezing.
Let someone know your destination, your route, and when you expect to arrive. If
your car gets stuck along the way, help can be sent along your predetermined
route.
If You Do Get Stuck...
Stay with your car. Do not try to walk to safety.
Tie a brightly colored cloth (preferably red) to the antenna for rescuers to see.
Start the car and use the heater for about 10 minutes every hour. Keep the exhaust pipe
clear so fumes won't back up in the car.
Leave the overhead light on when the engine is running so that you can be seen.
As you sit, keep moving your arms and legs to keep blood circulating and to stay warm.
Keep one window away from the blowing wind slightly open to let in air.
Your Local Red Cross Chapter Can Provide Additional Materials in English and Spanish:
"Safe Steps for Winter Weather" (ARC 5056)
"Surviving the Cold" 16-minute video (Available for a nominal fee) (321709)
"Your Family Disaster Plan"
"Your Family Disaster Supplies Kit" (ARC 4463)
Materials for Children:
"Be Ready 1-2-3" involve puppets who give important safety information to children ages
3-8 about residential fire safety, winter storms, and earthquakes.
"Disaster Preparedness Coloring Book" (PDF File) (ARC 2200, English, or Spanish) for
use by children 3-10.
"Adventures of the Disaster Dudes" (ARC 5024) video and Presenter's Guide for use by
an adult with children in grades 4-6.
© Copyright 2001 The American National Red Cross. All Rights Reserved. CONTACT US | SITE DIRECTORY | PRIVACY POLICY
Red Cross family preparedness document/checklists:
Where will your family be when disaster strikes? They could be anywhere-
at work at school or in the car. How will you find each other? Will you
know if your children are safe? Disaster can strike quickly and without warning. It can force
you to evacuate your neighborhood or confine you to your home. What would you do if basic services-water, gas, electricity or telephones-were cut off? Local officials and relief workers will be on the scene after a disaster, but they cannot reach everyone right away. Families can-and do-cope with disaster by preparing in advance and working together as a team. Follow the steps
listed in this brochure to create your family’s disaster plan. Knowing what to do is your best protection and your responsibility.
outside your neighborhood
4 Steps to Safety
Fill out, copy and distribute to all family members Locate the main electric fuse box, water service main and natural gas main. Learn how and when to turn these utilities off. Teach all responsible
family members. Keep necessary tools near gas and water shut-off valves.
Remember, turn off the utilities only if you suspect the lines are damaged or if
you are instructed to do so. If you turn the gas off, you will need a professional
to turn it back on.
UTILITIESEMERGENCY SUPPLIES
Keep enough supplies in your home
to meet your needs for at least three
days. Assemble a Disaster Supplies Kit
with items you may need in an evacua-tion.
Store these supplies in sturdy,
easy-to-carry containers such as back-packs,
duffle bags or covered trash
containers.
Include:
n A three-day supply of water (one
gallon per person per day) and
food that won’t spoil.
n One change of clothing and foot-wear
per person, and one blanket
or sleeping bag per person.
n A first aid kit that includes your
family’s prescription medications.
n Emergency tools including a bat-tery-
powered radio, flashlight and
plenty of extra batteries.
n An extra set of car keys and a credit
card, cash or traveler’s checks.
n Sanitation supplies.
n Special items for infant, elderly or
disabled family members.
n An extra pair of glasses.
Keep important family documents in a
waterproof container. Keep a smaller
kit in the trunk of your car.
2
Create a Disaster Plan
Meet with your family and discuss why you need to prepare for disaster. Explain the
dangers of fire, severe weather and earthquakes to children. Plan to share responsibili-ties
and work together as a team.
o Discuss the types of disasters that are
most likely to happen. Explain what
to do in each case.
o Pick two places to meet:
1. Right outside your home in case of
a sudden emergency, like a fire.
2. Outside your neighborhood in
case you can’t return home.
Everyone must know the address and
phone number.
o Ask an out-of-state friend to be your
“family contact.” After a disaster, it’s
often easier to call long distance.
Other family members should
call this person and tell them where
they are. Everyone must know your
contact’s phone number.
o Discuss what to do in an evacuation.
Plan how to take care of your pets.
Find Out What Could Happen to You
Contact your local emergency management or civil defense office and American Red
Cross chapter - be prepared to take notes:
o Ask what types of disasters are most
likely to happen. Request infor-mation
on how to prepare for each.
o Learn about your community’s
warning signals: what they sound
like and what you should do when
you hear them.
o Ask about animal care after disaster.
Animals may not be allowed inside
emergency shelters due to health
regulations.
o Find out how to help elderly or
disabled persons, if needed.
o Next, find out about the disaster
plans at your workplace, your
children’s school or daycare center
and other places where your family
spends time.
4 1
Family Disaster Plan
outside your home
Emergency Meeting Place
Meeting Place Phone
Address
3
HOME HAZARD HUNT
During a disaster, ordinary objects
in your home can cause injury or
damage. Anything that can move,
fall, break or cause a fire is a home
hazard. For example, a hot water
heater or a bookshelf can fall.
Inspect your home at least once a
year and fix potential hazards.
Contact your local fire department
to learn about home fire hazards.
o Test your smoke detectors monthly
and change the batteries at least once
a year.
Jan. o July o
Feb. o Aug. o
Mar. o Sep. o
Apr. o Oct. o
May o Nov. o
June o Dec. o
Change batteries in each year.
(month)
Working with neighbors can save lives and property. Meet with your
neighbors to plan how the neighborhood could work together after a disas-ter
until help arrives. If you’re a member of a neighborhood organization,
such as a home association or crime watch group, introduce disaster pre-paredness
as a new activity. Know your neighbors’ special skills (e.g.,
medical, technical) and consider how you could help neighbors who have
special needs, such as disabled and elderly persons. Make plans for child
care in case parents can’t get home.
NEIGHBORS HELPING NEIGHBORS
o Quiz your kids every six months so
they remember what to do.
o Conduct fire and emergency
evacuation drills.
Year Drill Date
o Replace stored water every three
months and stored food every six
months.
o Test and recharge your fire
extinguisher(s) according to
manufacturer’s instructions.
4
Practice and Maintain Your Plan
Evacuate immediately if told
to do so:
n Listen to your battery-powered
radio and follow the instructions
of local emergency officials.
n Wear protective clothing and
sturdy shoes.
n Take your Disaster Supplies Kit.
n Lock your home.
n Use travel routes specified by
local authorities - don’t use
shortcuts because certain areas
may be impassable or dangerous.
If you’re sure you have time:
n Shut off water, gas and electricity
before leaving, if instructed to do so.
n Post a note telling others when you
left and where you are going.
n Make arrangements for your pets.
EVACUATION
o Post emergency telephone numbers
by phones (fire, police, ambulance,
etc.).
o Teach children how and when to call
911 or your local Emergency Medical
Services number for emergency help.
o Show each family member how and
when to turn off the water, gas and
electricity at the main switches.
o Check if you have adequate insurance
coverage.
o Teach each family member how to
use the fire extinguisher (ABC type),
and show them where it’s kept.
Complete This Checklist
o Install smoke detectors on each level
of your home, especially near
bedrooms.
o Conduct a home hazard hunt.
o Stock emergency supplies and
assemble a Disaster Supplies Kit.
o Take a Red Cross first aid and CPR
class.
o Determine the best escape routes
from your home. Find two ways out
of each room.
o Find the safe spots in your home for
each type of disaster.
If disaster strikes
Remain calm and patient. Put your
plan into action.
Check for injuries
Give first aid and get help for seri-ously
injured people.
Listen to your battery
powered radio for
news and instructions
Evacuate, if advised to do so. Wear
protective clothing and sturdy shoes.
bleaches, gasoline and other
flammable liquids immediately.
Check for damage in
your home. . .
n Use flashlights - do not light
matches or turn on electrical
switches, if you suspect damage.
n Check for fires, fire hazards and
other household hazards.
n Sniff for gas leaks, starting at the
water heater. If you smell gas or
suspect a leak, turn off the main
gas valve, open windows, and
get everyone outside quickly.
n Shut off any other damaged
utilities.
n Clean up spilled medicines,
The Federal Emergency Management Agency’s Community and Family Preparedness Program and the American Red
Cross Community Disaster Education Program are nationwide efforts to help people prepare for disasters of all types.
For more information, please contact your local emergency management office and American Red Cross chapter. This
brochure and other preparedness materials are available by calling FEMA at 1-800-480-2520, or writing: FEMA, P.O.
Box 2012, Jessup, MD 20794-2012.
Publications are also available on the World Wide Web at:
FEMA’s Web site: http://www.fema.gov
American Red Cross Web site: http://www.redcross.org
Local sponsorship provided by:
Remember to. . .
n Confine or secure your pets.
n Call your family contact-
do not use the telephone again
unless it is a life-threatening
emergency.
n Check on your neighbors, espe-cially
elderly or disabled persons.
n Make sure you have an adequate
water supply in case service is
cut off.
n Stay away from downed power
lines.
September 1991
FEMA L-191
ARC 4466
Ask for: Are You Ready?, Your Family
Disaster Supplies Kit and Food & Water
in an Emergency.
end of red cross info
U. S. Constitution (Complete copy)
Keywords: U.S. Constitution, the Constitution
Constitution of the United States
Preamble
We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union,
establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defense,
promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves
and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of
America.
Article I
Section 1.
All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United
States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.
Section 2.
1.The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every
second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors, in each State
shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of
the State Legislature.
2.No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of
twenty five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who
shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be
chosen.
3.Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States
which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers,
which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons,
including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not
taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made
within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and
within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law
direct. The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty
Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative; and until such
enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to
choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one,
Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware
one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and
Georgia three.
4.When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive
Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies.
5.The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other Officers; and
shall have the sole Power of Impeachment.
Section 3.
1.The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each
State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years; and each Senator shall
have one Vote.
2.Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first Election,
they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the
Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, of
the second Class at the Expiration of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the
Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one third may be chosen every second Year;
and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the
Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary
Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such
Vacancies.
3.No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty
Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not,
when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen.
4.The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall
have no Vote, unless they be equally divided.
5.The Senate shall choose their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in
the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of
President of the United States.
6.The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When sitting for
that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the
United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no Person shall be
convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the Members present.
7.Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from
Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust, or Profit
under the United States: but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and
subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment, and Punishment according to Law.
Section 4.
1.The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and
Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but
the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as
to the Places of choosing Senators.
2.The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall
be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different
Day.
Section 5.
1.Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns, and Qualifications of its
own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business;
but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to
compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such
Penalties as each House may provide.
2.Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for
disorderly Behavior, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a Member.
3.Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish
the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgement require Secrecy; and
the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the
Desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered on the Journal.
4.Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the
other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which
the two Houses shall be sitting.
Section 6.
1.The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their
Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United
States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace,
be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their
respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any
Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other
Place.
2.No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be
appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States, which shall
have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been increased during
such time and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a
Member of either House during his Continuance in Office.
Section 7.
1.All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but
the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills.
2.Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate,
shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States;
If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to the
House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large
on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two
thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent together with the
Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if
approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But in all such Cases
the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by Yeas and Nays, and the Names
of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of
each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within
ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the Same
shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their
Adjournment prevent its Return in which Case it shall not be a Law.
3.Every Order, Resolution, or Vote, to Which the Concurrence of the Senate and
House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of
Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before
the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by
him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives,
according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill.
Section 8.
1.The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and
Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defense and general
Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform
throughout the United States;
2.To borrow money on the credit of the United States;
3.To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and
with the Indian Tribes;
4.To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject
of Bankruptcies throughout the United States;
5.To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the
Standard of Weights and Measures;
6.To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of
the United States;
7.To Establish Post Offices and Post Roads;
8.To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times
to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and
Discoveries;
9.To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court;
10.To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and
Offenses against the Law of Nations;
11.To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules
concerning Captures on Land and Water;
12.To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be
for a longer Term than two Years;
13.To provide and maintain a Navy;
14.To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces;
15.To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress
Insurrections and repel Invasions;
16.To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing
such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States,
reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the
Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed by
Congress.
17.To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not
exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the
Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United
States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of
the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erection of Forts,
Magazines, Arsenals, dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings;-And
18.To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into
Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution
in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.
Section 9.
1.the Migration or Importation of Such Persons as any of the States now existing
shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the
Year on thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on
such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person.
2.The privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when
in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it.
3.No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed.
4.No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the
Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken.
5.No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State.
6.No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the
Ports of one State over those of another; nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one
State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another.
7.No money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of
Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of the
Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to
time.
8.No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no Person holding
any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the
Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind
whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State.
Section 10.
1.No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of
Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold
and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post
facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of
Nobility.
2.No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on
Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its
inspection Laws: and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State
on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States;
and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Control of the Congress.
3.No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep
Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact
with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually
invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of delay.
Article II
Section 1.
1.The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of
America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together
with the Vice President, chosen for the same term, be elected, as follows:
2.Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a
Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives
to which the State may be entitled in the Congress; but no Senator or
Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United
States, shall be appointed an Elector.
3.The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two
Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the same State with
themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the
Number of Votes for each; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit
sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the
President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the
Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes
shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be
the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors
appointed; and if there be more than one who have such Majority, and have an
equal Number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately
choose by Ballot one of them for President; and if no Person have a Majority, then
from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner choose the
President. But in choosing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States the
Representation from each State having one Vote; A quorum for this Purpose shall
consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, and a Majority of
all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of
the President, the Person having the greater Number of Votes of the Electors shall
be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal
Votes the Senate shall choose from them by Ballot the Vice President.
4.The Congress may determine the Time of choosing the Electors, and the Day on
which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the same throughout the
United States.
5.No person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the
time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of
President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have
attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within
the United States.
6.In case of the removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation or
Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the Same shall
devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the
Case of Removal, Death, Resignation or Inability, both of the President and Vice
President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer
shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be
elected.
7.The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Compensation,
which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the Period for which he
shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other
Emolument from the United States, or any of them.
8.Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or
Affirmation: "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office
of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve,
protect and defend the Constitution of the United States."
Section 2.
1.The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United
States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual
Service of the United States; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the
principal Officer in each of the Executive Departments, upon any Subject relating
to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant
Reprieves and Pardons for Offenses against the United States, except in Cases of
Impeachment.
2.He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate to make
Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall
nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint
Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court,
and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein
otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law; but the Congress
may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in
the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments.
3.The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during
the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End
of their next Session.
Section 3.
He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the
Union recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge
necessary and expedient; he may on extraordinary Occasions, convene both
Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with
Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he
shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other Public Ministers; he
shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the
Officers of the United States.
Section 4.
The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be
removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or
other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.
Article III
Section 1.
The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court,
and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and
establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their
Offices during good Behavior, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their
Services a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during their
Continuance in Office.
Section 2.
1.The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this
Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be
made, under their Authority;-to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public
Ministers and Consuls;-to all Cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;-to
Controversies to which the United State shall be a Party;-to Controversies
between two or more States;-between a State and Citizens of another
State;-between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under the Grants of
different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States,
Citizens or Subjects.
2.In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those
in which a State shall be a Party, the supreme Court shall have original
Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall
have appellate Jurisdiction, both as Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and
under such Regulations as the Congress shall make.
3.The trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury; and
such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been
committed; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such
Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed.
Section 3.
1.Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them,
or, in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be
convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt
Act, or on Confession in open Court.
2.The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no
Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture during the Life
of the Person attainted.
Article IV
Section 1.
Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the Public Acts, Records, and
Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws
prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be
proved and the Effect thereof.
Section 2.
1.The Citizens of each State be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens
in the several States.
2.A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall
flee from Justice and be found in another State, shall on demand of the executive
Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the
State having Jurisdiction of the Crime.
3.No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof,
escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein,
be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up on Claim of
the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due.
Section 3.
1.New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State
shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any
State be formed by the Junction two or more States, or Parts of States, without
the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the
Congress.
2.The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and
Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United
States; and nothing in this Constitution shall construed as to Prejudice any Claims
of the United States, or of any particular State.
Section 4.
The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form
of government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion; and on
Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot
be convened) against domestic Violence.
Article V
The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall
propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the
Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for
proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and
purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three
fourths of the several states, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one
or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress; Provided that
no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year One thousand eight
hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the
Ninth Section of the first Article; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be
deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate.
Article VI
1.All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this
Constitution be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under
the Confederation.
2.This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in
Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the
Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the
Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or
Laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding.
3.The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of the
several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both shall be
bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious Test
shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the
United States.
Article VII
The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for the
Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.
ARTICLES IN ADDITION TO, AND AMENDMENT OF, THE CONSTITUTION OF THE
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, PROPOSED BY CONGRESS, AND RATIFIED BY THE
LEGISLATURES OF THE SEVERAL STATES PURSUANT TO THE FIFTH ARTICLE OF
ORIGINAL CONSTITUTION. [THE BILL OF RIGHTS" (AMENDMENTS I THROUGH X)]
Amendment I [1791]
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or
prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of
the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the
Government for a redress of grievances.
Amendment II [1791]
A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right
of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.
Amendment III [1791]
No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent
of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.
Amendment IV [1791]
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects,
against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no
Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation,
and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to
be seized.
Amendment V [1791]
No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime,
unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in
the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or
public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice
put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a
witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due
process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just
compensation.
Amendment VI [1791]
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and
public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall
have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by
law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be
confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for
obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his
defense.
Amendment VII [1791]
In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty
dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried to jury, shall be otherwise reexamined in any Court of the United States, than according to the
rules of the common law.
Amendment VIII [1791]
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines posed, nor cruel and
unusual punishments inflicted.
Amendment IX [1791]
The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights shall not be construed to
deny or disparage others retained by the people.
Amendment X [1791]
The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution nor prohibited
by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. [END
BILL OF RIGHTS]
Amendment XI [1798]
The Judicial power of the United States shall not be the construed to extend to
any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United
States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or subjects of any Foreign
State.
Amendment XII [1804]
The Electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot for President
and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same
state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as
President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they
shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons
voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they
shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the
United States, directed to the President of the Senate;-The President of the
Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open
all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted;-The person having the
greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be
a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such
majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three
on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall
choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the
votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one
vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from
two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a
choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President
whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them before the fourth day of
March next following, then the Vice President shall act as President, as in the
case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President.-The person
having the greatest number of votes as Vice- President, shall be the
Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors
appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers
on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose
shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the
whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally
ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of
the United States.
Amendment XIII [1865]
Section 1.
Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime
whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United
States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.
Section 2.
Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
Amendment XIV [1868]
Section 1.
All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction
thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No
State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or
immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person
of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person
within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.
Section 2.
Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their
respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State
excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the
choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States,
Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the
members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of
such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in
any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis
of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of
such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one
years of age in such State.
Section 3.
No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of
President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military under the United
States or under any State, who having previously taken an oath, as a member of
Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State
legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the
Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in Insurrection or rebellion
against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress
may by a vote of two thirds of each House, remove such disability.
Section 4.
The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including
debts Incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing
insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States
nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of
insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or
emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be
held illegal and void.
Section 5.
The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the
provisions of this article.
Amendment XV [1870]
Section 1.
The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged
by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous
condition of servitude.
Section 2.
The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
Amendment XVI [1913]
The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from
whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and
without regard to any census or enumeration.
Amendment XVII [1913]
1.The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each
State, elected by the people there of, for six years; and each Senator shall have
one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for
electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislatures.
2.When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the
executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such
vacancies: Provided, That the legislature of any State may empower the
executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the
vacancies by election as the legislature may direct.
3.This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any
Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution.
Amendment XVIII [1919]
Section 1.
After one year from the ratification of this article the manufacture, sale, or
transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the
exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the
jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited.
Section 2.
The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent power to enforce this
article by appropriate legislation.
Section 3.
This article shall be in operative unless it shall have been ratified as an
amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the several States, as
provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission
hereof to the States by the Congress.
Amendment XIX [1920]
1.The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged
by the United States or by any State on account of sex.
2.Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
Amendment XX [1933]
Section 1.
The terms of the President and Vice President shall end at noon on the 20th day
of January, and the terms of Senators and Representatives at noon on the 3rd day
of January, of the years in which such terms would have ended if this article had
not been ratified; and the terms of their successors shall then begin.
Section 2.
The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall
begin at noon on the 3rd day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a
different day.
Section 3.
If, at the time fixed for the beginning of the term of the President, the President
elect shall have died, the Vice President elect shall become President. If the
President shall not have been chosen before the time fixed for the beginning of
his term, or if the President elect shall have failed to qualify, then the
Vice-President elect shall act as President until a President shall have qualified;
and the Congress may by law provide for the case wherein neither a President
elect nor a Vice President elect shall have qualified, declaring who shall then act
as President, or the manner in which one who is to act shall be selected, and
such person shall act accordingly until a President or Vice President shall have
qualified.
Section 4.
The Congress may by law provide for the case of the death of any of the persons
from whom the House of Representatives may choose a President whenever the
right of choice shall have devolved upon them, and for the case of the death of
any of the persons from whom the Senate may choose a Vice President whenever
the right of choice shall have devolved upon them.
Section 5.
Sections 1 and 2 shall take effect on the 15th day of October following the
ratification of this article.
Section 6.
This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an
amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several
States within seven years from the date of its submission.
Amendment XXI [1933]
Section 1.
The eighteenth article of amendment to the Constitution of the United States is
hereby repealed.
Section 2.
The transportation or importation into any State, Territory, or possession of the
United States for delivery or use therein of intoxicating liquors, in violation of the
laws thereof, is hereby prohibited.
Section 3.
This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an
amendment to the Constitution by conventions in the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to
the States by the Congress.
Amendment XXII [1951]
Section 1.
No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice, and no
person who has held the office of President, or acted as President for more than
two years of a term to which some other person was elected President shall be
elected to the office of President more than once. But this Article shall not apply
to any person holding the office of President when this Article was proposed by
the Congress, and shall not prevent any person who may be holding the office of
President, or acting as President, during the term within which this Article
becomes operative from holding the office of President or acting as President
during the remainder of such term.
Section 2.
This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an
amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three fourths of the several
States within seven years from the date of its submission to the States by the
Congress.
Amendment XXIII [1961]
Section 1.
The District constituting the seat of Government of the United States shall appoint
in such manner as the Congress may direct: A number of electors of President
and Vice President equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives
in Congress to which the District would be entitled if it were a State, but in no
event more than the least populous state; they shall be in addition to those
appointed by the states, but they shall be considered, for the purposes of the
election of President and Vice-President, to be electors ap pointed by a state; and
they shall meet in the District and perform such duties as provided by the twelfth
article of amendment.
Section 2.
The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
Amendment XXIV [1964]
Section 1.
The right of citizens of the United States to vote in any primary or other election
for President or Vice President, for electors for President or Vice President, or for
Senator or Representative in Congress, shall not be denied or abridged by the
United States, or any State by reason of failure to pay any poll tax or other tax.
Section 2.
The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
Amendment XXV [1967]
Section 1.
In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation,
the Vice President shall become President.
Section 2.
Whenever there is a vacancy in the office of the Vice President, the President
shall nominate a Vice President who shall take office upon confirmation by a
majority vote of both Houses of Congress.
Section 3.
Whenever the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and
the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that he is
unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, and until he transmits to them a written declaration to the contrary, such powers and duties shall be
discharged by the Vice President as Acting President.
Section 4.
Whenever the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the
executive departments or of such other body as Congress may by law provide,
transmit to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House
of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to
discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall
immediately assume the powers and duties of the office as Acting President.
Thereafter, when the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the
Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration
that no inability exists, he shall resume the powers and duties of his office unless
the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive
department or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit
within four days to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of
the House of Representatives their written declaration and the President is unable
to discharge the powers and duties of his office. Thereupon Congress shall decide
the issue, assembling within forty-eight hours for that purpose if not in session. If
the Congress, within twenty-one days after receipt of the latter written
declaration, or, if Congress is not in session, within twenty-one days after
Congress is required to assemble, determines by two-thirds vote of both Houses
that the President is unable to discharge the power and duties of his office, the
Vice President shall continue to discharge the same as Acting President;
otherwise, the President shall resume the powers and duties of his office.
Amendment XXVI [1971]
Section 1.
The right of citizens of the United States, who are eighteen years of age or older
to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on
account of age.
Section 2.
The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
Amendment XXVII [1992]
No law, varying the compensation for the services of the Senators and
Representatives, shall take effect, until an election of Representatives shall have
intervened.
End of U.S. Constitution. Scroll down to view the next entry into the Laptop Friendly Disaster Survival Library.
U. S. Army Survival Manual FM 21-76 (Complete copy. From: http://155.217.58.58/cgi-bin/atdl.dll/fm/21-76/toc.htm )
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
This manual is based entirely on the keyword SURVIVAL. The letters in this word can help guide you in
your actions in any survival situation. Whenever faced with a survival situation, remember the word
SURVIVAL.
SURVIVAL ACTIONS
The following paragraphs expand on the meaning of each letter of the word survival. Study and remember what each letter
signifies because you may some day have to make it work for you.
S -Size Up the Situation
If you are in a combat situation, find a place where you can conceal yourself from the enemy. Remember, security takes
priority. Use your senses of hearing, smell, and sight to get a feel for the battlefield. What is the enemy doing? Advancing?
Holding in place? Retreating? You will have to consider what is developing on the battlefield when you make your survival plan.
Size Up Your Surroundings
Determine the pattern of the area. Get a feel for what is going on around you. Every environment, whether forest, jungle, or
desert, has a rhythm or pattern. This rhythm or pattern includes animal and bird noises and movements and insect sounds. It
may also include enemy traffic and civilian movements.
Size Up Your Physical Condition
The pressure of the battle you were in or the trauma of being in a survival situation may have caused you to overlook wounds
you received. Check your wounds and give yourself first aid. Take care to prevent further bodily harm. For instance, in any
climate, drink plenty of water to prevent dehydration. If you are in a cold or wet climate, put on additional clothing to prevent
hypothermia.
Size Up Your Equipment
Perhaps in the heat of battle, you lost or damaged some of your equipment. Check to see what equipment you have and what
condition it is in.
Now that you have sized up your situation, surroundings, physical condition, and equipment, you are ready to make your
survival plan. In doing so, keep in mind your basic physical needs--water, food, and shelter.
U -Use All Your Senses, Undue Haste Makes Waste
You may make a wrong move when you react quickly without thinking or planning. That move may result in your capture or
death. Don't move just for the sake of taking action. Consider all aspects of your situation (size up your situation) before you
make a decision and a move. If you act in haste, you may forget or lose some of your equipment. In your haste you may also
become disoriented so that you don't know which way to go. Plan your moves. Be ready to move out quickly without
endangering yourself if the enemy is near you. Use all your senses to evaluate the situation. Note sounds and smells. Be
sensitive to temperature changes. Be observant.
R -Remember Where You Are
Spot your location on your map and relate it to the surrounding terrain. This is a basic principle that you must always follow. If
there are other persons with you, make sure they also know their location. Always know who in your group, vehicle, or aircraft
has a map and compass. If that person is killed, you will have to get the map and compass from him. Pay close attention to
where you are and to where you are going. Do not rely on others in the group to keep track of the route. Constantly orient
yourself. Always try to determine, as a minimum, how your location relates to--
The location of enemy units and controlled areas.
The location of friendly units and controlled areas.
The location of local water sources (especially important in the desert).
Areas that will provide good cover and concealment.
This information will allow you to make intelligent decisions when you are in a survival and evasion situation.
V -Vanquish Fear and Panic
The greatest enemies in a combat survival and evasion situation are fear and panic. If uncontrolled, they can destroy your ability
to make an intelligent decision. They may cause you to react to your feelings and imagination rather than to your situation. They
can drain your energy and thereby cause other negative emotions. Previous survival and evasion training and self-confidence
will enable you to vanquish fear and panic.
I -Improvise
In the United States, we have items available for all our needs. Many of these items are cheap to replace when damaged. Our
easy come, easy go, easy-to-replace culture makes it unnecessary for us to improvise. This inexperience in improvisation can
be an enemy in a survival situation. Learn to improvise. Take a tool designed for a specific purpose and see how many other
uses you can make of it.
Learn to use natural objects around you for different needs. An example is using a rock for a hammer. No matter how
complete a survival kit you have with you, it will run out or wear out after a while. Your imagination must take over when your
kit wears out.
V -Value Living
All of us were born kicking and fighting to live, but we have become used to the soft life. We have become creatures of
comfort. We dislike inconveniences and discomforts. What happens when we are faced with a survival situation with its
stresses, inconveniences, and discomforts? This is when the will to live- placing a high value on living-is vital. The experience
and knowledge you have gained through life and your Army training will have a bearing on your will to live. Stubbornness, a
refusal to give in to problems and obstacles that face you, will give you the mental and physical strength to endure.
A -Act Like the Natives
The natives and animals of a region have adapted to their environment. To get a feel of the area, watch how the people go
about their daily routine. When and what do they eat? When, where, and how do they get their food? When and where do they
go for water? What time do they usually go to bed and get up? These actions are important to you when you are trying to avoid
capture.
Animal life in the area can also give you clues on how to survive. Animals also require food, water, and shelter. By watching
them, you can find sources of water and food.
WARNING
Animals cannot serve as an absolute guide to what you can eat and drink. Many animals eat plants that are toxic
to humans.
Keep in mind that the reaction of animals can reveal your presence to the enemy.
If in a friendly area, one way you can gain rapport with the natives is to show interest in their tools and how they get food and
water. By studying the people, you learn to respect them, you often make valuable friends, and, most important, you learn how
to adapt to their environment and increase your chances of survival.
L -Live by Your Wits, But for Now, Learn Basic Skills
Without training in basic skills for surviving and evading on the battlefield, your chances of living through a combat survival and
evasion situation are slight.
Learn these basic skills now--not when you are headed for or are in the battle. How you decide to equip yourself before
deployment will impact on whether or not you survive. You need to know about the environment to which you are going, and
you must practice basic skills geared to that environment. For instance, if you are going to a desert, you need to know how to
get water in the desert.
Practice basic survival skills during all training programs and exercises. Survival training reduces fear of the unknown and gives
you self-confidence. It teaches you to live by your wits.
PATTERN FOR SURVIVAL
Develop a survival pattern that lets you beat the enemies of survival. This survival pattern must include food, water, shelter, fire,
first aid, and signals placed in order of importance. For example, in a cold environment, you would need a fire to get warm; a
shelter to protect you from the cold, wind, and rain or snow; traps or snares to get food; a means to signal friendly aircraft;
and first aid to maintain health. If injured, first aid has top priority no matter what climate you are in.
Change your survival pattern to meet your immediate physical needs as the environment changes.
As you read the rest of this manual, keep in mind the keyword SURVIVAL and the need for a survival pattern.
PSYCHOLOGY OF SURVIVAL
It takes much more than the knowledge and skills to build shelters, get food, make fires, and travel
without the aid of standard navigational devices to live successfully through a survival situation. Some
people with little or no survival training have managed to survive life-threatening circumstances. Some
people with survival training have not used their skills and died. A key ingredient in any survival situation
is the mental attitude of the individual(s) involved. Having survival skills is important; having the will to
survive is essential. Without a desk to survive, acquired skills serve little purpose and invaluable
knowledge goes to waste.
There is a psychology to survival. The soldier in a survival environment faces many stresses that
ultimately impact on his mind. These stresses can produce thoughts and emotions that, if poorly
understood, can transform a confident, well-trained soldier into an indecisive, ineffective individual with
questionable ability to survive. Thus, every soldier must be aware of and be able to recognize those
stresses commonly associated with survival. Additionally, it is imperative that soldiers be aware of their
reactions to the wide variety of stresses associated with survival. This chapter will identify and explain the
nature of stress, the stresses of survival, and those internal reactions soldiers will naturally experience
when faced with the stresses of a real-world survival situation. The knowledge you, the soldier, gain from
this chapter and other chapters in this manual, will prepare you to come through the toughest times alive.
A LOOK AT STRESS
Before we can understand our psychological reactions in a survival setting, it is helpful to first know a little bit about stress.
Stress is not a disease that you cure and eliminate. Instead, it is a condition we all experience. Stress can be described as our
reaction to pressure. It is the name given to the experience we have as we physically, mentally, emotionally, and spiritually
respond to life's tensions.
Need for Stress
We need stress because it has many positive benefits. Stress provides us with challenges; it gives us chances to learn about our
values and strengths. Stress can show our ability to handle pressure without breaking; it tests our adaptability and flexibility; it
can stimulate us to do our best. Because we usually do not consider unimportant events stressful, stress can also be an excellent
indicator of the significance we attach to an event--in other words, it highlights what is important to us.
We need to have some stress in our lives, but too much of anything can be bad. The goal is to have stress, but not an excess of
it. Too much stress can take its toll on people and organizations. Too much stress leads to distress. Distress causes an
uncomfortable tension that we try to escape and, preferably, avoid. Listed below are a few of the common signs of distress you
may find in your fellow soldiers or yourself when faced with too much stress:
Difficulty making decisions.
Angry outbursts.
Forgetfulness.
Low energy level.
Constant worrying.
Propensity for mistakes.
Thoughts about death or suicide.
Trouble getting along with others.
Withdrawing from others.
Hiding from responsibilities.
Carelessness.
As you can see, stress can be constructive or destructive. It can encourage or discourage, move us along or stop us dead in our
tracks, and make life meaningful or seemingly meaningless. Stress can inspire you to operate successfully and perform at your
maximum efficiency in a survival situation. It can also cause you to panic and forget all your training. Key to your survival is your
ability to manage the inevitable stresses you will encounter. The survivor is the soldier who works with his stresses instead of
letting his stresses work on him.
Survival Stressors
Any event can lead to stress and, as everyone has experienced, events don't always come one at a time. Often, stressful events
occur simultaneously. These events are not stress, but they produce it and are called "stressors." Stressors are the obvious
cause while stress is the response. Once the body recognizes the presence of a stressor, it then begins to act to protect itself.
In response to a stressor, the body prepares either to "fight or flee." This preparation involves an internal SOS sent throughout
the body. As the body responds to this SOS, several actions take place. The body releases stored fuels (sugar and fats) to
provide quick energy; breathing rate increases to supply more oxygen to the blood; muscle tension increases to prepare for
action; blood clotting mechanisms are activated to reduce bleeding from cuts; senses become more acute (hearing becomes
more sensitive, eyes become big, smell becomes sharper) so that you are more aware of your surrounding and heart rate and
blood pressure rise to provide more blood to the muscles. This protective posture lets a person cope with potential dangers;
however, a person cannot maintain such a level of alertness indefinitely.
Stressors are not courteous; one stressor does not leave because another one arrives. Stressors add up. The cumulative effect
of minor stressors can be a major distress if they all happen too close together. As the body's resistance to stress wears down
and the sources of stress continue (or increase), eventually a state of exhaustion arrives. At this point, the ability to resist stress
or use it in a positive way gives out and signs of distress appear. Anticipating stressors and developing strategies to cope with
them are two ingredients in the effective management of stress. It is therefore essential that the soldier in a survival setting be
aware of the types of stressors he will encounter. Let's take a look at a few of these.
Injury, Illness, or Death
Injury, illness, and death are real possibilities a survivor has to face. Perhaps nothing is more stressful than being alone in an
unfamiliar environment where you could die from hostile action, an accident, or from eating something lethal. Illness and injury
can also add to stress by limiting your ability to maneuver, get food and drink, find shelter, and defend yourself. Even if illness
and injury don't lead to death, they add to stress through the pain and discomfort they generate. It is only by con-trolling the
stress associated with the vulnerability to injury, illness, and death that a soldier can have the courage to take the risks
associated with survival tasks.
Uncertainly and Lack of Control
Some people have trouble operating in settings where everything is not clear-cut. The only guarantee in a survival situation is
that nothing is guaranteed. It can be extremely stressful operating on limited information in a setting where you have limited
control of your surroundings. This uncertainty and lack of control also add to the stress of being ill, injured, or killed.
Environment
Even under the most ideal circumstances, nature is quite formidable. In survival, a soldier will have to contend with the stressors
of weather, terrain, and the variety of creatures inhabiting an area. Heat, cold, rain, winds, mountains, swamps, deserts, insects,
dangerous reptiles, and other animals are just a few of the challenges awaiting the soldier working to survive. Depending on
how a soldier handles the stress of his environment, his surroundings can be either a source of food and protection or can be a
cause of extreme discomfort leading to injury, illness, or death.
Hunger and Thirst
Without food and water a person will weaken and eventually die. Thus, getting and preserving food and water takes on
increasing importance as the length of time in a survival setting increases. For a soldier used to having his provisions issued,
foraging can be a big source of stress.
Fatigue
Forcing yourself to continue surviving is not easy as you grow more tired. It is possible to become so fatigued that the act of
just staying awake is stressful in itself.
Isolation
There are some advantages to facing adversity with others. As soldiers we learn individual skills, but we train to function as part
of a team. Although we, as soldiers, complain about higher headquarters, we become used to the information and guidance it
provides, especially during times of confusion. Being in contact with others also provides a greater sense of security and a
feeling someone is available to help if problems occur. A significant stressor in survival situations is that often a person or team
has to rely solely on its own resources.
The survival stressors mentioned in this section are by no means the only ones you may face. Remember, what is stressful to
one person may not be stressful to another. Your experiences, training, personal outlook on life, physical and mental
conditioning, and level of self-confidence contribute to what you will find stressful in a survival environment. The object is not to
avoid stress, but rather to manage the stressors of survival and make them work for you.
We now have a general knowledge of stress and the stressors common to survival; the next step is to examine our reactions to
the stressors we may face.
NATURAL REACTIONS
Man has been able to survive many shifts in his environment throughout the centuries. His ability to adapt physically and
mentally to a changing world kept him alive while other species around him gradually died off. The same survival mechanisms
that kept our forefathers alive can help keep us alive as well! However, these survival mechanisms that can help us can also
work against us if we don't understand and anticipate their presence.
It is not surprising that the average person will have some psychological reactions in a survival situation. We will now examine
some of the major internal reactions you and anyone with you might experience with the survival stressors addressed in the
earlier paragraphs. Let's begin.
Fear
Fear is our emotional response to dangerous circumstances that we believe have the potential to cause death, injury, or illness.
This harm is not just limited to physical damage; the threat to one's emotional and mental well-being can generate fear as well.
For the soldier trying to survive, fear can have a positive function if it encourages him to be cautious in situations where
recklessness could result in injury. Unfortunately, fear can also immobilize a person. It can cause him to become so frightened
that he fails to perform activities essential for survival. Most soldiers will have some degree of fear when placed in unfamiliar
surroundings under adverse conditions. There is no shame in this! Each soldier must train himself not to be overcome by his
fears. Ideally, through realistic training, we can acquire the knowledge and skills needed to increase our confidence and thereby
manage our fears.
Anxiety
Associated with fear is anxiety. Because it is natural for us to be afraid, it is also natural for us to experience anxiety. Anxiety
can be an uneasy, apprehensive feeling we get when faced with dangerous situations (physical, mental, and emotional). When
used in a healthy way, anxiety urges us to act to end, or at least master, the dangers that threaten our existence. If we were
never anxious, there would be little motivation to make changes in our lives. The soldier in a survival setting reduces his anxiety
by performing those tasks that will ensure his coming through the ordeal alive. As he reduces his anxiety, the soldier is also
bringing under control the source of that anxiety--his fears. In this form, anxiety is good; however, anxiety can also have a
devastating impact. Anxiety can overwhelm a soldier to the point where he becomes easily confused and has difficulty thinking.
Once this happens, it becomes more and more difficult for him to make good judgments and sound decisions. To survive, the
soldier must learn techniques to calm his anxieties and keep them in the range where they help, not hurt.
Anger and Frustration
Frustration arises when a person is continually thwarted in his attempts to reach a goal. The goal of survival is to stay alive until
you can reach help or until help can reach you. To achieve this goal, the soldier must complete some tasks with minimal
resources. It is inevitable, in trying to do these tasks, that something will go wrong; that something will happen beyond the
soldier's control; and that with one's life at stake, every mistake is magnified in terms of its importance. Thus, sooner or later,
soldiers will have to cope with frustration when a few of their plans run into trouble. One outgrowth of this frustration is anger.
There are many events in a survival situation that can frustrate or anger a soldier. Getting lost, damaged or forgotten equipment,
the weather, inhospitable terrain, enemy patrols, and physical limitations are just a few sources of frustration and anger.
Frustration and anger encourage impulsive reactions, irrational behavior, poorly thought-out decisions, and, in some instances,
an "I quit" attitude (people sometimes avoid doing something they can't master). If the soldier can harness and properly channel
the emotional intensity associated with anger and frustration, he can productively act as he answers the challenges of survival. If
the soldier does not properly focus his angry feelings, he can waste much energy in activities that do little to further either his
chances of survival or the chances of those around him.
Depression
It would be a rare person indeed who would not get sad, at least momentarily, when faced with the privations of survival. As
this sadness deepens, we label the feeling "depression." Depression is closely linked with frustration and anger. The frustrated
person becomes more and more angry as he fails to reach his goals. If the anger does not help the person to succeed, then the
frustration level goes even higher. A destructive cycle between anger and frustration continues until the person becomes worn
down-physically, emotionally, and mentally. When a person reaches this point, he starts to give up, and his focus shifts from
"What can I do" to "There is nothing I can do." Depression is an expression of this hopeless, helpless feeling. There is nothing
wrong with being sad as you temporarily think about your loved ones and remember what life is like back in "civilization" or "the
world." Such thoughts, in fact, can give you the desire to try harder and live one more day. On the other hand, if you allow
yourself to sink into a depressed state, then it can sap all your energy and, more important, your will to survive. It is imperative
that each soldier resist succumbing to depression.
Loneliness and Boredom
Man is a social animal. This means we, as human beings, enjoy the company of others. Very few people want to be alone all
the time! As you are aware, there is a distinct chance of isolation in a survival setting. This is not bad. Loneliness and boredom
can bring to the surface qualities you thought only others had. The extent of your imagination and creativity may surprise you.
When required to do so, you may discover some hidden talents and abilities. Most of all, you may tap into a reservoir of inner
strength and fortitude you never knew you had. Conversely, loneliness and boredom can be another source of depression. As a
soldier surviving alone, or with others, you must find ways to keep your mind productively occupied. Additionally, you must
develop a degree of self-sufficiency. You must have faith in your capability to "go it alone."
Guilt
The circumstances leading to your being in a survival setting are sometimes dramatic and tragic. It may be the result of an
accident or military mission where there was a loss of life. Perhaps you were the only, or one of a few, survivors. While
naturally relieved to be alive, you simultaneously may be mourning the deaths of others who were less fortunate. It is not
uncommon for survivors to feel guilty about being spared from death while others were not. This feeling, when used in a positive
way, has encouraged people to try harder to survive with the belief they were allowed to live for some greater purpose in life.
Sometimes, survivors tried to stay alive so that they could carry on the work of those killed. Whatever reason you give yourself,
do not let guilt feelings prevent you from living. The living who abandon their chance to survive accomplish nothing. Such an act
would be the greatest tragedy.
PREPARING YOURSELF
Your mission as a soldier in a survival situation is to stay alive. As you can see, you are going to experience an assortment of
thoughts and emotions. These can work for you, or they can work to your downfall. Fear, anxiety, anger, frustration, guilt,
depression, and loneliness are all possible reactions to the many stresses common to survival. These reactions, when controlled
in a healthy way, help to increase a soldier's likelihood of surviving. They prompt the soldier to pay more attention in training, to
fight back when scared, to take actions that ensure sustenance and security, to keep faith with his fellow soldiers, and to strive
against large odds. When the survivor cannot control these reactions in a healthy way, they can bring him to a standstill. Instead
of rallying his internal resources, the soldier listens to his internal fears. This soldier experiences psychological defeat long before
he physically succumbs. Remember, survival is natural to everyone; being unexpectedly thrust into the life and death struggle of
survival is not. Don't be afraid of your "natural reactions to this unnatural situation." Prepare yourself to rule over these reactions
so they serve your ultimate interest--staying alive with the honor and dignity associated with being an American soldier.
It involves preparation to ensure that your reactions in a survival setting are productive, not destructive. The challenge of
survival has produced countless examples of heroism, courage, and self-sacrifice. These are the qualities it can bring out in you
if you have prepared yourself. Below are a few tips to help prepare yourself psychologically for survival. Through studying this
manual and attending survival training you can develop the survival attitude.
Know Yourself
Through training, family, and friends take the time to discover who you are on the inside. Strengthen your stronger qualities and
develop the areas that you know are necessary to survive.
Anticipate Fears
Don't pretend that you will have no fears. Begin thinking about what would frighten you the most if forced to survive alone.
Train in those areas of concern to you. The goal is not to eliminate the fear, but to build confidence in your ability to function
despite your fears.
Be Realistic
Don't be afraid to make an honest appraisal of situations. See circumstances as they are, not as you want them to be. Keep
your hopes and expectations within the estimate of the situation. When you go into a survival setting with unrealistic
expectations, you may be laying the groundwork for bitter disappointment. Follow the adage, "Hope for the best, prepare for
the worst." It is much easier to adjust to pleasant surprises about one's unexpected good fortunes than to be upset by one's
unexpected harsh circumstances.
Adopt a Positive Attitude
Learn to see the potential good in everything. Looking for the good not only boosts morale, it also is excellent for exercising
your imagination and creativity.
Remind Yourself What Is at Stake
Remember, failure to prepare yourself psychologically to cope with survival leads to reactions such as depression, carelessness,
inattention, loss of confidence, poor decision-making, and giving up before the body gives in. At stake is your life and the lives
of others who are depending on you to do your share.
Train
Through military training and life experiences, begin today to prepare yourself to cope with the rigors of survival. Demonstrating
your skills in training will give you the confidence to call upon them should the need arise. Remember, the more realistic the
training, the less overwhelming an actual survival setting will be.
Learn Stress Management Techniques
People under stress have a potential to panic if they are not well-trained and not prepared psychologically to face whatever the
circumstances may be. While we often cannot control the survival circumstances in which we find ourselves, it is within our
ability to control our response to those circumstances. Learning stress management techniques can enhance significantly your
capability to remain calm and focused as you work to keep yourself and others alive. A few good techniques to develop
include relaxation skills, time management skills, assertiveness skills, and cognitive restructuring skills (the ability to control how
you view a situation).
Remember, "the will to survive" can also be considered to be "the refusal to give up."
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CHAPTER 3
SURVIVAL PLANNING AND SURVIVAL KITS
Survival planning is nothing more than realizing something could happen that would put you in a survival
situation and, with that in mind, taking steps to increase your chances of survival. Thus, survival planning
means preparation.
Preparation means having survival items and knowing how to use them People who live in snow regions
prepare their vehicles for poor road conditions. They put snow tires on their vehicles, add extra weight in
the back for traction, and they carry a shovel, salt, and a blanket. Another example of preparation is
finding the emergency exits on an aircraft when you board it for a flight. Preparation could also mean
knowing your intended route of travel and familiarizing yourself with the area. Finally, emergency
planning is essential.
IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING
Detailed prior planning is essential in potential survival situations. Including survival considerations in mission planning will
enhance your chances of survival if an emergency occurs. For example, if your job re-quires that you work in a small, enclosed
area that limits what you can carry on your person, plan where you can put your rucksack or your load-bearing equipment. Put
it where it will not prevent you from getting out of the area quickly, yet where it is readily accessible.
One important aspect of prior planning is preventive medicine. Ensuring that you have no dental problems and that your
immunizations are current will help you avoid potential dental or health problems. A dental problem in a survival situation will
reduce your ability to cope with other problems that you face. Failure to keep your shots current may mean your body is not
immune to diseases that are prevalent in the area.
Preparing and carrying a survival kit is as important as the considerations mentioned above. All Army aircraft normally have
survival kits on board for the type area(s) over which they will fly. There are kits for over-water survival, for hot climate
survival, and an aviator survival vest (see Appendix A for a description of these survival kits and their contents). If you are not
an aviator, you will probably not have access to the survival vests or survival kits. However, if you know what these kits
contain, it will help you to plan and to prepare your own survival kit.
Even the smallest survival kit, if properly prepared, is invaluable when faced with a survival problem. Before making your
survival kit, however, consider your unit's mission, the operational environment, and the equipment and vehicles assigned to
your unit.
SURVIVAL KITS
The environment is the key to the types of items you will need in your survival kit. How much equipment you put in your kit
depends on how you will carry the kit. A kit carried on your body will have to be smaller than one carried in a vehicle. Always
layer your survival kit, keeping the most important items on your body. For example, your map and compass should always be
on your body. Carry less important items on your load-bearing equipment. Place bulky items in the rucksack.
In preparing your survival kit, select items you can use for more than one purpose. If you have two items that will serve the
same function, pick the one you can use for another function. Do not duplicate items, as this increases your kit's size and
weight.
Your survival kit need not be elaborate. You need only functional items that will meet your needs and a case to hold the items.
For the case, you might want to use a Band-Aid box, a first aid case, an ammunition pouch, or another suitable case. This case
should be--
Water repellent or waterproof.
Easy to carry or attach to your body.
Suitable to accept varisized components.
Durable.
In your survival kit, you should have--
First aid items.
Water purification tablets or drops.
Fire starting equipment.
Signaling items.
Food procurement items.
Shelter items.
Some examples of these items are--
Lighter, metal match, waterproof matches.
Snare wire.
Signaling mirror.
Wrist compass.
Fish and snare line.
Fishhooks.
Candle.
Small hand lens.
Oxytetracycline tablets (diarrhea or infection).
Water purification tablets.
Solar blanket.
Surgical blades.
Butterfly sutures.
Condoms for water storage.
Chap Stick.
Needle and thread.
Knife.
Include a weapon only if the situation so dictates. Read about and practice the survival techniques in this manual. Consider your
unit's mission and the environment in which your unit will operate. Then prepare your survival kit.
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CHAPTER 4
BASIC SURVIVAL MEDICINE
Foremost among the many problems that can compromise a survivor's ability to return to safety are
medical problems resulting from parachute descent and landing, extreme climates, ground combat,
evasion, and illnesses contracted in captivity.
Many evaders and survivors have reported difficulty in treating injuries and illness due to the lack of
training and medical supplies. For some, this led to capture or surrender.
Survivors have related feeling of apathy and helplessness because they could not treat themselves in this
environment. The ability to treat themselves increased their morale and cohesion and aided in their
survival and eventual return to friendly forces.
One man with a fair amount of basic medical knowledge can make a difference in the lives of many.
Without qualified medical personnel available, it is you who must know what to do to stay alive.
REQUIREMENTS FOR MAINTENANCE OF HEALTH
To survive, you need water and food. You must also have and apply high personal hygiene standards.
Water
Your body loses water through normal body processes (sweating, urinating, and defecating). During average daily exertion
when the atmospheric temperature is 20 degrees Celsius (C) (68 degrees Fahrenheit), the average adult loses and therefore
requires 2 to 3 liters of water daily. Other factors, such as heat exposure, cold exposure, intense activity, high altitude, burns, or
illness, can cause your body to lose more water. You must replace this water.
Dehydration results from inadequate replacement of lost body fluids. It decreases your efficiency and, if injured, increases your
susceptibility to severe shock. Consider the following results of body fluid loss:
A 5 percent loss of body fluids results in thirst, irritability, nausea, and weakness.
A 10 percent loss results in dizziness, headache, inability to walk, and a tingling sensation in the limbs.
A 15 percent loss results in dim vision, painful urination, swollen tongue, deafness, and a numb feeling in the skin.
A loss greater than 15 percent of body fluids may result in death.
The most common signs and symptoms of dehydration are--
Dark urine with a very strong odor.
Low urine output.
Dark, sunken eyes.
Fatigue.
Emotional instability.
Loss of skin elasticity.
Delayed capillary refill in fingernail beds.
Trench line down center of tongue.
Thirst. Last on the list because you are already 2 percent dehydrated by the time you crave fluids.
You replace the water as you lose it. Trying to make up a deficit is difficult in a survival situation, and thirst is not a sign of how
much water you need.
Most people cannot comfortably drink more than 1 liter of water at a time. So, even when not thirsty, drink small amounts of
water at regular intervals each hour to prevent dehydration.
If you are under physical and mental stress or subject to severe conditions, increase your water intake. Drink enough liquids to
maintain a urine output of at least 0.5 liter every 24 hours.
In any situation where food intake is low, drink 6 to 8 liters of water per day. In an extreme climate, especially an arid one, the
average person can lose 2.5 to 3.5 liters of water per hour. In this type of climate, you should drink 14 to 30 liters of water per
day.
With the loss of water there is also a loss of electrolytes (body salts). The average diet can usually keep up with these losses
but in an extreme situation or illness, additional sources need to be provided. A mixture of 0.25 teaspoon of salt to 1 liter of
water will provide a concentration that the body tissues can readily absorb.
Of all the physical problems encountered in a survival situation, the loss of water is the most preventable. The following are
basic guidelines for the prevention of dehydration:
Always drink water when eating. Water is used and consumed as a part of the digestion process and can lead to
dehydration.
Acclimatize. The body performs more efficiently in extreme conditions when acclimatized.
Conserve sweat not water. Limit sweat-producing activities but drink water.
Ration water. Until you find a suitable source, ration your water sensibly. A daily intake of 500 cubic centimeter (0.5
liter) of a sugar-water mixture (2 teaspoons per liter) will suffice to prevent severe dehydration for at least a week,
provided you keep water losses to a minimum by limiting activity and heat gain or loss.
You can estimate fluid loss by several means. A standard field dressing holds about 0.25 liter (one-fourth canteen) of blood. A
soaked T-shirt holds 0.5 to 0.75 liter.
You can also use the pulse and breathing rate to estimate fluid loss. Use the following as a guide:
With a 0.75 liter loss the wrist pulse rate will be under 100 beats per minute and the breathing rate 12 to 20 breaths per
minute.
With a 0.75 to 1.5 liter loss the pulse rate will be 100 to 120 beats per minute and 20 to 30 breaths per minute.
With a 1.5 to 2 liter loss the pulse rate will be 120 to 140 beats per minute and 30 to 40 breaths per minute. Vital signs
above these rates require more advanced care.
Food
Although you can live several weeks without food, you need an adequate amount to stay healthy. Without food your mental and
physical capabilities will deteriorate rapidly, and you will become weak. Food replenishes the substances that your body burns
and provides energy. It provides vitamins, minerals, salts, and other elements essential to good health. Possibly more important,
it helps morale.
The two basic sources of food are plants and animals (including fish). In varying degrees both provide the calories,
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins needed for normal daily body functions.
Calories are a measure of heat and potential energy. The average person needs 2,000 calories per day to function at a minimum
level. An adequate amount of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins without an adequate caloric intake will lead to starvation and
cannibalism of the body's own tissue for energy.
Plant Foods
These foods provide carbohydrates--the main source of energy. Many plants provide enough protein to keep the body at
normal efficiency. Although plants may not provide a balanced diet, they will sustain you even in the arctic, where meat's
heat-producing qualities are normally essential. Many plant foods such as nuts and seeds will give you enough protein and oils
for normal efficiency. Roots, green vegetables, and plant food containing natural sugar will provide calories and carbohydrates
that give the body natural energy.
The food value of plants becomes more and more important if you are eluding the enemy or if you are in an area where wildlife
is scarce. For instance--
You can dry plants by wind, air, sun, or fire. This retards spoilage so that you can store or carry the plant food with you
to use when needed.
You can obtain plants more easily and more quietly than meat. This is extremely important when the enemy is near.
Animal Foods
Meat is more nourishing than plant food. In fact, it may even be more readily available in some places. However, to get meat,
you need to know the habits of, and how to capture, the various wildlife.
To satisfy your immediate food needs, first seek the more abundant and more easily obtained wildlife, such as insects,
crustaceans, mollusks, fish, and reptiles. These can satisfy your immediate hunger while you are preparing traps and snares for
larger game.
Personal Hygiene
In any situation, cleanliness is an important factor in preventing infection and disease. It becomes even more important in a
survival situation. Poor hygiene can reduce your chances of survival.
A daily shower with hot water and soap is ideal, but you can stay clean without this luxury. Use a cloth and soapy water to
wash yourself. Pay special attention to the feet, armpits, crotch, hands, and hair as these are prime areas for infestation and
infection. If water is scarce, take an "air" bath. Remove as much of your clothing as practical and expose your body to the sun
and air for at least 1 hour. Be careful not to sunburn.
If you don't have soap, use ashes or sand, or make soap from animal fat and wood ashes, if your situation allows. To make
soap--
Extract grease from animal fat by cutting the fat into small pieces and cooking them in a pot.
Add enough water to the pot to keep the fat from sticking as it cooks.
Cook the fat slowly, stirring frequently.
After the fat is rendered, pour the grease into a container to harden.
Place ashes in a container with a spout near the bottom.
Pour water over the ashes and collect the liquid that drips out of the spout in a separate container. This liquid is the
potash or lye. Another way to get the lye is to pour the slurry (the mixture of ashes and water) through a straining cloth.
In a cooking pot, mix two parts grease to one part potash.
Place this mixture over a fire and boil it until it thickens.
After the mixture--the soap--cools, you can use it in the semiliquid state directly from the pot. You can also pour it into a pan,
allow it to harden, and cut it into bars for later use.
Keep Your Hands Clean
Germs on your hands can infect food and wounds. Wash your hands after handling any material that is likely to carry germs,
after visiting the latrine, after caring for the sick, and before handling any food, food utensils, or drinking water. Keep your
fingernails closely trimmed and clean, and keep your fingers out of your mouth.
Keep Your Hair Clean
Your hair can become a haven for bacteria or fleas, lice, and other parasites. Keeping your hair clean, combed, and trimmed
helps you avoid this danger.
Keep Your Clothing Clean
Keep your clothing and bedding as clean as possible to reduce the chance of skin infection as well as to decrease the danger of
parasitic infestation. Clean your outer clothing whenever it becomes soiled. Wear clean underclothing and socks each day. If
water is scarce, "air" clean your clothing by shaking, airing, and sunning it for 2 hours. If you are using a sleeping bag, turn it
inside out after each use, fluff it, and air it.
Keep Your Teeth Clean
Thoroughly clean your mouth and teeth with a toothbrush at least once each day. If you don't have a toothbrush, make a
chewing stick. Find a twig about 20 centimeters long and 1 centimeter wide. Chew one end of the stick to separate the fibers.
Now brush your teeth thoroughly. Another way is to wrap a clean strip of cloth around your fingers and rub your teeth with it to
wipe away food particles. You can also brush your teeth with small amounts of sand, baking soda, salt, or soap. Then rinse
your mouth with water, salt water, or willow bark tea. Also, flossing your teeth with string or fiber helps oral hygiene.
If you have cavities, you can make temporary fillings by placing candle wax, tobacco, aspirin, hot pepper, tooth paste or
powder, or portions of a ginger root into the cavity. Make sure you clean the cavity by rinsing or picking the particles out of the
cavity before placing a filling in the cavity.
Take Care of Your Feet
To prevent serious foot problems, break in your shoes before wearing them on any mission. Wash and massage your feet daily.
Trim your toenails straight across. Wear an insole and the proper size of dry socks. Powder and check your feet daily for
blisters.
If you get a small blister, do not open it. An intact blister is safe from infection. Apply a padding material around the blister to
relieve pressure and reduce friction. If the blister bursts, treat it as an open wound. Clean and dress it daily and pad around it.
Leave large blisters intact. To avoid having the blister burst or tear under pressure and cause a painful and open sore, do the
following:
Obtain a sewing-type needle and a clean or sterilized thread.
Run the needle and thread through the blister after cleaning the blister.
Detach the needle and leave both ends of the thread hanging out of the blister. The thread will absorb the liquid inside.
This reduces the size of the hole and ensures that the hole does not close up.
Pad around the blister.
Get Sufficient Rest
You need a certain amount of rest to keep going. Plan for regular rest periods of at least 10 minutes per hour during your daily
activities. Learn to make yourself comfortable under less than ideal conditions. A change from mental to physical activity or vice
versa can be refreshing when time or situation does not permit total relaxation.
Keep Camp Site Clean
Do not soil the ground in the camp site area with urine or feces. Use latrines, if available. When latrines are not available, dig
"cat holes" and cover the waste. Collect drinking water upstream from the camp site. Purify all water.
MEDICAL EMERGENCIES
Medical problems and emergencies you may be faced with include breathing problems, severe bleeding, and shock.
Breathing Problems
Any one of the following can cause airway obstruction, resulting in stopped breathing:
Foreign matter in mouth of throat that obstructs the opening to the trachea.
Face or neck injuries.
Inflammation and swelling of mouth and throat caused by inhaling smoke, flames, and irritating vapors or by an allergic
reaction.
"Kink" in the throat (caused by the neck bent forward so that the chin rests upon the chest) may block the passage of air.
Tongue blocks passage of air to the lungs upon unconsciousness. When an individual is unconscious, the muscles of the
lower jaw and tongue relax as the neck drops forward, causing the lower jaw to sag and the tongue to drop back and
block the passage of air.
Severe Bleeding
Severe bleeding from any major blood vessel in the body is extremely dangerous. The loss of 1 liter of blood will produce
moderate symptoms of shock. The loss of 2 liters will produce a severe state of shock that places the body in extreme danger.
The loss of 3 liters is usually fatal.
Shock
Shock (acute stress reaction) is not a disease in itself. It is a clinical condition characterized by symptoms that arise when
cardiac output is insufficient to fill the arteries with blood under enough pressure to provide an adequate blood supply to the
organs and tissues.
LIFESAVING STEPS
Control panic, both your own and the victim's. Reassure him and try to keep him quiet.
Perform a rapid physical exam. Look for the cause of the injury and follow the ABCs of first aid, starting with the airway and
breathing, but be discerning. A person may die from arterial bleeding more quickly than from an airway obstruction in some
cases.
Open Airway and Maintain
You can open an airway and maintain it by using the following steps.
Step 1. Check if the victim has a partial or complete airway obstruction. If he can cough or speak, allow him to clear the
obstruction naturally. Stand by, reassure the victim, and be ready to clear his airway and perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation
should he become unconscious. If his airway is completely obstructed, administer abdominal thrusts until the obstruction is
cleared.
Step 2. Using a finger, quickly sweep the victim's mouth clear of any foreign objects, broken teeth, dentures, sand.
Step 3. Using the jaw thrust method, grasp the angles of the victim's lower jaw and lift with both hands, one on each side,
moving the jaw forward. For stability, rest your elbows on the surface on which the victim is lying. If his lips are closed, gently
open the lower lip with your thumb (Figure 4-1).
Step 4. With the victim's airway open, pinch his nose closed with your thumb and forefinger and blow two complete breaths
into his lungs. Allow the lungs to deflate after the second inflation and perform the following:
Look for his chest to rise and fall.
Listen for escaping air during exhalation.
Feel for flow of air on your cheek.
Step 5. If the forced breaths do not stimulate spontaneous breathing, maintain the victim's breathing by performing
mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.
Step 6. There is danger of the victim vomiting during mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Check the victim's mouth periodically for
vomit and clear as needed.
Note: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) may be necessary after cleaning the airway, but only after
major bleeding is under control. See FM 21-20, the American Heart Association manual, the Red Cross
manual, or most other first aid books for detailed instructions on CPR.
Control Bleeding
In a survival situation, you must control serious bleeding immediately because replacement fluids normally are not available and
the victim can die within a matter of minutes. External bleeding falls into the following classifications (according to its source):
Arterial. Blood vessels called arteries carry blood away from the heart and through the body. A cut artery issues bright
red blood from the wound in distinct spurts or pulses that correspond to the rhythm of the heartbeat. Because the
blood in the arteries is under high pressure, an individual can lose a large volume of blood in a short period when damage
to an artery of significant size occurs. Therefore, arterial bleeding is the most serious type of bleeding. If not controlled
promptly, it can be fatal.
Venous. Venous blood is blood that is returning to the heart through blood vessels called veins. A steady flow of dark
red, maroon, or bluish blood characterizes bleeding from a vein. You can usually control venous bleeding more easily
than arterial bleeding.
Capillary. The capillaries are the extremely small vessels that connect the arteries with the veins. Capillary bleeding most
commonly occurs in minor cuts and scrapes. This type of bleeding is not difficult to control.
You can control external bleeding by direct pressure, indirect (pressure points) pressure, elevation, digital ligation, or
tourniquet.
Direct Pressure
The most effective way to control external bleeding is by applying pressure directly over the wound. This pressure must not
only be firm enough to stop the bleeding, but it must also be maintained long enough to "seal off" the damaged surface.
If bleeding continues after having applied direct pressure for 30 minutes, apply a pressure dressing. This dressing consists of a
thick dressing of gauze or other suitable material applied directly over the wound and held in place with a tightly wrapped
bandage (Figure 4-2). It should be tighter than an ordinary compression bandage but not so tight that it impairs circulation to
the rest of the limb. Once you apply the dressing, do not remove it, even when the dressing becomes blood soaked.
Leave the pressure dressing in place for 1 or 2 days, after which you can remove and replace it with a smaller dressing.
In the long-term survival environment, make fresh, daily dressing changes and inspect for signs of infection.
Elevation
Raising an injured extremity as high as possible above the heart's level slows blood loss by aiding the return of blood to the
heart and lowering the blood pressure at the wound. However, elevation alone will not control bleeding entirely; you must also
apply direct pressure over the wound. When treating a snakebite, however, keep the extremity lower than the heart.
Pressure Points
A pressure point is a location where the main artery to the wound lies near the surface of the skin or where the artery passes
directly over a bony prominence (Figure 4-3). You can use digital pressure on a pressure point to slow arterial bleeding until
the application of a pressure dressing. Pressure point control is not as effective for controlling bleeding as direct pressure
exerted on the wound. It is rare when a single major compressible artery supplies a damaged vessel.
If you cannot remember the exact location of the pressure points, follow this rule: Apply pressure at the end of the joint just
above the injured area. On hands, feet, and head, this will be the wrist, ankle, and neck, respectively.
WARNING
Use caution when applying pressure to the neck. Too much pressure for too long may cause unconsciousness or
death. Never place a tourniquet around the neck.
Maintain pressure points by placing a round stick in the joint, bending the joint over the stick, and then keeping it tightly bent by
lashing. By using this method to maintain pressure, it frees your hands to work in other areas.
Digital Ligation
You can stop major bleeding immediately or slow it down by applying pressure with a finger or two on the bleeding end of the
vein or artery. Maintain the pressure until the bleeding stops or slows down enough to apply a pressure bandage, elevation, and
so forth.
Tourniquet
Use a tourniquet only when direct pressure over the bleeding point and all other methods did not control the bleeding. If you
leave a tourniquet in place too long, the damage to the tissues can progress to gangrene, with a loss of the limb later. An
improperly applied tourniquet can also cause permanent damage to nerves and other tissues at the site of the constriction.
If you must use a tourniquet, place it around the extremity, between the wound and the heart, 5 to 10 centimeters above the
wound site (Figure 4-4). Never place it directly over the wound or a fracture. Use a stick as a handle to tighten the tourniquet
and tighten it only enough to stop blood flow. When you have tightened the tourniquet, bind the free end of the stick to the limb
to prevent unwinding.
After you secure the tourniquet, clean and bandage the wound. A lone survivor does not remove or release an applied
tourniquet. In a buddy system, however, the buddy can release the tourniquet pressure every 10 to 15 minutes for 1 or 2
minutes to let blood flow to the rest of the extremity to prevent limb loss.
Prevent and Treat Shock
Anticipate shock in all injured personnel. Treat all injured persons as follows, regardless of what symptoms appear (Figure
4-5):
If the victim is conscious, place him on a level surface with the lower extremities elevated 15 to 20 centimeters.
If the victim is unconscious, place him on his side or abdomen with his head turned to one side to prevent choking on
vomit, blood, or other fluids.
If you are unsure of the best position, place the victim perfectly flat. Once the victim is in a shock position, do not move
him.
Maintain body heat by insulating the victim from the surroundings and, in some instances, applying external heat.
If wet, remove all the victim's wet clothing as soon as possible and replace with dry clothing.
Improvise a shelter to insulate the victim from the weather.
Use warm liquids or foods, a prewarmed sleeping bag, another person, warmed water in canteens, hot rocks wrapped
in clothing, or fires on either side of the victim to provide external warmth.
If the victim is conscious, slowly administer small doses of a warm salt or sugar solution, if available.
If the victim is unconscious or has abdominal wounds, do not give fluids by mouth.
Have the victim rest for at least 24 hours.
If you are a lone survivor, lie in a depression in the ground, behind a tree, or any other place out of the weather, with
your head lower than your feet.
If you are with a buddy, reassess your patient constantly.
BONE AND JOINT INJURY
You could face bone and joint injuries that include fractures, dislocations, and sprains.
Fractures
There are basically two types of fractures: open and closed. With an open (or compound) fracture, the bone protrudes through
the skin and complicates the actual fracture with an open wound. After setting the fracture, treat the wound as any other open
wound.
The closed fracture has no open wounds. Follow the guidelines for immobilization, and set and splint the fracture.
The signs and symptoms of a fracture are pain, tenderness, discoloration, swelling deformity, loss of function, and grating (a
sound or feeling that occurs when broken bone ends rub together).
The dangers with a fracture are the severing or the compression of a nerve or blood vessel at the site of fracture. For this
reason minimum manipulation should be done, and only very cautiously. If you notice the area below the break becoming numb,
swollen, cool to the touch, or turning pale, and the victim shows signs of shock, a major vessel may have been severed. You
must control this internal bleeding. Rest the victim for shock, and replace lost fluids.
Often you must maintain traction during the splinting and healing process. You can effectively pull smaller bones such as the arm
or lower leg by hand. You can create traction by wedging a hand or foot in the V-notch of a tree and pushing against the tree
with the other extremity. You can then splint the break.
Very strong muscles hold a broken thighbone (femur) in place making it difficult to maintain traction during healing. You can
make an improvised traction splint using natural material (Figure 4-6) as follows:
Get two forked branches or saplings at least 5 centimeters in diameter. Measure one from the patient's armpit to 20 to
30 centimeters past his unbroken leg. Measure the other from the groin to 20 to 30 centimeters past the unbroken leg.
Ensure that both extend an equal distance beyond the end of the leg.
Pad the two splints. Notch the ends without forks and lash a 20- to 30-centimeter cross member made from a
5-centimeter diameter branch between them.
Using available material (vines, cloth, rawhide), tie the splint around the upper portion of the body and down the length
of the broken leg. Follow the splinting guidelines.
With available material, fashion a wrap that will extend around the ankle, with the two free ends tied to the cross
member.
Place a 10- by 2.5-centimeter stick in the middle of the free ends of the ankle wrap between the cross member and the
foot. Using the stick, twist the material to make the traction easier.
Continue twisting until the broken leg is as long or slightly longer than the unbroken leg.
Lash the stick to maintain traction.
Note: Over time you may lose traction because the material weakened. Check the traction periodically. If
you must change or repair the splint, maintain the traction manually for a short time.
Dislocations
Dislocations are the separations of bone joints causing the bones to go out of proper alignment. These misalignments can be
extremely painful and can cause an impairment of nerve or circulatory function below the area affected. You must place these
joints back into alignment as quickly as possible.
Signs and symptoms of dislocations are joint pain, tenderness, swelling, discoloration, limited range of motion, and deformity of
the joint. You treat dislocations by reduction, immobilization, and rehabilitation.
Reduction or "setting" is placing the bones back into their proper alignment. You can use several methods, but manual traction
or the use of weights to pull the bones are the safest and easiest. Once performed, reduction decreases the victim's pain and
allows for normal function and circulation. Without an X ray, you can judge proper alignment by the look and feel of the joint
and by comparing it to the joint on the opposite side.
Immobilization is nothing more than splinting the dislocation after reduction. You can use any field-expedient material for a splint
or you can splint an extremity to the body. The basic guidelines for splinting are--
Splint above and below the fracture site.
Pad splints to reduce discomfort.
Check circulation below the fracture after making each tie on the splint.
To rehabilitate the dislocation, remove the splints after 7 to 14 days. Gradually use the injured joint until fully healed.
Sprains
The accidental overstretching of a tendon or ligament causes sprains. The signs and symptoms are pain, swelling, tenderness,
and discoloration (black and blue).
When treating sprains, think RICE--
R -
Rest injured area.
I -
Ice for 24 hours, then heat after that.
C -
Compression-wrapping and/or splinting to help stabilize. If possible, leave the boot on a sprained ankle unless
circulation is compromised.
E -
Elevation of the affected area.
BITES AND STINGS
Insects and related pests are hazards in a survival situation. They not only cause irritations, but they are often carriers of
diseases that cause severe allergic reactions in some individuals. In many parts of the world you will be exposed to serious,
even fatal, diseases not encountered in the United States.
Ticks can carry and transmit diseases, such as Rocky Mountain spotted fever common in many parts of the United States.
Ticks also transmit the Lyme disease.
Mosquitoes may carry malaria, dengue, and many other diseases.
Flies can spread disease from contact with infectious sources. They are causes of sleeping sickness, typhoid, cholera, and
dysentery.
Fleas can transmit plague.
Lice can transmit typhus and relapsing fever.
The best way to avoid the complications of insect bites and stings is to keep immunizations (including booster shots)
up-to-date, avoid insect-infested areas, use netting and insect repellent, and wear all clothing properly.
If you get bitten or stung, do not scratch the bite or sting, it might become infected. Inspect your body at least once a day to
ensure there are no insects attached to you. If you find ticks attached to your body, cover them with a substance, such as
Vaseline, heavy oil, or tree sap, that will cut off their air supply. Without air, the tick releases its hold, and you can remove it.
Take care to remove the whole tick. Use tweezers if you have them. Grasp the tick where the mouth parts are attached to the
skin. Do not squeeze the tick's body. Wash your hands after touching the tick. Clean the tick wound daily until healed.
Treatment
It is impossible to list the treatment of all the different types of bites and stings. Treat bites and stings as follows:
If antibiotics are available for your use, become familiar with them before deployment and use them.
Predeployment immunizations can prevent most of the common diseases carried by mosquitoes and some carried by
flies.
The common fly-borne diseases are usually treatable with penicillins or erythromycin.
Most tick-, flea-, louse-, and mite-borne diseases are treatable with tetracycline.
Most antibiotics come in 250 milligram (mg) or 500 mg tablets. If you cannot remember the exact dose rate to treat a
disease, 2 tablets, 4 times a day for 10 to 14 days will usually kill any bacteria.
Bee and Wasp Stings
If stung by a bee, immediately remove the stinger and venom sac, if attached, by scraping with a fingernail or a knife blade. Do
not squeeze or grasp the stinger or venom sac, as squeezing will force more venom into the wound. Wash the sting site
thoroughly with soap and water to lessen the chance of a secondary infection.
If you know or suspect that you are allergic to insect stings, always carry an insect sting kit with you.
Relieve the itching and discomfort caused by insect bites by applying--
Cold compresses.
A cooling paste of mud and ashes.
Sap from dandelions.
Coconut meat.
Crushed cloves of garlic.
Onion.
Spider Bites and Scorpion Stings
The black widow spider is identified by a red hourglass on its abdomen. Only the female bites, and it has a neurotoxic venom.
The initial pain is not severe, but severe local pain rapidly develops. The pain gradually spreads over the entire body and settles
in the abdomen and legs. Abdominal cramps and progressive nausea, vomiting, and a rash may occur. Weakness, tremors,
sweating, and salivation may occur. Anaphylactic reactions can occur. Symptoms begin to regress after several hours and are
usually gone in a few days. Threat for shock. Be ready to perform CPR. Clean and dress the bite area to reduce the risk of
infection. An antivenin is available.
The funnelweb spider is a large brown or gray spider found in Australia. The symptoms and the treatment for its bite are as for
the black widow spider.
The brown house spider or brown recluse spider is a small, light brown spider identified by a dark brown violin on its back.
There is no pain, or so little pain, that usually a victim is not aware of the bite. Within a few hours a painful red area with a
mottled cyanotic center appears. Necrosis does not occur in all bites, but usually in 3 to 4 days, a star-shaped, firm area of
deep purple discoloration appears at the bite site. The area turns dark and mummified in a week or two. The margins separate
and the scab falls off, leaving an open ulcer. Secondary infection and regional swollen lymph glands usually become visible at
this stage. The outstanding characteristic of the brown recluse bite is an ulcer that does not heal but persists for weeks or
months. In addition to the ulcer, there is often a systemic reaction that is serious and may lead to death. Reactions (fever, chills,
joint pain, vomiting, and a generalized rash) occur chiefly in children or debilitated persons.
Tarantulas are large, hairy spiders found mainly in the tropics. Most do not inject venom, but some South American species do.
They have large fangs. If bitten, pain and bleeding are certain, and infection is likely. Treat a tarantula bite as for any open
wound, and try to prevent infection. If symptoms of poisoning appear, treat as for the bite of the black widow spider.
Scorpions are all poisonous to a greater or lesser degree. There are two different reactions, depending on the species:
Severe local reaction only, with pain and swelling around the area of the sting. Possible prickly sensation around the
mouth and a thick-feeling tongue.
Severe systemic reaction, with little or no visible local reaction. Local pain may be present. Systemic reaction includes
respiratory difficulties, thick-feeling tongue, body spasms, drooling, gastric distention, double vision, blindness,
involuntary rapid movement of the eyeballs, involuntary urination and defecation, and heart failure. Death is rare,
occurring mainly in children and adults with high blood pressure or illnesses.
Treat scorpion stings as you would a black widow bite.
Snakebites
The chance of a snakebite in a survival situation is rather small, if you are familiar with the various types of snakes and their
habitats. However, it could happen and you should know how to treat a snakebite. Deaths from snakebites are rare. More than
one-half of the snakebite victims have little or no poisoning, and only about one-quarter develop serious systemic poisoning.
However, the chance of a snakebite in a survival situation can affect morale, and failure to take preventive measures or failure
to treat a snakebite properly can result in needless tragedy.
The primary concern in the treatment of snakebite is to limit the amount of eventual tissue destruction around the bite area.
A bite wound, regardless of the type of animal that inflicted it, can become infected from bacteria in the animal's mouth. With
nonpoisonous as well as poisonous snakebites, this local infection is responsible for a large part of the residual damage that
results.
Snake venoms not only contain poisons that attack the victim's central nervous system (neurotoxins) and blood circulation
(hemotoxins), but also digestive enzymes (cytotoxins) to aid in digesting their prey. These poisons can cause a very large area
of tissue death, leaving a large open wound. This condition could lead to the need for eventual amputation if not treated.
Shock and panic in a person bitten by a snake can also affect the person's recovery. Excitement, hysteria, and panic can speed
up the circulation, causing the body to absorb the toxin quickly. Signs of shock occur within the first 30 minutes after the bite.
Before you start treating a snakebite, determine whether the snake was poisonous or nonpoisonous. Bites from a nonpoisonous
snake will show rows of teeth. Bites from a poisonous snake may have rows of teeth showing, but will have one or more
distinctive puncture marks caused by fang penetration. Symptoms of a poisonous bite may be spontaneous bleeding from the
nose and anus, blood in the urine, pain at the site of the bite, and swelling at the site of the bite within a few minutes or up to 2
hours later.
Breathing difficulty, paralysis, weakness, twitching, and numbness are also signs of neurotoxic venoms. These signs usually
appear 1.5 to 2 hours after the bite.
If you determine that a poisonous snake bit an individual, take the following steps:
Reassure the victim and keep him still.
Set up for shock and force fluids or give an intravenous (IV).
Remove watches, rings, bracelets, or other constricting items.
Clean the bite area.
Maintain an airway (especially if bitten near the face or neck) and be prepared to administer mouth-to-mouth
resuscitation or CPR.
Use a constricting band between the wound and the heart.
Immobilize the site.
Remove the poison as soon as possible by using a mechanical suction device or by squeezing.
Do not--
Give the victim alcoholic beverages or tobacco products.
Give morphine or other central nervous system (CNS) depressors.
Make any deep cuts at the bite site. Cutting opens capillaries that in turn open a direct route into the blood stream for
venom and infection.
Note: If medical treatment is over one hour away, make an incision (no longer than 6 millimeters and no
deeper than 3 millimeter) over each puncture, cutting just deep enough to enlarge the fang opening, but
only through the first or second layer of skin. Place a suction cup over the bite so that you have a good
vacuum seal. Suction the bite site 3 to 4 times. Use mouth suction only as a last resort and only if you do
not have open sores in your mouth. Spit the envenomed blood out and rinse your mouth with water. This
method will draw out 25 to 30 percent of the venom.
Put your hands on your face or rub your eyes, as venom may be on your hands. Venom may cause blindness.
Break open the large blisters that form around the bite site.
After caring for the victim as described above, take the following actions to minimize local effects:
If infection appears, keep the wound open and clean.
Use heat after 24 to 48 hours to help prevent the spread of local infection. Heat also helps to draw out an infection.
Keep the wound covered with a dry, sterile dressing.
Have the victim drink large amounts of fluids until the infection is gone.
WOUNDS
An interruption of the skin's integrity characterizes wounds. These wounds could be open wounds, skin diseases, frostbite,
trench foot, and burns.
Open Wounds
Open wounds are serious in a survival situation, not only because of tissue damage and blood loss, but also because they may
become infected. Bacteria on the object that made the wound, on the individual's skin and clothing, or on other foreign material
or dirt that touches the wound may cause infection.
By taking proper care of the wound you can reduce further contamination and promote healing. Clean the wound as soon as
possible after it occurs by--
Removing or cutting clothing away from the wound.
Always looking for an exit wound if a sharp object, gun shot, or projectile caused a wound.
Thoroughly cleaning the skin around the wound.
Rinsing (not scrubbing) the wound with large amounts of water under pressure. You can use fresh urine if water is not
available.
The "open treatment" method is the safest way to manage wounds in survival situations. Do not try to close any wound by
suturing or similar procedures. Leave the wound open to allow the drainage of any pus resulting from infection. As long as the
wound can drain, it generally will not become life-threatening, regardless of how unpleasant it looks or smells.
Cover the wound with a clean dressing. Place a bandage on the dressing to hold it in place. Change the dressing daily to check
for infection.
If a wound is gaping, you can bring the edges together with adhesive tape cut in the form of a "butterfly" or "dumbbell" (Figure
4-7).
In a survival situation, some degree of wound infection is almost inevitable. Pain, swelling, and redness around the wound,
increased temperature, and pus in the wound or on the dressing indicate infection is present.
To treat an infected wound--
Place a warm, moist compress directly on the infected wound. Change the compress when it cools, keeping a warm
compress on the wound for a total of 30 minutes. Apply the compresses three or four times daily.
Drain the wound. Open and gently probe the infected wound with a sterile instrument.
Dress and bandage the wound.
Drink a lot of water.
Continue this treatment daily until all signs of infection have disappeared.
If you do not have antibiotics and the wound has become severely infected, does not heal, and ordinary debridement is
impossible, consider maggot therapy, despite its hazards:
Expose the wound to flies for one day and then cover it.
Check daily for maggots.
Once maggots develop, keep wound covered but check daily.
Remove all maggots when they have cleaned out all dead tissue and before they start on healthy tissue. Increased pain
and bright red blood in the wound indicate that the maggots have reached healthy tissue.
Flush the wound repeatedly with sterile water or fresh urine to remove the maggots.
Check the wound every four hours for several days to ensure all maggots have been removed.
Bandage the wound and treat it as any other wound. It should heal normally.
Skin Diseases and Ailments
Although boils, fungal infections, and rashes rarely develop into a serious health problem, they cause discomfort and you should
treat them.
Boils
Apply warm compresses to bring the boil to a head. Then open the boil using a sterile knife, wire, needle, or similar item.
Thoroughly clean out the pus using soap and water. Cover the boil site, checking it periodically to ensure no further infection
develops.
Fungal Infections
Keep the skin clean and dry, and expose the infected area to as much sunlight as possible. Do not scratch the affected area.
During the Southeast Asian conflict, soldiers used antifungal powders, lye soap, chlorine bleach, alcohol, vinegar, concentrated
salt water, and iodine to treat fungal infections with varying degrees of success. As with any "unorthodox" method of
treatment, use it with caution.
Rashes
To treat a skin rash effectively, first determine what is causing it. This determination may be difficult even in the best of
situations. Observe the following rules to treat rashes:
If it is moist, keep it dry.
If it is dry, keep it moist.
Do not scratch it.
Use a compress of vinegar or tannic acid derived from tea or from boiling acorns or the bark of a hardwood tree to dry
weeping rashes. Keep dry rashes moist by rubbing a small amount of rendered animal fat or grease on the affected area.
Remember, treat rashes as open wounds and clean and dress them daily. There are many substances available to survivors in
the wild or in captivity for use as antiseptics to treat wound:
Iodine tablets. Use 5 to 15 tablets in a liter of water to produce a good rinse for wounds during healing.
Garlic. Rub it on a wound or boil it to extract the oils and use the water to rinse the affected area.
Salt water. Use 2 to 3 tablespoons per liter of water to kill bacteria.
Bee honey. Use it straight or dissolved in water.
Sphagnum moss. Found in boggy areas worldwide, it is a natural source of iodine. Use as a dressing.
Again, use noncommercially prepared materials with caution.
Frostbite
This injury results from frozen tissues. Light frostbite involves only the skin that takes on a dull, whitish pallor. Deep frostbite
extends to a depth below the skin. The tissues become solid and immovable. Your feet, hands, and exposed facial areas are
particularly vulnerable to frostbite.
When with others, prevent frostbite by using the buddy system. Check your buddy's face often and make sure that he checks
yours. If you are alone, periodically cover your nose and lower part of your face with your mittens.
Do not try to thaw the affected areas by placing them close to an open flame. Gently rub them in lukewarm water. Dry the part
and place it next to your skin to warm it at body temperature.
Trench Foot
This condition results from many hours or days of exposure to wet or damp conditions at a temperature just above freezing.
The nerves and muscles sustain the main damage, but gangrene can occur. In extreme cases the flesh dies and it may become
necessary to have the foot or leg amputated. The best prevention is to keep your feet dry. Carry extra socks with you in a
waterproof packet. Dry wet socks against your body. Wash your feet daily and put on dry socks.
Burns
The following field treatment for burns relieves the pain somewhat, seems to help speed healing, and offers some protection
against infection:
First, stop the burning process. Put out the fire by removing clothing, dousing with water or sand, or by rolling on the
ground. Cool the burning skin with ice or water. For burns caused by white phosphorous, pick out the white
phosphorous with tweezers; do not douse with water.
Soak dressings or clean rags for 10 minutes in a boiling tannic acid solution (obtained from tea, inner bark of hardwood
trees, or acorns boiled in water).
Cool the dressings or clean rags and apply over burns.
Treat as an open wound.
Replace fluid loss.
Maintain airway.
Treat for shock.
Consider using morphine, unless the burns are near the face.
ENVIRONMENTAL INJURIES
Heatstroke, hypothermia, diarrhea, and intestinal parasites are environmental injuries you could face.
Heatstroke
The breakdown of the body's heat regulatory system (body temperature more than 40.5 degrees C [105 degrees F]) causes a
heatstroke. Other heat injuries, such as cramps or dehydration, do not always precede a heatstroke. Signs and symptoms of
heatstroke are--
Swollen, beet-red face.
Reddened whites of eyes.
Victim not sweating.
Unconsciousness or delirium, which can cause pallor, a bluish color to lips and nail beds (cyanosis), and cool skin.
Note: By this time the victim is in severe shock. Cool the victim as rapidly as possible. Cool him by dipping
him in a cool stream. If one is not available, douse the victim with urine, water, or at the very least, apply
cool wet com-presses to all the joints, especially the neck, armpits, and crotch. Be sure to wet the victim's
head. Heat loss through the scalp is great. Administer IVs and provide drinking fluids. You may fan the
individual.
Expect, during cooling--
Vomiting.
Diarrhea.
Struggling.
Shivering.
Shouting.
Prolonged unconsciousness.
Rebound heatstroke within 48 hours.
Cardiac arrest; be ready to perform CPR.
Note: Treat for dehydration with lightly salted water.
Hypothermia
Defined as the body's failure to maintain a temperature of 36 degrees C (97 degrees F). Exposure to cool or cold temperature
over a short or long time can cause hypothermia. Dehydration and lack of food and rest predispose the survivor to
hypothermia.
Unlike heatstroke, you must gradually warm the hypothermia victim. Get the victim into dry clothing. Replace lost fluids, and
warm him.
Diarrhea
A common, debilitating ailment caused by a change of water and food, drinking contaminated water, eating spoiled food,
becoming fatigued, and using dirty dishes. You can avoid most of these causes by practicing preventive medicine. If you get
diarrhea, however, and do not have antidiarrheal medicine, one of the following treatments may be effective:
Limit your intake of fluids for 24 hours.
Drink one cup of a strong tea solution every 2 hours until the diarrhea slows or stops. The tannic acid in the tea helps to
control the diarrhea. Boil the inner bark of a hardwood tree for 2 hours or more to release the tannic acid.
Make a solution of one handful of ground chalk, charcoal, or dried bones and treated water. If you have some apple
pomace or the rinds of citrus fruit, add an equal portion to the mixture to make it more effective. Take 2 tablespoons of
the solution every 2 hours until the diarrhea slows or stops.
Intestinal Parasites
You can usually avoid worm infestations and other intestinal parasites if you take preventive measures. For example, never go
barefoot. The most effective way to prevent intestinal parasites is to avoid uncooked meat and raw vegetables contaminated by
raw sewage or human waste used as a fertilizer. However, should you become infested and lack proper medicine, you can use
home remedies. Keep in mind that these home remedies work on the principle of changing the environment of the
gastrointestinal tract. The following are home remedies you could use:
Salt water. Dissolve 4 tablespoons of salt in 1 liter of water and drink. Do not repeat this treatment.
Tobacco. Eat 1 to 1.5 cigarettes. The nicotine in the cigarette will kill or stun the worms long enough for your system to
pass them. If the infestation is severe, repeat the treatment in 24 to 48 hours, but no sooner.
Kerosene. Drink 2 tablespoons of kerosene but no more. If necessary, you can repeat this treatment in 24 to 48 hours.
Be careful not to inhale the fumes. They may cause lung irritation.
Hot peppers. Peppers are effective only if they are a steady part of your diet. You can eat them raw or put them in
soups or rice and meat dishes. They create an environment that is prohibitive to parasitic attachment.
HERBAL MEDICINES
Our modern wonder drugs, laboratories, and equipment have obscured more primitive types of medicine involving
determination, common sense, and a few simple treatments. In many areas of the world, however, the people still depend on
local "witch doctors" or healers to cure their ailments. Many of the herbs (plants) and treatments they use are as effective as the
most modern medications available. In fact, many modern medications come from refined herbs.
WARNING
Use herbal medicines with extreme care, however, and only when you lack or have limited medical supplies. Some
herbal medicines are dangerous and may cause further damage or even death. See Chapter 9, Survival Use of
Plants, for some basic herbal medicine treatments.
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CHAPTER 5
SHELTERS
A shelter can protect you from the sun, insects, wind, rain, snow, hot or cold temperatures, and enemy
observation. It can give you a feeling of well-being. It can help you maintain your will to survive.
In some areas, your need for shelter may take precedence over your need for food and possibly even your
need for water. For example, prolonged exposure to cold can cause excessive fatigue and weakness
(exhaustion). An exhausted person may develop a "passive" outlook, thereby losing the will to survive.
The most common error in making a shelter is to make it too large. A shelter must be large enough to
protect you. It must also be small enough to contain your body heat, especially in cold climates.
SHELTER SITE SELECTION
When you are in a survival situation and realize that shelter is a high priority, start looking for shelter as soon as possible. As
you do so, remember what you will need at the site. Two requisites are--
It must contain material to make the type of shelter you need.
It must be large enough and level enough for you to lie down comfortably.
When you consider these requisites, however, you cannot ignore your tactical situation or your safety. You must also consider
whether the site--
Provides concealment from enemy observation.
Has camouflaged escape routes.
Is suitable for signaling, if necessary.
Provides protection against wild animals and rocks and dead trees that might fall.
Is free from insects, reptiles, and poisonous plants.
You must also remember the problems that could arise in your environment. For instance--
Avoid flash flood areas in foothills.
Avoid avalanche or rockslide areas in mountainous terrain.
Avoid sites near bodies of water that are below the high water mark.
In some areas, the season of the year has a strong bearing on the site you select. Ideal sites for a shelter differ in winter and
summer. During cold winter months you will want a site that will protect you from the cold and wind, but will have a source of
fuel and water. During summer months in the same area you will want a source of water, but you will want the site to be almost
insect free.
When considering shelter site selection, use the word BLISS as a guide.
B - Blend in with the surroundings.
L - Low silhouette.
I - Irregular shape.
S - Small.
S - Secluded location.
TYPES OF SHELTERS
When looking for a shelter site, keep in mind the type of shelter (protection) you need. However, you must also consider--
How much time and effort you need to build the shelter.
If the shelter will adequately protect you from the elements (sun, wind, rain, snow).
If you have the tools to build it. If not, can you make improvised tools?
If you have the type and amount of materials needed to build it.
To answer these questions, you need to know how to make various types of shelters and what materials you need to make
them.
Poncho Lean-To
It takes only a short time and minimal equipment to build this lean-to (Figure 5-1). You need a poncho, 2 to 3 meters of rope
or parachute suspension line, three stakes about 30 centimeters long, and two trees or two poles 2 to 3 meters apart. Before
selecting the trees you will use or the location of your poles, check the wind direction. Ensure that the back of your lean-to will
be into the wind.
To make the lean-to--
Tie off the hood of the poncho. Pull the drawstring tight, roll the hood longways, fold it into thirds, and tie it off with the
drawstring.
Cut the rope in half. On one long side of the poncho, tie half of the rope to the corner grommet. Tie the other half to the
other corner grommet.
Attach a drip stick (about a 10-centimeter stick) to each rope about 2.5 centimeters from the grommet. These drip
sticks will keep rainwater from running down the ropes into the lean-to. Tying strings (about 10 centimeters long) to each
grommet along the poncho's top edge will allow the water to run to and down the line without dripping into the shelter.
Tie the ropes about waist high on the trees (uprights). Use a round turn and two half hitches with a quick-release knot.
Spread the poncho and anchor it to the ground, putting sharpened sticks through the grommets and into the ground.
If you plan to use the lean-to for more than one night, or you expect rain, make a center support for the lean-to. Make this
support with a line. Attach one end of the line to the poncho hood and the other end to an overhanging branch. Make sure
there is no slack in the line.
Another method is to place a stick upright under the center of the lean-to. This method, however, will restrict your space and
movements in the shelter.
For additional protection from wind and rain, place some brush, your rucksack, or other equipment at the sides of the lean-to.
To reduce heat loss to the ground, place some type of insulating material, such as leaves or pine needles, inside your lean-to.
Note: When at rest, you lose as much as 80 percent of your body heat to the ground.
To increase your security from enemy observation, lower the lean-to's silhouette by making two changes. First, secure the
support lines to the trees at knee height (not at waist height) using two knee-high sticks in the two center grommets (sides of
lean-to). Second, angle the poncho to the ground, securing it with sharpened sticks, as above.
Poncho Tent
This tent (Figure 5-2) provides a low silhouette. It also protects you from the elements on two sides. It has, however, less
usable space and observation area than a lean-to, decreasing your reaction time to enemy detection. To make this tent, you
need a poncho, two 1.5- to 2.5-meter ropes, six sharpened sticks about 30 centimeters long, and two trees 2 to 3 meters
apart.
To make the tent--
Tie off the poncho hood in the same way as the poncho lean-to.
Tie a 1.5- to 2.5-meter rope to the center grommet on each side of the poncho.
Tie the other ends of these ropes at about knee height to two trees 2 to 3 meters apart and stretch the poncho tight.
Draw one side of the poncho tight and secure it to the ground pushing sharpened sticks through the grommets.
Follow the same procedure on the other side.
If you need a center support, use the same methods as for the poncho lean-to. Another center support is an A-frame set
outside but over the center of the tent (Figure 5-3). Use two 90- to 120-centimeter-long sticks, one with a forked end, to form
the A-frame. Tie the hood's drawstring to the A-frame to support the center of the tent.
Three-Pole Parachute Tepee
If you have a parachute and three poles and the tactical situation allows, make a parachute tepee. It is easy and takes very little
time to make this tepee. It provides protection from the elements and can act as a signaling device by enhancing a small amount
of light from a fire or candle. It is large enough to hold several people and their equipment and to allow sleeping, cooking, and
storing firewood.
You can make this tepee using parts of or a whole personnel main or reserve parachute canopy. If using a standard personnel
parachute, you need three poles 3.5 to 4.5 meters long and about 5 centimeters in diameter.
To make this tepee (Figure 5-4)--
Lay the poles on the ground and lash them together at one end.
Stand the framework up and spread the poles to form a tripod.
For more support, place additional poles against the tripod. Five or six additional poles work best, but do not lash them
to the tripod.
Determine the wind direction and locate the entrance 90 degrees or more from the mean wind direction.
Lay out the parachute on the "backside" of the tripod and locate the bridle loop (nylon web loop) at the top (apex) of the
canopy.
Place the bridle loop over the top of a free-standing pole. Then place the pole back up against the tripod so that the
canopy's apex is at the same height as the lashing on the three poles.
Wrap the canopy around one side of the tripod. The canopy should be of double thickness, as you are wrapping an
entire parachute. You need only wrap half of the tripod, as the remainder of the canopy will encircle the tripod in the
opposite direction.
Construct the entrance by wrapping the folded edges of the canopy around two free-standing poles. You can then place
the poles side by side to close the tepee's entrance.
Place all extra canopy underneath the tepee poles and inside to create a floor for the shelter.
Leave a 30- to 50-centimeter opening at the top for ventilation if you intend to have a fire inside the tepee.
One-Pole Parachute Tepee
You need a 14-gore section (normally) of canopy, stakes, a stout center pole, and inner core and needle to construct this
tepee. You cut the suspension lines except for 40- to 45-centimeter lengths at the canopy's lower lateral band.
To make this tepee (Figure 5-5)--
Select a shelter site and scribe a circle about 4 meters in diameter on the ground.
Stake the parachute material to the ground using the lines remaining at the lower lateral band.
After deciding where to place the shelter door, emplace a stake and tie the first line (from the lower lateral band)
securely to it.
Stretch the parachute material taut to the next line, emplace a stake on the scribed line, and tie the line to it.
Continue the staking process until you have tied all the lines.
Loosely attach the top of the parachute material to the center pole with a suspension line you previously cut and, through
trial and error, determine the point at which the parachute material will be pulled tight once the center pole is upright.
Then securely attach the material to the pole.
Using a suspension line (or inner core), sew the end gores together leaving 1 or 1.2 meters for a door.
No-Pole Parachute Tepee
You use the same materials, except for the center pole, as for the one-pole parachute tepee.
To make this tepee (Figure 5-6)--
Tie a line to the top of parachute material with a previously cut suspension line.
Throw the line over a tree limb, and tie it to the tree trunk.
Starting at the opposite side from the door, emplace a stake on the scribed 3.5- to 4.3-meter circle.
Tie the first line on the lower lateral band.
Continue emplacing the stakes and tying the lines to them.
After staking down the material, unfasten the line tied to the tree trunk, tighten the tepee material by pulling on this line,
and tie it securely to the tree trunk.
One-Man Shelter
A one-man shelter you can easily make using a parachute requires a tree and three poles. One pole should be about 4.5 meters
long and the other two about 3 meters long.
To make this shelter (Figure 5-7)--
Secure the 4.5-meter pole to the tree at about waist height.
Lay the two 3-meter poles on the ground on either side of and in the same direction as the 4.5-meter pole.
Lay the folded canopy over the 4.5 meter pole so that about the same amount of material hangs on both sides.
Tuck the excess material under the 3-meter poles, and spread it on the ground inside to serve as a floor.
Stake down or put a spreader between the two 3-meter poles at the shelter's entrance so they will not slide inward.
Use any excess material to cover the entrance.
The parachute cloth makes this shelter wind resistant, and the shelter is small enough that it is easily warmed. A candle, used
carefully, can keep the inside temperature comfortable. This shelter is unsatisfactory, however, when snow is falling as even a
light snowfall will cave it in.
Parachute Hammock
You can make a hammock using 6 to 8 gores of parachute canopy and two trees about 4.5 meters apart (Figure 5-8).
Field-Expedient Lean-To
If you are in a wooded area and have enough natural materials, you can make a field-expedient lean-to (Figure 5-9) without the
aid of tools or with only a knife. It takes longer to make this type of shelter than it does to make other types, but it will protect
you from the elements.
You will need two trees (or upright poles) about 2 meters apart; one pole about 2 meters long and 2.5 centimeters in diameter;
five to eight poles about 3 meters long and 2.5 centimeters in diameter for beams; cord or vines for securing the horizontal
support to the trees; and other poles, saplings, or vines to crisscross the beams.
To make this lean-to--
Tie the 2-meter pole to the two trees at waist to chest height. This is the horizontal support. If a standing tree is not
available, construct a biped using Y-shaped sticks or two tripods.
Place one end of the beams (3-meter poles) on one side of the horizontal support. As with all lean-to type shelters, be
sure to place the lean-to's backside into the wind.
Crisscross saplings or vines on the beams.
Cover the framework with brush, leaves, pine needles, or grass, starting at the bottom and working your way up like
shingling.
Place straw, leaves, pine needles, or grass inside the shelter for bedding.
In cold weather, add to your lean-to's comfort by building a fire reflector wall (Figure 5-9). Drive four 1.5-meter-long stakes
into the ground to support the wall. Stack green logs on top of one another between the support stakes. Form two rows of
stacked logs to create an inner space within the wall that you can fill with dirt. This action not only strengthens the wall but
makes it more heat reflective. Bind the top of the support stakes so that the green logs and dirt will stay in place.
With just a little more effort you can have a drying rack. Cut a few 2-centimeter-diameter poles (length depends on the distance
between the lean-to's horizontal support and the top of the fire reflector wall). Lay one end of the poles on the lean-to support
and the other end on top of the reflector wall. Place and tie into place smaller sticks across these poles. You now have a place
to dry clothes, meat, or fish.
Swamp Bed
In a marsh or swamp, or any area with standing water or continually wet ground, the swamp bed (Figure 5-10) keeps you out
of the water. When selecting such a site, consider the weather, wind, tides, and available materials.
To make a swamp bed--
Look for four trees clustered in a rectangle, or cut four poles (bamboo is ideal) and drive them firmly into the ground so
they form a rectangle. They should be far enough apart and strong enough to support your height and weight, to include
equipment.
Cut two poles that span the width of the rectangle. They, too, must be strong enough to support your weight.
Secure these two poles to the trees (or poles). Be sure they are high enough above the ground or water to allow for tides
and high water.
Cut additional poles that span the rectangle's length. Lay them across the two side poles, and secure them.
Cover the top of the bed frame with broad leaves or grass to form a soft sleeping surface.
Build a fire pad by laying clay, silt, or mud on one comer of the swamp bed and allow it to dry.
Another shelter designed to get you above and out of the water or wet ground uses the same rectangular configuration as the
swamp bed. You very simply lay sticks and branches lengthwise on the inside of the trees (or poles) until there is enough
material to raise the sleeping surface above the water level.
Natural Shelters
Do not overlook natural formations that provide shelter. Examples are caves, rocky crevices, clumps of bushes, small
depressions, large rocks on leeward sides of hills, large trees with low-hanging limbs, and fallen trees with thick branches.
However, when selecting a natural formation--
Stay away from low ground such as ravines, narrow valleys, or creek beds. Low areas collect the heavy cold air at night
and are therefore colder than the surrounding high ground. Thick, brushy, low ground also harbors more insects.
Check for poisonous snakes, ticks, mites, scorpions, and stinging ants.
Look for loose rocks, dead limbs, coconuts, or other natural growth than could fall on your shelter.
Debris Hut
For warmth and ease of construction, this shelter is one of the best. When shelter is essential to survival, build this shelter.
To make a debris hut (Figure 5-11)--
Build it by making a tripod with two short stakes and a long ridgepole or by placing one end of a long ridgepole on top
of a sturdy base.
Secure the ridgepole (pole running the length of the shelter) using the tripod method or by anchoring it to a tree at about
waist height.
Prop large sticks along both sides of the ridgepole to create a wedge-shaped ribbing effect. Ensure the ribbing is wide
enough to accommodate your body and steep enough to shed moisture.
Place finer sticks and brush crosswise on the ribbing. These form a latticework that will keep the insulating material
(grass, pine needles, leaves) from falling through the ribbing into the sleeping area.
Add light, dry, if possible, soft debris over the ribbing until the insulating material is at least 1 meter thick--the thicker the
better.
Place a 30-centimeter layer of insulating material inside the shelter.
At the entrance, pile insulating material that you can drag to you once inside the shelter to close the entrance or build a
door.
As a final step in constructing this shelter, add shingling material or branches on top of the debris layer to prevent the
insulating material from blowing away in a storm.
Tree-Pit Snow Shelter
If you are in a cold, snow-covered area where evergreen trees grow and you have a digging tool, you can make a tree-pit
shelter (Figure 5-12).
To make this shelter--
Find a tree with bushy branches that provides overhead cover.
Dig out the snow around the tree trunk until you reach the depth and diameter you desire, or until you reach the ground.
Pack the snow around the top and the inside of the hole to provide support.
Find and cut other evergreen boughs. Place them over the top of the pit to give you additional overhead cover. Place
evergreen boughs in the bottom of the pit for insulation.
See Chapter 15 for other arctic or cold weather shelters.
Beach Shade Shelter
This shelter protects you from the sun, wind, rain, and heat. It is easy to make using natural materials.
To make this shelter (Figure 5-13)--
Find and collect driftwood or other natural material to use as support beams and as a digging tool.
Select a site that is above the high water mark.
Scrape or dig out a trench running north to south so that it receives the least amount of sunlight. Make the trench long
and wide enough for you to lie down comfortably.
Mound soil on three sides of the trench. The higher the mound, the more space inside the shelter.
Lay support beams (driftwood or other natural material) that span the trench on top of the mound to form the framework
for a roof.
Enlarge the shelter's entrance by digging out more sand in front of it.
Use natural materials such as grass or leaves to form a bed inside the shelter.
Desert Shelters
In an arid environment, consider the time, effort, and material needed to make a shelter. If you have material such as a poncho,
canvas, or a parachute, use it along with such terrain features as rock outcropping, mounds of sand, or a depression between
dunes or rocks to make your shelter.
Using rock outcroppings--
Anchor one end of your poncho (canvas, parachute, or other material) on the edge of the outcrop using rocks or other
weights.
Extend and anchor the other end of the poncho so it provides the best possible shade.
In a sandy area--
Build a mound of sand or use the side of a sand dune for one side of the shelter.
Anchor one end of the material on top of the mound using sand or other weights.
Extend and anchor the other end of the material so it provides the best possible shade.
Note: If you have enough material, fold it in half and form a 30-centimeter to 45-centimeter airspace
between the two halves. This airspace will reduce the temperature under the shelter.
A belowground shelter (Figure 5-14) can reduce the midday heat as much as 16 to 22 degrees C (30 to 40 degrees F).
Building it, however, requires more time and effort than for other shelters. Since your physical effort will make you sweat more
and increase dehydration, construct it before the heat of the day.
To make this shelter--
Find a low spot or depression between dunes or rocks. If necessary, dig a trench 45 to 60 centimeters deep and long
and wide enough for you to lie in comfortably.
Pile the sand you take from the trench to form a mound around three sides.
On the open end of the trench, dig out more sand so you can get in and out of your shelter easily.
Cover the trench with your material.
Secure the material in place using sand, rocks, or other weights.
If you have extra material, you can further decrease the midday temperature in the trench by securing the material 30 to 45
centimeters above the other cover. This layering of the material will reduce the inside temperature 11 to 22 degrees C (20 to 40
degrees F).
Another type of belowground shade shelter is of similar construction, except all sides are open to air currents and circulation.
For maximum protection, you need a minimum of two layers of parachute material (Figure 5-15). White is the best color to
reflect heat; the innermost layer should be of darker material.
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CHAPTER 6
WATER PROCUREMENT
Water is one of your most urgent needs in a survival situation. You can' t live long without it, especially in
hot areas where you lose water rapidly through perspiration. Even in cold areas, you need a minimum of 2
liters of water each day to maintain efficiency.
More than three-fourths of your body is composed of fluids. Your body loses fluid as a result of heat, cold,
stress, and exertion. To function effectively, you must replace the fluid your body loses. So, one of your
first goals is to obtain an adequate supply of water.
WATER SOURCES
Almost any environment has water present to some degree. Figure 6-1 lists possible sources of water in various environments.
It also provides information on how to make the water potable.
Note: If you do not have a canteen, a cup, a can, or other type of container, improvise one from plastic or
water-resistant cloth. Shape the plastic or cloth into a bowl by pleating it. Use pins or other suitable
items--even your hands--to hold the pleats.
If you do not have a reliable source to replenish your water supply, stay alert for ways in which your environment can help you.
CAUTION
Do not substitute the fluids listed in Figure 6-2 for water.
Heavy dew can provide water. Tie rags or tufts of fine grass around your ankles and walk through dew-covered grass before
sunrise. As the rags or grass tufts absorb the dew, wring the water into a container. Repeat the process until you have a supply
of water or until the dew is gone. Australian natives sometimes mop up as much as a liter an hour this way.
Bees or ants going into a hole in a tree may point to a water-filled hole. Siphon the water with plastic tubing or scoop it up with
an improvised dipper. You can also stuff cloth in the hole to absorb the water and then wring it from the cloth.
Water sometimes gathers in tree crotches or rock crevices. Use the above procedures to get the water. In arid areas, bird
droppings around a crack in the rocks may indicate water in or near the crack.
Green bamboo thickets are an excellent source of fresh water. Water from green bamboo is clear and odorless. To get the
water, bend a green bamboo stalk, tie it down, and cut off the top (Figure 6-3). The water will drip freely during the night. Old,
cracked bamboo may contain water.
CAUTION
Purify the water before drinking it.
Wherever you find banana or plantain trees, you can get water. Cut down the tree, leaving about a 30-centimeter stump, and
scoop out the center of the stump so that the hollow is bowl-shaped. Water from the roots will immediately start to fill the
hollow. The first three fillings of water will be bitter, but succeeding fillings will be palatable. The stump (Figure 6-4) will supply
water for up to four days. Be sure to cover it to keep out insects.
Some tropical vines can give you water. Cut a notch in the vine as high as you can reach, then cut the vine off close to the
ground. Catch the dropping liquid in a container or in your mouth (Figure 6-5).
CAUTION
Do not drink the liquid if it is sticky, milky, or bitter tasting.
The milk from green (unripe) coconuts is a good thirst quencher. However, the milk from mature coconuts contains an oil that
acts as a laxative. Drink in moderation only.
In the American tropics you may find large trees whose branches support air plants. These air plants may hold a considerable
amount of rainwater in their overlapping, thickly growing leaves. Strain the water through a cloth to remove insects and debris.
You can get water from plants with moist pulpy centers. Cut off a section of the plant and squeeze or smash the pulp so that the
moisture runs out. Catch the liquid in a container.
Plant roots may provide water. Dig or pry the roots out of the ground, cut them into short pieces, and smash the pulp so that
the moisture runs out. Catch the liquid in a container.
Fleshy leaves, stems, or stalks, such as bamboo, contain water. Cut or notch the stalks at the base of a joint to drain out the
liquid.
The following trees can also provide water:
Palms. Palms, such as the buri, coconut, sugar, rattan, and nips, contain liquid. Bruise a lower frond and pull it down so
the tree will "bleed" at the injury.
Traveler's tree. Found in Madagascar, this tree has a cuplike sheath at the base of its leaves in which water collects.
Umbrella tree. The leaf bases and roots of this tree of western tropical Africa can provide water.
Baobab tree. This tree of the sandy plains of northern Australia and Africa collects water in its bottlelike trunk during the
wet season. Frequently, you can find clear, fresh water in these trees after weeks of dry weather.
CAUTION
Do not keep the sap from plants longer than 24 hours. It begins fermenting, becoming dangerous as a water source.
STILL CONSTRUCTION
You can use stills in various areas of the world. They draw moisture from the ground and from plant material. You need certain
materials to build a still, and you need time to let it collect the water. It takes about 24 hours to get 0.5 to 1 liter of water.
Aboveground Still
To make the aboveground still, you need a sunny slope on which to place the still, a clear plastic bag, green leafy vegetation,
and a small rock (Figure 6-6).
To make the still--
Fill the bag with air by turning the opening into the breeze or by "scooping" air into the bag.
Fill the plastic bag half to three-fourths full of green leafy vegetation. Be sure to remove all hard sticks or sharp spines
that might puncture the bag.
CAUTION
Do not use poisonous vegetation. It will provide poisonous liquid.
Place a small rock or similar item in the bag.
Close the bag and tie the mouth securely as close to the end of the bag as possible to keep the maximum amount of air
space. If you have a piece of tubing, a small straw, or a hollow reed, insert one end in the mouth of the bag before you
tie it securely. Then tie off or plug the tubing so that air will not escape. This tubing will allow you to drain out condensed
water without untying the bag.
Place the bag, mouth downhill, on a slope in full sunlight. Position the mouth of the bag slightly higher than the low point
in the bag.
Settle the bag in place so that the rock works itself into the low point in the bag.
To get the condensed water from the still, loosen the tie around the bag's mouth and tip the bag so that the water collected
around the rock will drain out. Then retie the mouth securely and reposition the still to allow further condensation.
Change the vegetation in the bag after extracting most of the water from it. This will ensure maximum output of water.
Belowground Still
To make a belowground still, you need a digging tool, a container, a clear plastic sheet, a drinking tube, and a rock (Figure
6-7).
Select a site where you believe the soil will contain moisture (such as a dry stream bed or a low spot where rainwater has
collected). The soil at this site should be easy to dig, and sunlight must hit the site most of the day.
To construct the still--
Dig a bowl-shaped hole about 1 meter across and 60 centimeters deep.
Dig a sump in the center of the hole. The sump's depth and perimeter will depend on the size of the container that you
have to place in it. The bottom of the sump should allow the container to stand upright.
Anchor the tubing to the container's bottom by forming a loose overhand knot in the tubing.
Place the container upright in the sump.
Extend the unanchored end of the tubing up, over, and beyond the lip of the hole.
Place the plastic sheet over the hole, covering its edges with soil to hold it in place.
Place a rock in the center of the plastic sheet.
Lower the plastic sheet into the hole until it is about 40 centimeters below ground level. It now forms an inverted cone
with the rock at its apex. Make sure that the cone's apex is directly over your container. Also make sure the plastic cone
does not touch the sides of the hole because the earth will absorb the condensed water.
Put more soil on the edges of the plastic to hold it securely in place and to prevent the loss of moisture.
Plug the tube when not in use so that the moisture will not evaporate.
You can drink water without disturbing the still by using the tube as a straw.
You may want to use plants in the hole as a moisture source. If so, dig out additional soil from the sides of the hole to form a
slope on which to place the plants. Then proceed as above.
If polluted water is your only moisture source, dig a small trough outside the hole about 25 centimeters from the still's lip (Figure
6-8). Dig the trough about 25 centimeters deep and 8 centimeters wide. Pour the polluted water in the trough. Be sure you do
not spill any polluted water around the rim of the hole where the plastic sheet touches the soil. The trough holds the polluted
water and the soil filters it as the still draws it. The water then condenses on the plastic and drains into the container. This
process works extremely well when your only water source is salt water.
You will need at least three stills to meet your individual daily water intake needs.
WATER PURIFICATION
Rainwater collected in clean containers or in plants is usually safe for drinking. However, purify water from lakes, ponds,
swamps, springs, or streams, especially the water near human settlements or in the tropics.
When possible, purify all water you got from vegetation or from the ground by using iodine or chlorine, or by boiling.
Purify water by--
Using water purification tablets. (Follow the directions provided.)
Placing 5 drops of 2 percent tincture of iodine in a canteen full of clear water. If the canteen is full of cloudy or cold
water, use 10 drops. (Let the canteen of water stand for 30 minutes before drinking.)
Boiling water for 1 minute at sea level, adding 1 minute for each additional 300 meters above sea level, or boil for 10
minutes no matter where you are.
By drinking nonpotable water you may contract diseases or swallow organisms that can harm you. Examples of such diseases
or organisms are--
Dysentery. Severe, prolonged diarrhea with bloody stools, fever, and weakness.
Cholera and typhoid. You may be susceptible to these diseases regardless of inoculations.
Flukes. Stagnant, polluted water--especially in tropical areas--often contains blood flukes. If you swallow flukes, they
will bore into the bloodstream, live as parasites, and cause disease.
Leeches. If you swallow a leech, it can hook onto the throat passage or inside the nose. It will suck blood, create a
wound, and move to another area. Each bleeding wound may become infected.
WATER FILTRATION DEVICES
If the water you find is also muddy, stagnant, and foul smelling, you can clear the water--
By placing it in a container and letting it stand for 12 hours.
By pouring it through a filtering system.
Note: These procedures only clear the water and make it more palatable. You will have to purify it.
To make a filtering system, place several centimeters or layers of filtering material such as sand, crushed rock, charcoal, or
cloth in bamboo, a hollow log, or an article of clothing (Figure 6-9).
Remove the odor from water by adding charcoal from your fire. Let the water stand for 45 minutes before drinking it.
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CHAPTER 7
FIRECRAFT
In many survival situations, the ability to start a fire can make the difference between living and dying.
Fire can fulfill many needs. It can provide warmth and comfort. It not only cooks and preserves food, it
also provides warmth in the form of heated food that saves calories our body normally uses to produce
body heat. You can use fire to purify water, sterilize bandages, signal for rescue, and provide protection
from animals. It can be a psychological boost by providing peace of mind and companionship. You can
also use fire to produce tools and weapons.
Fire can cause problems, as well. The enemy can detect the smoke and light it produces. It can cause
forest fires or destroy essential equipment. Fire can also cause burns carbon monoxide poisoning when
used in shelters.
Remember weigh your need for fire against your need to avoid enemy detection.
BASIC FIRE PRINCIPLES
To build a fire, it helps to understand the basic principles of a fire. Fuel (in a nongaseous state) does not burn directly. When
you apply heat to a fuel, it produces a gas. This gas, combined with oxygen in the air, burns.
Understanding the concept of the fire triangle is very important in correctly constructing and maintaining a fire. The three sides
of the triangle represent air, heat, and fuel. If you remove any of these, the fire will go out. The correct ratio of these
components is very important for a fire to burn at its greatest capability. The only way to learn this ratio is to practice.
SITE SELECTION AND PREPARATION
You will have to decide what site and arrangement to use. Before building a fire consider--
The area (terrain and climate) in which you are operating.
The materials and tools available.
Time: how much time you have?
Need: why you need a fire?
Security: how close is the enemy?
Look for a dry spot that--
Is protected from the wind.
Is suitably placed in relation to your shelter (if any).
Will concentrate the heat in the direction you desire.
Has a supply of wood or other fuel available. (See Figure 7-4 for types of material you can use.)
If you are in a wooded or brush-covered area, clear the brush and scrape the surface soil from the spot you have selected.
Clear a circle at least 1 meter in diameter so there is little chance of the fire spreading.
If time allows, construct a fire wall using logs or rocks. This wall will help to reflector direct the heat where you want it (Figure
7-1). It will also reduce flying sparks and cut down on the amount of wind blowing into the fire. However, you will need enough
wind to keep the fire burning.
CAUTION
Do not use wet or porous rocks as they may explode when heated.
In some situations, you may find that an underground fireplace will best meet your needs. It conceals the fire and serves well for
cooking food. To make an underground fireplace or Dakota fire hole (Figure 7-2)--
Dig a hole in the ground.
On the upwind side of this hole, poke or dig a large connecting hole for ventilation.
Build your fire in the hole as illustrated.
If you are in a snow-covered area, use green logs to make a dry base for your fire (Figure 7-3). Trees with wrist-sized trunks
are easily broken in extreme cold. Cut or break several green logs and lay them side by side on top of the snow. Add one or
two more layers. Lay the top layer of logs opposite those below it.
FIRE MATERIAL SELECTION
You need three types of materials (Figure 7-4) to build a fire--tinder, kindling, and fuel.
Tinder is dry material that ignites with little heat--a spark starts a fire. The tinder must be absolutely dry to be sure just a spark
will ignite it. If you only have a device that generates sparks, charred cloth will be almost essential. It holds a spark for long
periods, allowing you to put tinder on the hot area to generate a small flame. You can make charred cloth by heating cotton
cloth until it turns black, but does not burn. Once it is black, you must keep it in an airtight container to keep it dry. Prepare this
cloth well in advance of any survival situation. Add it to your individual survival kit.
Kindling is readily combustible material that you add to the burning tinder. Again, this material should be absolutely dry to
ensure rapid burning. Kindling increases the fire's temperature so that it will ignite less combustible material.
Fuel is less combustible material that burns slowly and steadily once ignited.
HOW TO BUILD A FIRE
There are several methods for laying a fire, each of which has advantages. The situation you find yourself in will determine
which fire to use.
Tepee
To make this fire (Figure 7-5), arrange the tinder and a few sticks of kindling in the shape of a tepee or cone. Light the center.
As the tepee burns, the outside logs will fall inward, feeding the fire. This type of fire burns well even with wet wood.
Lean-To
To lay this fire (Figure 7-5), push a green stick into the ground at a 30-degree angle. Point the end of the stick in the direction
of the wind. Place some tinder deep under this lean-to stick. Lean pieces of kindling against the lean-to stick. Light the tinder.
As the kindling catches fire from the tinder, add more kindling.
Cross-Ditch
To use this method (Figure 7-5), scratch a cross about 30 centimeters in size in the ground. Dig the cross 7.5 centimeters deep.
Put a large wad of tinder in the middle of the cross. Build a kindling pyramid above the tinder. The shallow ditch allows air to
sweep under the tinder to provide a draft.
Pyramid
To lay this fire (Figure 7-5), place two small logs or branches parallel on the ground. Place a solid layer of small logs across the
parallel logs. Add three or four more layers of logs or branches, each layer smaller than and at a right angle to the layer below
it. Make a starter fire on top of the pyramid. As the starter fire burns, it will ignite the logs below it. This gives you a fire that
burns downward, requiring no attention during the night.
There are several other ways to lay a fire that are quite effective. Your situation and the material available in the area may make
another method more suitable.
HOW TO LIGHT A FIRE
Always light your fire from the upwind side. Make sure to lay your tinder, kindling, and fuel so that your fire will burn as long as
you need it. Igniters provide the initial heat required to start the tinder burning. They fall into two categories: modern methods
and primitive methods.
Modern Methods
Modem igniters use modem devices--items we normally think of to start a fire.
Matches
Make sure these matches are waterproof. Also, store them in a waterproof container along with a dependable striker pad.
Convex Lens
Use this method (Figure 7-6) only on bright, sunny days. The lens can come from binoculars, camera, telescopic sights, or
magnifying glasses. Angle the lens to concentrate the sun's rays on the tinder. Hold the lens over the same spot until the tinder
begins to smolder. Gently blow or fan the tinder into flame, and apply it to the fire lay.
Metal Match
Place a flat, dry leaf under your tinder with a portion exposed. Place the tip of the metal match on the dry leaf, holding the metal
match in one hand and a knife in the other. Scrape your knife against the metal match to produce sparks. The sparks will hit the
tinder. When the tinder starts to smolder, proceed as above.
Battery
Use a battery to generate a spark. Use of this method depends on the type of battery available. Attach a wire to each terminal.
Touch the ends of the bare wires together next to the tinder so the sparks will ignite it.
Gunpowder
Often, you will have ammunition with your equipment. If so, carefully extract the bullet from the shell casing, and use the
gunpowder as tinder. A spark will ignite the powder. Be extremely careful when extracting the bullet from the case.
Primitive Methods
Primitive igniters are those attributed to our early ancestors.
Flint and Steel
The direct spark method is the easiest of the primitive methods to use. The flint and steel method is the most reliable of the
direct spark methods. Strike a flint or other hard, sharp-edged rock edge with a piece of carbon steel (stainless steel will not
produce a good spark). This method requires a loose-jointed wrist and practice. When a spark has caught in the tinder, blow
on it. The spark will spread and burst into flames.
Fire-Plow
The fire-plow (Figure 7-7) is a friction method of ignition. You rub a hardwood shaft against a softer wood base. To use this
method, cut a straight groove in the base and plow the blunt tip of the shaft up and down the groove. The plowing action of the
shaft pushes out small particles of wood fibers. Then, as you apply more pressure on each stroke, the friction ignites the wood
particles.
Bow and Drill
The technique of starting a fire with a bow and drill (Figure 7-8) is simple, but you must exert much effort and be persistent to
produce a fire. You need the following items to use this method:
Socket. The socket is an easily grasped stone or piece of hardwood or bone with a slight depression in one side. Use it
to hold the drill in place and to apply downward pressure.
Drill. The drill should be a straight, seasoned hardwood stick about 2 centimeters in diameter and 25 centimeters long.
The top end is round and the low end blunt (to produce more friction).
Fire board. Its size is up to you. A seasoned softwood board about 2.5 centimeters thick and 10 centimeters wide is
preferable. Cut a depression about 2 centimeters from the edge on one side of the board. On the underside, make a
V-shaped cut from the edge of the board to the depression.
Bow. The bow is a resilient, green stick about 2.5 centimeters in diameter and a string. The type of wood is not
important. The bowstring can be any type of cordage. You tie the bowstring from one end of the bow to the other,
without any slack.
To use the bow and drill, first prepare the fire lay. Then place a bundle of tinder under the V-shaped cut in the fire board. Place
one foot on the fire board. Loop the bowstring over the drill and place the drill in the precut depression on the fire board. Place
the socket, held in one hand, on the top of the drill to hold it in position. Press down on the drill and saw the bow back and
forth to twirl the drill (Figure 7-8). Once you have established a smooth motion, apply more downward pressure and work the
bow faster. This action will grind hot black powder into the tinder, causing a spark to catch. Blow on the tinder until it ignites.
Note: Primitive fire-building methods are exhaustive and require practice to ensure success.
HELPFUL HINTS
Use nonaromatic seasoned hardwood for fuel, if possible.
Collect kindling and tinder along the trail.
Add insect repellent to the tinder.
Keep the firewood dry.
Dry damp firewood near the fire.
Bank the fire to keep the coals alive overnight.
Carry lighted punk, when possible.
Be sure the fire is out before leaving camp.
Do not select wood lying on the ground. It may appear to be dry but generally doesn't provide enough friction.
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CHAPTER 8
FOOD PROCUREMENT
After water, man's most urgent requirement is food. In contemplating virtually any hypothetical survival
situation, the mind immediately turns to thoughts of food. Unless the situation occurs in an arid
environment, even water, which is more important to maintaining body functions, will almost always
follow food in our initial thoughts. The survivor must remember that the three essentials of
survival--water, food, and shelter--are prioritized according to the estimate of the actual situation. This
estimate must not only be timely but accurate as well. Some situations may well dictate that shelter
precede both food and water.
ANIMALS FOR FOOD
Unless you have the chance to take large game, concentrate your efforts on the smaller animals, due to their abundance. The
smaller animal species are also easier to prepare. You must not know all the animal species that are suitable as food. Relatively
few are poisonous, and they make a smaller list to remember. What is important is to learn the habits and behavioral patterns of
classes of animals. For example, animals that are excellent choices for trapping, those that inhabit a particular range and occupy
a den or nest, those that have somewhat fixed feeding areas, and those that have trails leading from one area to another. Larger,
herding animals, such as elk or caribou, roam vast areas and are somewhat more difficult to trap. Also, you must understand
the food choices of a particular species.
You can, with relatively few exceptions, eat anything that crawls, swims, walks, or flies. The first obstacle is overcoming your
natural aversion to a particular food source. Historically, people in starvation situations have resorted to eating everything
imaginable for nourishment. A person who ignores an otherwise healthy food source due to a personal bias, or because he feels
it is unappetizing, is risking his own survival. Although it may prove difficult at first, a survivor must eat what is available to
maintain his health.
Insects
The most abundant life-form on earth, insects are easily caught. Insects provide 65 to 80 percent protein compared to 20
percent for beef. This fact makes insects an important, if not overly appetizing, food source. Insects to avoid include all adults
that sting or bite, hairy or brightly colored insects, and caterpillars and insects that have a pungent odor. Also avoid spiders and
common disease carriers such as ticks, flies, and mosquitoes.
Rotting logs lying on the ground are excellent places to look for a variety of insects including ants, termites, beetles, and grubs,
which are beetle larvae. Do not overlook insect nests on or in the ground. Grassy areas, such as fields, are good areas to
search because the insects are easily seen. Stones, boards, or other materials lying on the ground provide the insects with good
nesting sites. Check these sites. Insect larvae are also edible. Insects such as beetles and grasshoppers that have a hard outer
shell will have parasites. Cook them before eating. Remove any wings and barbed legs also. You can eat most insects raw. The
taste varies from one species to another. Wood grubs are bland, while some species of ants store honey in their bodies, giving
them a sweet taste. You can grind a collection of insects into a paste. You can mix them with edible vegetation. You can cook
them to improve their taste.
Worms
Worms (Annelidea) are an excellent protein source. Dig for them in damp humus soil or watch for them on the ground after a
rain. After capturing them, drop them into clean, potable water for a few minutes. The worms will naturally purge or wash
themselves out, after which you can eat them raw.
Crustaceans
Freshwater shrimp range in size from 0.25 centimeter up to 2.5 centimeters. They can form rather large colonies in mats of
floating algae or in mud bottoms of ponds and lakes.
Crayfish are akin to marine lobsters and crabs. You can distinguish them by their hard exoskeleton and five pairs of legs, the
front pair having oversized pincers. Crayfish are active at night, but you can locate them in the daytime by looking under and
around stones in streams. You can also find them by looking in the soft mud near the chimneylike breathing holes of their nests.
You can catch crayfish by tying bits of offal or internal organs to a string. When the crayfish grabs the bait, pull it to shore
before it has a chance to release the bait.
You find saltwater lobsters, crabs, and shrimp from the surf's edge out to water 10 meters deep. Shrimp may come to a light at
night where you can scoop them up with a net. You can catch lobsters and crabs with a baited trap or a baited hook. Crabs
will come to bait placed at the edge of the surf, where you can trap or net them. Lobsters and crabs are nocturnal and caught
best at night.
Mollusks
This class includes octopuses and freshwater and saltwater shellfish such as snails, clams, mussels, bivalves, barnacles,
periwinkles, chitons, and sea urchins (Figure 8-1). You find bivalves similar to our freshwater mussel and terrestrial and aquatic
snails worldwide under all water conditions.
River snails or freshwater periwinkles are plentiful in rivers, streams, and lakes of northern coniferous forests. These snails may
be pencil point or globular in shape.
In fresh water, look for mollusks in the shallows, especially in water with a sandy or muddy bottom. Look for the narrow trails
they leave in the mud or for the dark elliptical slit of their open valves.
Near the sea, look in the tidal pools and the wet sand. Rocks along beaches or extending as reefs into deeper water often bear
clinging shellfish. Snails and limpets cling to rocks and seaweed from the low water mark upward. Large snails, called chitons,
adhere tightly to rocks above the surf line.
Mussels usually form dense colonies in rock pools, on logs, or at the base of boulders.
CAUTION
Mussels may be poisonous in tropical zones during the summer!
Steam, boil, or bake mollusks in the shell. They make excellent stews in combination with greens and tubers.
CAUTION
Do not eat shellfish that are not covered by water at high tide!
Fish
Fish represent a good source of protein and fat. They offer some distinct advantages to the survivor or evader. They are usually
more abundant than mammal wildlife, and the ways to get them are silent. To be successful at catching fish, you must know their
habits. For instance, fish tend to feed heavily before a storm. Fish are not likely to feed after a storm when the water is muddy
and swollen. Light often attracts fish at night. When there is a heavy current, fish will rest in places where there is an eddy, such
as near rocks. Fish will also gather where there are deep pools, under overhanging brush, and in and around submerged foliage,
logs, or other objects that offer them shelter.
There are no poisonous freshwater fish. However, the catfish species has sharp, needlelike protrusions on its dorsal fins and
barbels. These can inflict painful puncture wounds that quickly become infected.
Cook all freshwater fish to kill parasites. Also cook saltwater fish caught within a reef or within the influence of a freshwater
source as a precaution. Any marine life obtained farther out in the sea will not contain parasites because of the saltwater
environment. You can eat these raw.
Certain saltwater species of fish have poisonous flesh. In some species the poison occurs seasonally in others, it is permanent.
Examples of poisonous saltwater fish are the porcupine fish, triggerfish, cowfish, thorn fish, oilfish, red snapper, jack, and puffer
(Figure 8-2). The barracuda, while not actually poisonous itself, may transmit ciguatera (fish poisoning) if eaten raw.
Amphibians
Frogs and salamanders are easily found around bodies of fresh water. Frogs seldom move from the safety of the water's edge.
At the first sign of danger, they plunge into the water and bury themselves in the mud and debris. There are few poisonous
species of frogs. Avoid any brightly colored frog or one that has a distinct "X" mark on it's back. Do not confuse toads with
frogs. You normally find toads in drier environments. Several species of toads secrete a poisonous substance through their skin
as a defense against attack. Therefore, to avoid poisoning, do not handle or eat toads.
Salamanders are nocturnal. The best time to catch them is at night using a light. They can range in size from a few centimeters to
well over 60 centimeters in length. Look in water around rocks and mud banks for salamanders.
Reptiles
Reptiles are a good protein source and relatively easy to catch. You should cook them, but in an emergency, you can eat them
raw. Their raw flesh may transmit parasites, but because reptiles are cold-blooded, they do not carry the blood diseases of the
warm-blooded animals.
The box turtle is a commonly encountered turtle that you should not eat. It feeds on poisonous mushrooms and may build up a
highly toxic poison in its flesh. Cooking does not destroy this toxin. Avoid the hawksbill turtle, found in the Atlantic Ocean,
because of its poisonous thorax gland. Poisonous snakes, alligators, crocodiles, and large sea turtles present obvious hazards to
the survivor.
Birds
All species of birds are edible, although the flavor will vary considerably. You may skin fish-eating birds to improve their taste.
As with any wild animal, you must understand birds' common habits to have a realistic chance of capturing them. You can take
pigeons, as well as some other species, from their roost at night by hand. During the nesting season, some species will not leave
the nest even when approached. Knowing where and when the birds nest makes catching them easier (Figure 8-3). Birds tend
to have regular flyways going from the roost to a feeding area, to water, and so forth. Careful observation should reveal where
these flyways are and indicate good areas for catching birds in nets stretched across the flyways (Figure 8-4). Roosting sites
and waterholes are some of the most promising areas for trapping or snaring.
Nesting birds present another food source--eggs. Remove all but two or three eggs from the clutch, marking the ones that you
leave. The bird will continue to lay more eggs to fill the clutch. Continue removing the fresh eggs, leaving the ones you marked.
Mammals
Mammals are excellent protein sources and, for Americans, the most tasty food source. There are some drawbacks to
obtaining mammals. In a hostile environment, the enemy may detect any traps or snares placed on land. The amount of injury an
animal can inflict is in direct proportion to its size. All mammals have teeth and nearly all will bite in self-defense. Even a squirrel
can inflict a serious wound and any bite presents a serious risk of infection. Also, a mother can be extremely aggressive in
defense of her young. Any animal with no route of escape will fight when cornered.
All mammals are edible; however, the polar bear and bearded seal have toxic levels of vitamin A in their livers. The platypus,
native to Australia and Tasmania, is an egg-laying, semiaquatic mammal that has poisonous glands. Scavenging mammals, such
as the opossum, may carry diseases.
TRAPS AND SNARES
For an unarmed survivor or evader, or when the sound of a rifle shot could be a problem, trapping or snaring wild game is a
good alternative. Several well-placed traps have the potential to catch much more game than a man with a rifle is likely to
shoot. To be effective with any type of trap or snare, you must--
Be familiar with the species of animal you intend to catch.
Be capable of constructing a proper trap.
Not alarm the prey by leaving signs of your presence.
There are no catchall traps you can set for all animals. You must determine what species are in a given area and set your traps
specifically with those animals in mind. Look for the following:
Runs and trails.
Tracks.
Droppings.
Chewed or rubbed vegetation.
Nesting or roosting sites.
Feeding and watering areas.
Position your traps and snares where there is proof that animals pass through. You must determine if it is a "run" or a "trail." A
trail will show signs of use by several species and will be rather distinct. A run is usually smaller and less distinct and will only
contain signs of one species. You may construct a perfect snare, but it will not catch anything if haphazardly placed in the
woods. Animals have bedding areas, waterholes, and feeding areas with trails leading from one to another. You must place
snares and traps around these areas to be effective.
For an evader in a hostile environment, trap and snare concealment is important. It is equally important, however, not to create
a disturbance that will alarm the animal and cause it to avoid the trap. Therefore, if you must dig, remove all fresh dirt from the
area. Most animals will instinctively avoid a pitfall-type trap. Prepare the various parts of a trap or snare away from the site,
carry them in, and set them up. Such actions make it easier to avoid disturbing the local vegetation, thereby alerting the prey.
Do not use freshly cut, live vegetation to construct a trap or snare. Freshly cut vegetation will "bleed" sap that has an odor the
prey will be able to smell. It is an alarm signal to the animal.
You must remove or mask the human scent on and around the trap you set. Although birds do not have a developed sense of
smell, nearly all mammals depend on smell even more than on sight. Even the slightest human scent on a trap will alarm the prey
and cause it to avoid the area. Actually removing the scent from a trap is difficult but masking it is relatively easy. Use the fluid
from the gall and urine bladders of previous kills. Do not use human urine. Mud, particularly from an area with plenty of rotting
vegetation, is also good. Use it to coat your hands when handling the trap and to coat the trap when setting it. In nearly all parts
of the world, animals know the smell of burned vegetation and smoke. It is only when a fire is actually burning that they become
alarmed. Therefore, smoking the trap parts is an effective means to mask your scent. If one of the above techniques is not
practical, and if time permits, allow a trap to weather for a few days and then set it. Do not handle a trap while it is weathering.
When you position the trap, camouflage it as naturally as possible to prevent detection by the enemy and to avoid alarming the
prey.
Traps or snares placed on a trail or run should use channelization. To build a channel, construct a funnel-shaped barrier
extending from the sides of the trail toward the trap, with the narrowest part nearest the trap. Channelization should be
inconspicuous to avoid alerting the prey. As the animal gets to the trap, it cannot turn left or right and continues into the trap.
Few wild animals will back up, preferring to face the direction of travel. Channelization does not have to be an impassable
barrier. You only have to make it inconvenient for the animal to go over or through the barrier. For best effect, the
channelization should reduce the trail's width to just slightly wider than the targeted animal's body. Maintain this constriction at
least as far back from the trap as the animal's body length, then begin the widening toward the mouth of the funnel.
Use of Bait
Baiting a trap or snare increases your chances of catching an animal. When catching fish, you must bait nearly all the devices.
Success with an unbaited trap depends on its placement in a good location. A baited trap can actually draw animals to it. The
bait should be something the animal knows. This bait, however, should not be so readily available in the immediate area that the
animal can get it close by. For example, baiting a trap with corn in the middle of a corn field would not be likely to work.
Likewise, if corn is not grown in the region, a corn-baited trap may arouse an animal's curiosity and keep it alerted while it
ponders the strange food. Under such circumstances it may not go for the bait. One bait that works well on small mammals is
the peanut butter from a meal, ready-to-eat (MRE) ration. Salt is also a good bait. When using such baits, scatter bits of it
around the trap to give the prey a chance to sample it and develop a craving for it. The animal will then overcome some of its
caution before it gets to the trap.
If you set and bait a trap for one species but another species takes the bait without being caught, try to determine what the
animal was. Then set a proper trap for that animal, using the same bait.
Note: Once you have successfully trapped an animal, you will not only gain confidence in your ability, you
also will have resupplied yourself with bait for several more traps.
Trap and Snare Construction
Traps and snares crush, choke, hang, or entangle the prey. A single trap or snare will commonly incorporate two or more of
these principles. The mechanisms that provide power to the trap are almost always very simple. The struggling victim, the force
of gravity, or a bent sapling's tension provides the power.
The heart of any trap or snare is the trigger. When planning a trap or snare, ask yourself how it should affect the prey, what is
the source of power, and what will be the most efficient trigger. Your answers will help you devise a specific trap for a specific
species. Traps are designed to catch and hold or to catch and kill. Snares are traps that incorporate a noose to accomplish
either function.
Simple Snare
A simple snare (Figure 8-5) consists of a noose placed over a trail or den hole and attached to a firmly planted stake. If the
noose is some type of cordage placed upright on a game trail, use small twigs or blades of grass to hold it up. Filaments from
spider webs are excellent for holding nooses open. Make sure the noose is large enough to pass freely over the animal's head.
As the animal continues to move, the noose tightens around its neck. The more the animal struggles, the tighter the noose gets.
This type of snare usually does not kill the animal. If you use cordage, it may loosen enough to slip off the animal's neck. Wire is
therefore the best choice for a simple snare.
Drag Noose
Use a drag noose on an animal run (Figure 8-6). Place forked sticks on either side of the run and lay a sturdy crossmember
across them. Tie the noose to the crossmember and hang it at a height above the animal's head. (Nooses designed to catch by
the head should never be low enough for the prey to step into with a foot.) As the noose tightens around the animal's neck, the
animal pulls the crossmember from the forked sticks and drags it along. The surrounding vegetation quickly catches the
crossmember and the animal becomes entangled.
Twitch-Up
A twitch-up is a supple sapling, which, when bent over and secured with a triggering device, will provide power to a variety of
snares. Select a hardwood sapling along the trail. A twitch-up will work much faster and with more force if you remove all the
branches and foliage.
Twitch-Up Snare
A simple twitch-up snare uses two forked sticks, each with a long and short leg (Figure 8-7). Bend the twitch-up and mark the
trail below it. Drive the long leg of one forked stick firmly into the ground at that point. Ensure the cut on the short leg of this
stick is parallel to the ground. Tie the long leg of the remaining forked stick to a piece of cordage secured to the twitch-up. Cut
the short leg so that it catches on the short leg of the other forked stick. Extend a noose over the trail. Set the trap by bending
the twitch-up and engaging the short legs of the forked sticks. When an animal catches its head in the noose, it pulls the forked
sticks apart, allowing the twitch-up to spring up and hang the prey.
Note: Do not use green sticks for the trigger. The sap that oozes out could glue them together.
Squirrel Pole
A squirrel pole is a long pole placed against a tree in an area showing a lot of squirrel activity (Figure 8-8). Place several wire
nooses along the top and sides of the pole so that a squirrel trying to go up or down the pole will have to pass through one or
more of them. Position the nooses (5 to 6 centimeters in diameter) about 2.5 centimeters off the pole. Place the top and bottom
wire nooses 45 centimeters from the top and bottom of the pole to prevent the squirrel from getting its feet on a solid surface. If
this happens, the squirrel will chew through the wire. Squirrels are naturally curious. After an initial period of caution, they will
try to go up or down the pole and will get caught in a noose. The struggling animal will soon fall from the pole and strangle.
Other squirrels will soon follow and, in this way, you can catch several squirrels. You can emplace multiple poles to increase
the catch.
Ojibwa Bird Pole
An Ojibwa bird pole is a snare used by native Americans for centuries (Figure 8-9). To be effective, place it in a relatively open
area away from tall trees. For best results, pick a spot near feeding areas, dusting areas, or watering holes. Cut a pole 1.8 to
2.1 meters long and trim away all limbs and foliage. Do not use resinous wood such as pine. Sharpen the upper end to a point,
then drill a small diameter hole 5 to 7.5 centimeters down from the top. Cut a small stick 10 to 15 centimeters long and shape
one end so that it will almost fit into the hole. This is the perch. Plant the long pole in the ground with the pointed end up. Tie a
small weight, about equal to the weight of the targeted species, to a length of cordage. Pass the free end of the cordage through
the hole, and tie a slip noose that covers the perch. Tie a single overhand knot in the cordage and place the perch against the
hole. Allow the cordage to slip through the hole until the overhand knot rests against the pole and the top of the perch. The
tension of the overhand knot against the pole and perch will hold the perch in position. Spread the noose over the perch,
ensuring it covers the perch and drapes over on both sides. Most birds prefer to rest on something above ground and will land
on the perch. As soon as the bird lands, the perch will fall, releasing the over-hand knot and allowing the weight to drop. The
noose will tighten around the bird's feet, capturing it. If the weight is too heavy, it will cut the bird's feet off, allowing it to
escape.
Noosing Wand
A noose stick or "noosing wand" is useful for capturing roosting birds or small mammals (Figure 8-10). It requires a patient
operator. This wand is more a weapon than a trap. It consists of a pole (as long as you can effectively handle) with a slip noose
of wire or stiff cordage at the small end. To catch an animal, you slip the noose over the neck of a roosting bird and pull it tight.
You can also place it over a den hole and hide in a nearby blind. When the animal emerges from the den, you jerk the pole to
tighten the noose and thus capture the animal. Carry a stout club to kill the prey.
Treadle Spring Snare
Use a treadle snare against small game on a trail (Figure 8-11). Dig a shallow hole in the trail. Then drive a forked stick (fork
down) into the ground on each side of the hole on the same side of the trail. Select two fairly straight sticks that span the two
forks. Position these two sticks so that their ends engage the forks. Place several sticks over the hole in the trail by positioning
one end over the lower horizontal stick and the other on the ground on the other side of the hole. Cover the hole with enough
sticks so that the prey must step on at least one of them to set off the snare. Tie one end of a piece of cordage to a twitch-up or
to a weight suspended over a tree limb. Bend the twitch-up or raise the suspended weight to determine where You will tie a 5
centimeter or so long trigger. Form a noose with the other end of the cordage. Route and spread the noose over the top of the
sticks over the hole. Place the trigger stick against the horizontal sticks and route the cordage behind the sticks so that the
tension of the power source will hold it in place. Adjust the bottom horizontal stick so that it will barely hold against the trigger.
A the animal places its foot on a stick across the hole, the bottom horizontal stick moves down, releasing the trigger and
allowing the noose to catch the animal by the foot. Because of the disturbance on the trail, an animal will be wary. You must
therefore use channelization.
Figure 4 Deadfall
The figure 4 is a trigger used to drop a weight onto a prey and crush it (Figure 8-12). The type of weight used may vary, but it
should be heavy enough to kill or incapacitate the prey immediately. Construct the figure 4 using three notched sticks. These
notches hold the sticks together in a figure 4 pattern when under tension. Practice making this trigger before-hand; it requires
close tolerances and precise angles in its construction.
Paiute Deadfall
The Paiute deadfall is similar to the figure 4 but uses a piece of cordage and a catch stick (Figure 8-13). It has the advantage of
being easier to set than the figure 4. Tie one end of a piece of cordage to the lower end of the diagonal stick. Tie the other end
of the cordage to another stick about 5 centimeters long. This 5-centimeter stick is the catch stick. Bring the cord halfway
around the vertical stick with the catch stick at a 90-degree angle. Place the bait stick with one end against the drop weight, or
a peg driven into the ground, and the other against the catch stick. When a prey disturbs the bait stick, it falls free, releasing the
catch stick. As the diagonal stick flies up, the weight falls, crushing the prey.
Bow Trap
A bow trap is one of the deadliest traps. It is dangerous to man as well as animals (Figure 8-14). To construct this trap, build a
bow and anchor it to the ground with pegs. Adjust the aiming point as you anchor the bow. Lash a toggle stick to the trigger
stick. Two upright sticks driven into the ground hold the trigger stick in place at a point where the toggle stick will engage the
pulled bow string. Place a catch stick between the toggle stick and a stake driven into the ground. Tie a trip wire or cordage to
the catch stick and route it around stakes and across the game trail where you tie it off (as in Figure 8-14). When the prey trips
the trip wire, the bow looses an arrow into it. A notch in the bow serves to help aim the arrow.
WARNING
This is a lethal trap. Approach it with caution and from the rear only!
Pig Spear Shaft
To construct the pig spear shaft, select a stout pole about 2.5 meters long (Figure 8-15). At the smaller end, firmly lash several
small stakes. Lash the large end tightly to a tree along the game trail. Tie a length of cordage to another tree across the trail. Tie
a sturdy, smooth stick to the other end of the cord. From the first tree, tie a trip wire or cord low to the ground, stretch it
across the trail, and tie it to a catch stick. Make a slip ring from vines or other suitable material. Encircle the trip wire and the
smooth stick with the slip ring. Emplace one end of another smooth stick within the slip ring and its other end against the second
tree. Pull the smaller end of the spear shaft across the trail and position it between the short cord and the smooth stick. As the
animal trips the trip wire, the catch stick pulls the slip ring off the smooth sticks, releasing the spear shaft that springs across the
trail and impales the prey against the tree.
WARNING
This is a lethal trap. Approach it with caution!
Bottle Trap
A bottle trap is a simple trap for mice and voles (Figure 8-16). Dig a hole 30 to 45 centimeters deep that is wider at the bottom
than at the top. Make the top of the hole as small as possible. Place a piece of bark or wood over the hole with small stones
under it to hold it up 2.5 to 5 centimeters off the ground. Mice or voles will hide under the cover to escape danger and fall into
the hole. They cannot climb out because of the wall's backward slope. Use caution when checking this trap; it is an excellent
hiding place for snakes.
KILLING DEVICES
There are several killing devices that you can construct to help you obtain small game to help you survive. The rabbit stick, the
spear, the bow and arrow, and the sling are such devices.
Rabbit Stick
One of the simplest and most effective killing devices is a stout stick as long as your arm, from fingertip to shoulder, called a
"rabbit stick." You can throw it either overhand or sidearm and with considerable force. It is very effective against small game
that stops and freezes as a defense.
Spear
You can make a spear to kill small game and to fish. Jab with the spear, do not throw it. See spearfishing below.
Bow and Arrow
A good bow is the result of many hours of work. You can construct a suitable short-term bow fairly easily. When it loses its
spring or breaks, you can replace it. Select a hardwood stick about one meter long that is free of knots or limbs. Carefully
scrape the large end down until it has the same pull as the small end. Careful examination will show the natural curve of the
stick. Always scrape from the side that faces you, or the bow will break the first time you pull it. Dead, dry wood is preferable
to green wood. To increase the pull, lash a second bow to the first, front to front, forming an "X" when viewed from the side.
Attach the tips of the bows with cordage and only use a bowstring on one bow.
Select arrows from the straightest dry sticks available. The arrows should be about half as long as the bow. Scrape each shaft
smooth all around. You will probably have to straighten the shaft. You can bend an arrow straight by heating the shaft over hot
coals. Do not allow the shaft to scorch or bum. Hold the shaft straight until it cools.
You can make arrowheads from bone, glass, metal, or pieces of rock. You can also sharpen and fire harden the end of the
shaft. To fire harden wood, hold it over hot coals, being careful not to bum or scorch the wood.
You must notch the ends of the arrows for the bowstring. Cut or file the notch; do not split it. Fletching (adding feathers to the
notched end of an arrow) improves the arrow's flight characteristics, but is not necessary on a field-expedient arrow.
Sling
You can make a sling by tying two pieces of cordage, about sixty centimeters long, at opposite ends of a palm-sized piece of
leather or cloth. Place a rock in the cloth and wrap one cord around the middle finger and hold in your palm. Hold the other
cord between the forefinger and thumb. To throw the rock, spin the sling several times in a circle and release the cord between
the thumb and forefinger. Practice to gain proficiency. The sling is very effective against small game.
FISHING DEVICES
You can make your own fishhooks, nets and traps and use several methods to obtain fish in a survival situation.
Improvised Fishhooks
You can make field-expedient fishhooks from pins, needles, wire, small nails, or any piece of metal. You can also use wood,
bone, coconut shell, thorns, flint, seashell, or tortoise shell. You can also make fishhooks from any combination of these items
(Figure 8-17).
To make a wooden hook, cut a piece of hardwood about 2.5 centimeters long and about 6 millimeters in diameter to form the
shank. Cut a notch in one end in which to place the point. Place the point (piece of bone, wire, nail) in the notch. Hold the point
in the notch and tie securely so that it does not move out of position. This is a fairly large hook. To make smaller hooks, use
smaller material.
A gorge is a small shaft of wood, bone, metal, or other material. It is sharp on both ends and notched in the middle where you
tie cordage. Bait the gorge by placing a piece of bait on it lengthwise. When the fish swallows the bait, it also swallows the
gorge.
Stakeout
A stakeout is a fishing device you can use in a hostile environment (Figure 8-18). To construct a stakeout, drive two supple
saplings into the bottom of the lake, pond, or stream with their tops just below the water surface. Tie a cord between them and
slightly below the surface. Tie two short cords with hooks or gorges to this cord, ensuring that they cannot wrap around the
poles or each other. They should also not slip along the long cord. Bait the hooks or gorges.
Gill Net
If a gill net is not available, you can make one using parachute suspension line or similar material (Figure 8-19). Remove the
core lines from the suspension line and tie the easing between two trees. Attach several core lines to the easing by doubling
them over and tying them with prusik knots or girth hitches. The length of the desired net and the size of the mesh determine the
number of core lines used and the space between them. Starting at one end of the easing, tie the second and the third core lines
together using an overhand knot. Then tie the fourth and fifth, sixth and seventh, and so on, until you reach the last core line.
You should now have all core lines tied in pairs with a single core line hanging at each end. Start the second row with the first
core line, tie it to the second, the third to the fourth, and so on.
To keep the rows even and to regulate the size of the mesh, tie a guideline to the trees. Position the guideline on the opposite
side of the net you are working on. Move the guideline down after completing each row. The lines will always hang in pairs and
you always tie a cord from one pair to a cord from an adjoining pair. Continue tying rows until the net is the desired width.
Thread a suspension line easing along the bottom of the net to strengthen it. Use the gill net as shown in Figure 8-20.
Fish Traps
You may trap fish using several methods (Figure 8-21). Fish baskets are one method. You construct them by lashing several
sticks together with vines into a funnel shape. You close the top, leaving a hole large enough for the fish to swim through.
You can also use traps to catch saltwater fish, as schools regularly approach the shore with the incoming tide and often move
parallel to the shore. Pick a location at high tide and build the trap at low tide. On rocky shores, use natural rock pools. On
coral islands, use natural pools on the surface of reefs by blocking the openings as the tide recedes. On sandy shores, use
sandbars and the ditches they enclose. Build the trap as a low stone wall extending outward into the water and forming an angle
with the shore.
Spearfishing
If you are near shallow water (about waist deep) where the fish are large and plentiful, you can spear them. To make a spear,
cut a long, straight sapling (Figure 8-22). Sharpen the end to a point or attach a knife, jagged piece of bone, or sharpened
metal. You can also make a spear by splitting the shaft a few inches down from the end and inserting a piece of wood to act as
a spreader. You then sharpen the two separated halves to points. To spear fish, find an area where fish either gather or where
there is a fish run. Place the spear point into the water and slowly move it toward the fish. Then, with a sudden push, impale the
fish on the stream bottom. Do not try to lift the fish with the spear, as it with probably slip off and you will lose it; hold the spear
with one hand and grab and hold the fish with the other. Do not throw the spear, especially if the point is a knife. You cannot
afford to lose a knife in a survival situation. Be alert to the problems caused by light refraction when looking at objects in the
water.
Chop Fishing
At night, in an area with a good fish density, you can use a light to attract fish. Then, armed with a machete or similar weapon,
you can gather fish using the back side of the blade to strike them. Do not use the sharp side as you will cut them in two pieces
and end up losing some of the fish.
Fish Poison
Another way to catch fish is by using poison. Poison works quickly. It allows you to remain concealed while it takes effect. It
also enables you to catch several fish at one time. When using fish poison, be sure to gather all of the affected fish, because
many dead fish floating downstream could arouse suspicion. Some plants that grow in warm regions of the world contain
rotenone, a substance that stuns or kills cold-blooded animals but does not harm persons who eat the animals. The best place
to use rotenone, or rotenone-producing plants, is in ponds or the headwaiters of small streams containing fish. Rotenone works
quickly on fish in water 21 degrees C (70 degrees F) or above. The fish rise helplessly to the surface. It works slowly in water
10 to 21 degrees C (50 to 70 degrees F) and is ineffective in water below 10 degrees C (50 degrees F). The following plants,
used as indicated, will stun or kill fish:
Anamirta cocculus (Figure 8-23). This woody vine grows in southern Asia and on islands of the South Pacific. Crush
the bean-shaped seeds and throw them in the water.
Croton tiglium (Figure 8-23). This shrub or small tree grows in waste areas on islands of the South Pacific. It bears
seeds in three angled capsules. Crush the seeds and throw them into the water.
Barringtonia (Figure 8-23). These large trees grow near the sea in Malaya and parts of Polynesia. They bear a fleshy
one-seeded fruit. Crush the seeds and bark and throw into the water.
Derris eliptica (Figure 8-23). This large genus of tropical shrubs and woody vines is the main source of commercially
produced rotenone. Grind the roots into a powder and mix with water. Throw a large quantity of the mixture into the
water.
Duboisia (Figure 8-23). This shrub grows in Australia and bears white clusters of flowers and berrylike fruit. Crush the
plants and throw them into the water.
Tephrosia (Figure 8-23). This species of small shrubs, which bears beanlike pods, grows throughout the tropics. Crush
or bruise bundles of leaves and stems and throw them into the water.
Lime. You can get lime from commercial sources and in agricultural areas that use large quantities of it. You may
produce your own by burning coral or seashells. Throw the lime into the water.
Nut husks. Crush green husks from butternuts or black walnuts. Throw the husks into the water.
PREPARATION OF FISH AND GAME FOR
COOKING AND STORAGE
You must know how to prepare fish and game for cooking and storage in a survival situation. Improper cleaning or storage can
result in inedible fish or game.
Fish
Do not eat fish that appears spoiled. Cooking does not ensure that spoiled fish will be edible. Signs of spoilage are--
Sunken eyes.
Peculiar odor.
Suspicious color. (Gills should be red to pink. Scales should be a pronounced shade of gray, not faded.)
Dents stay in the fish's flesh after pressing it with your thumb.
Slimy, rather than moist or wet body.
Sharp or peppery taste.
Eating spoiled or rotten fish may cause diarrhea, nausea, cramps, vomiting, itching, paralysis, or a metallic taste in the mouth.
These symptoms appear suddenly, one to six hours after eating. Induce vomiting if symptoms appear.
Fish spoils quickly after death, especially on a hot day. Prepare fish for eating as soon as possible after catching it. Cut out the
gills and large blood vessels that lie near the spine. Gut fish that is more than 10 centimeters long. Scale or skin the fish.
You can impale a whole fish on a stick and cook it over an open fire. However, boiling the fish with the skin on is the best way
to get the most food value. The fats and oil are under the skin and, by boiling, you can save the juices for broth. You can use
any of the methods used to cook plant food to cook fish. Pack fish into a ball of clay and bury it in the coals of a fire until the
clay hardens. Break open the clay ball to get to the cooked fish. Fish is done when the meat flakes off. If you plan to keep the
fish for later, smoke or fry it. To prepare fish for smoking, cut off the head and remove the backbone.
Snakes
To skin a snake, first cut off its head and bury it. Then cut the skin down the body 15 to 20 centimeters (Figure 8-24). Peel the
skin back, then grasp the skin in one hand and the body in the other and pull apart. On large, bulky snakes it may be necessary
to slit the belly skin. Cook snakes in the same manner as small game. Remove the entrails and discard. Cut the snake into small
sections and boil or roast it.
Birds
After killing the bird, remove its feathers by either plucking or skinning. Remember, skinning removes some of the food value.
Open up the body cavity and remove its entrails, saving the craw (in seed-eating birds), heart, and liver. Cut off the feet. Cook
by boiling or roasting over a spit. Before cooking scavenger birds, boil them at least 20 minutes to kill parasites.
Skinning and Butchering Game
Bleed the animal by cutting its throat. If possible, clean the carcass near a stream. Place the carcass belly up and split the hide
from throat to tail, cutting around all sexual organs (Figure 8-25). Remove the musk glands at points A and B to avoid tainting
the meat. For smaller mammals, cut the hide around the body and insert two fingers under the hide on both sides of the cut and
pull both pieces off (Figure 8-26).
Note: When cutting the hide, insert the knife blade under the skin and turn the blade up so that only the
hide gets cut. This will also prevent cutting hair and getting it on the meat.
Remove the entrails from smaller game by splitting the body open and pulling them out with the fingers. Do not forget the chest
cavity. For larger game, cut the gullet away from the diaphragm. Roll the entrails out of the body. Cut around the anus, then
reach into the lower abdominal cavity, grasp the lower intestine, and pull to remove. Remove the urine bladder by pinching it off
and cutting it below the fingers. If you spill urine on the meat, wash it to avoid tainting the meat. Save the heart and liver. Cut
these open and inspect for signs of worms or other parasites. Also inspect the liver's color; it could indicate a diseased animal.
The liver's surface should be smooth and wet and its color deep red or purple. If the liver appears diseased, discard it.
However, a diseased liver does not indicate you cannot eat the muscle tissue.
Cut along each leg from above the foot to the previously made body cut. Remove the hide by pulling it away from the carcass,
cutting the connective tissue where necessary. Cut off the head and feet.
Cut larger game into manageable pieces. First, slice the muscle tissue connecting the front legs to the body. There are no bones
or joints connecting the front legs to the body on four-legged animals. Cut the hindquarters off where they join the body. You
must cut around a large bone at the top of the leg and cut to the ball and socket hip joint. Cut the ligaments around the joint and
bend it back to separate it. Remove the large muscles (the tenderloin) that lie on either side of the spine. Separate the ribs from
the backbone. There is less work and less wear on your knife if you break the ribs first, then cut through the breaks.
Cook large meat pieces over a spit or boil them. You can stew or boil smaller pieces, particularly those that remain attached to
bone after the initial butchering, as soup or broth. You can cook body organs such as the heart, liver, pancreas, spleen, and
kidneys using the same methods as for muscle meat. You can also cook and eat the brain. Cut the tongue out, skin it, boil it
until tender, and eat it.
Smoking Meat
To smoke meat, prepare an enclosure around a fire (Figure 8-27). Two ponchos snapped together will work. The fire does not
need to be big or hot. The intent is to produce smoke, not heat. Do not use resinous wood in the fire because its smoke will
ruin the meat. Use hardwoods to produce good smoke. The wood should be somewhat green. If it is too dry, soak it. Cut the
meat into thin slices, no more than 6 centimeters thick, and drape them over a framework. Make sure none of the meat touches
another piece. Keep the poncho enclosure around the meat to hold the smoke and keep a close watch on the fire. Do not let
the fire get too hot. Meat smoked overnight in this manner will last about 1 week. Two days of continuous smoking will
preserve the meat for 2 to 4 weeks. Properly smoked meat will look like a dark, curled, brittle stick and you can eat it without
further cooking. You can also use a pit to smoke meat (Figure 8-28).
Drying Meat
To preserve meat by drying, cut it into 6-millimeter strips with the grain. Hang the meat strips on a rack in a sunny location with
good air flow. Keep the strips out of the reach of animals and cover them to keep blowflies off. Allow the meat to dry
thoroughly before eating. Properly dried meat will have a dry, crisp texture and will not feel cool to the touch.
Other Preservation Methods
You can also preserve meats using the freezing or brine and salt methods.
Freezing
In cold climates, you can freeze and keep meat indefinitely. Freezing is not a means of preparing meat. You must still cook it
before eating.
Brine and Salt
You can preserve meat by soaking it thoroughly in a saltwater solution. The solution must cover the meat. You can also use salt
by itself. Wash off the salt before cooking.
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CHAPTER 9
SURVIVAL USE OF PLANTS
After having solved the problems of finding water, shelter, and animal food, you will have to consider the
use of plants you can eat. In a survival situation you should always be on the lookout for familiar wild
foods and live off the land whenever possible.
You must not count on being able to go for days without food as some sources would suggest. Even in the
most static survival situation, maintaining health through a complete and nutritious diet is essential to
maintaining strength and peace of mind.
Nature can provide you with food that will let you survive any ordeal, if you don't eat the wrong plant.
You must therefore learn as much as possible beforehand about the flora of the region where you will be
operating. Plants can provide you with medicines in a survival situation. Plants can supply you with
weapons and raw materials to construct shelters and build fires. Plants can even provide you with
chemicals for poisoning fish, preserving animal hides, and for camouflaging yourself and your equipment.
Note: You will find illustrations of the plants described in this chapter in Appendixes B and C.
EDIBILITY OF PLANTS
Plants are valuable sources of food because they are widely available, easily procured, and, in the proper combinations, can
meet all your nutritional needs.
WARNING
The critical factor in using plants for food is to avoid accidental poisoning. Eat only those plants you can positively
identify and you know are safe to eat.
Absolutely identify plants before using them as food. Poison hemlock has killed people who mistook it for its relatives, wild
carrots and wild parsnips.
At times you may find yourself in a situation for which you could not plan. In this instance you may not have had the chance to
learn the plant life of the region in which you must survive. In this case you can use the Universal Edibility Test to determine
which plants you can eat and those to avoid.
It is important to be able to recognize both cultivated and wild edible plants in a survival situation. Most of the information in this
chapter is directed towards identifying wild plants because information relating to cultivated plants is more readily available.
Remember the following when collecting wild plants for food:
Plants growing near homes and occupied buildings or along roadsides may have been sprayed with pesticides. Wash
them thoroughly. In more highly developed countries with many automobiles, avoid roadside plants, if possible, due to
contamination from exhaust emissions.
Plants growing in contaminated water or in water containing Giardia lamblia and other parasites are contaminated
themselves. Boil or disinfect them.
Some plants develop extremely dangerous fungal toxins. To lessen the chance of accidental poisoning, do not eat any
fruit that is starting to spoil or showing signs of mildew or fungus.
Plants of the same species may differ in their toxic or subtoxic compounds content because of genetic or environmental
factors. One example of this is the foliage of the common chokecherry. Some chokecherry plants have high
concentrations of deadly cyanide compounds while others have low concentrations or none. Horses have died from
eating wilted wild cherry leaves. Avoid any weed, leaves, or seeds with an almondlike scent, a characteristic of the
cyanide compounds.
Some people are more susceptible to gastric distress (from plants) than others. If you are sensitive in this way, avoid
unknown wild plants. If you are extremely sensitive to poison ivy, avoid products from this family, including any parts
from sumacs, mangoes, and cashews.
Some edible wild plants, such as acorns and water lily rhizomes, are bitter. These bitter substances, usually tannin
compounds, make them unpalatable. Boiling them in several changes of water will usually remove these bitter properties.
Many valuable wild plants have high concentrations of oxalate compounds, also known as oxalic acid. Oxalates produce
a sharp burning sensation in your mouth and throat and damage the kidneys. Baking, roasting, or drying usually destroys
these oxalate crystals. The corm (bulb) of the jack-in-the-pulpit is known as the "Indian turnip," but you can eat it only
after removing these crystals by slow baking or by drying.
WARNING
Do not eat mushrooms in a survival situation! The only way to tell if a mushroom is edible is by positive
identification. There is no room for experimentation. Symptoms of the most dangerous mushrooms affecting the
central nervous system may show up after several days have passed when it is too late to reverse their effects.
Plant Identification
You identify plants, other than by memorizing particular varieties through familiarity, by using such factors as leaf shape and
margin, leaf arrangements, and root structure.
The basic leaf margins (Figure 9-1) are toothed, lobed, and toothless or smooth.
These leaves may be lance-shaped, elliptical, egg-shaped, oblong, wedge-shaped, triangular, long-pointed, or top-shaped
(Figure 9-2).
The basic types of leaf arrangements (Figure 9-3) are opposite, alternate, compound, simple, and basal rosette.
The basic types of root structures (Figure 9-4) are the bulb, clove, taproot, tuber, rhizome, corm, and crown. Bulbs are familiar
to us as onions and, when sliced in half, will show concentric rings. Cloves are those bulblike structures that remind us of garlic
and will separate into small pieces when broken apart. This characteristic separates wild onions from wild garlic. Taproots
resemble carrots and may be single-rooted or branched, but usually only one plant stalk arises from each root. Tubers are like
potatoes and daylilies and you will find these structures either on strings or in clusters underneath the parent plants. Rhizomes
are large creeping rootstock or underground stems and many plants arise from the "eyes" of these roots. Corms are similar to
bulbs but are solid when cut rather than possessing rings. A crown is the type of root structure found on plants such as
asparagus and looks much like a mophead under the soil's surface.
Learn as much as possible about plants you intend to use for food and their unique characteristics. Some plants have both
edible and poisonous parts. Many are edible only at certain times of the year. Others may have poisonous relatives that look
very similar to the ones you can eat or use for medicine.
Universal Edibility Test
There are many plants throughout the world. Tasting or swallowing even a small portion of some can cause severe discomfort,
extreme internal disorders, and even death. Therefore, if you have the slightest doubt about a plant's edibility, apply the
Universal Edibility Test (Figure 9-5) before eating any portion of it.
Before testing a plant for edibility, make sure there are enough plants to make the testing worth your time and effort. Each part
of a plant (roots, leaves, flowers, and so on) requires more than 24 hours to test. Do not waste time testing a plant that is not
relatively abundant in the area.
Remember, eating large portions of plant food on an empty stomach may cause diarrhea, nausea, or cramps. Two good
examples of this are such familiar foods as green apples and wild onions. Even after testing plant food and finding it safe, eat it
in moderation.
You can see from the steps and time involved in testing for edibility just how important it is to be able to identify edible plants.
To avoid potentially poisonous plants, stay away from any wild or unknown plants that have--
Milky or discolored sap.
Beans, bulbs, or seeds inside pods.
Bitter or soapy taste.
Spines, fine hairs, or thorns.
Dill, carrot, parsnip, or parsleylike foliage.
"Almond" scent in woody parts and leaves.
Grain heads with pink, purplish, or black spurs.
Three-leaved growth pattern.
Using the above criteria as eliminators when choosing plants for the Universal Edibility Test will cause you to avoid some edible
plants. More important, these criteria will often help you avoid plants that are potentially toxic to eat or touch.
An entire encyclopedia of edible wild plants could be written, but space limits the number of plants presented here. Learn as
much as possible about the plant life of the areas where you train regularly and where you expect to be traveling or working.
Listed below and later in this chapter are some of the most common edible and medicinal plants. Detailed descriptions and
photographs of these and other common plants are at Appendix B.
TEMPERATE ZONE FOOD PLANTS
Amaranth (Amaranthus retroflexus and other species)
Arrowroot (Sagittaria species)
Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis)
Beechnut (Fagus species)
Blackberries (Rubus species)
Blueberries (Vaccinium species)
Burdock (Arctium lappa)
Cattail (Typha species)
Chestnut (Castanea species)
Chicory (Cichorium intybus)
Chufa (Cyperus esculentus)
Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale)
Daylily (Hemerocallis fulva)
Nettle (Urtica species)
Oaks (Quercus species)
Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana)
Plantain (Plantago species)
Pokeweed (Phytolacca americana)
Prickly pear cactus (Opuntia species)
Purslane (Portulaca oleracea)
Sassafras (Sassafras albidum)
Sheep sorrel (Rumex acetosella)
Strawberries (Fragaria species)
Thistle (Cirsium species)
Water lily and lotus (Nuphar, Nelumbo, and other species)
Wild onion and garlic (Allium species)
Wild rose (Rosa species)
Wood sorrel (Oxalis species)
TROPICAL ZONE FOOD PLANTS
Bamboo (Bambusa and other species)
Bananas (Musa species)
Breadfruit (Artocarpus incisa)
Cashew nut (Anacardium occidental)
Coconut (Cocos nucifera)
Mango (Mangifera indica)
Palms (various species)
Papaya (Carica species)
Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)
Taro (Colocasia species)
DESERT ZONE FOOD PLANTS
Acacia (Acacia farnesiana)
Agave (Agave species)
Cactus (various species)
Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera)
Desert amaranth (Amaranths palmeri)
Seaweeds
One plant you should never overlook is seaweed. It is a form of marine algae found on or near ocean shores. There are also
some edible freshwater varieties. Seaweed is a valuable source of iodine, other minerals, and vitamin C. Large quantities of
seaweed in an unaccustomed stomach can produce a severe laxative effect.
When gathering seaweeds for food, find living plants attached to rocks or floating free. Seaweed washed onshore any length of
time may be spoiled or decayed. You can dry freshly harvested seaweeds for later use.
Its preparation for eating depends on the type of seaweed. You can dry thin and tender varieties in the sun or over a fire until
crisp. Crush and add these to soups or broths. Boil thick, leathery seaweeds for a short time to soften them. Eat them as a
vegetable or with other foods. You can eat some varieties raw after testing for edibility.
SEAWEEDS
Dulse (Rhodymenia palmata)
Green seaweed (Ulva lactuca)
Irish moss (Chondrus crispus)
Kelp (Alaria esculenta)
Laver (Porphyra species)
Mojaban (Sargassum fulvellum)
Sugar wrack (Laminaria saccharina)
Preparation of Plant Food
Although some plants or plant parts are edible raw, you must cook others to be edible or palatable. Edible means that a plant
or food will provide you with necessary nutrients, while palatable means that it actually is pleasing to eat. Many wild plants are
edible but barely palatable. It is a good idea to learn to identify, prepare, and eat wild foods.
Methods used to improve the taste of plant food include soaking, boiling, cooking, or leaching. Leaching is done by crushing
the food (for example, acorns), placing it in a strainer, and pouring boiling water through it or immersing it in running water.
Boil leaves, stems, and buds until tender, changing the water, if necessary, to remove any bitterness.
Boil, bake, or roast tubers and roots. Drying helps to remove caustic oxalates from some roots like those in the Arum family.
Leach acorns in water, if necessary, to remove the bitterness. Some nuts, such as chestnuts, are good raw, but taste better
roasted.
You can eat many grains and seeds raw until they mature. When hard or dry, you may have to boil or grind them into meal or
flour.
The sap from many trees, such as maples, birches, walnuts, and sycamores, contains sugar. You may boil these saps down to a
syrup for sweetening. It takes about 35 liters of maple sap to make one liter of maple syrup!
PLANTS FOR MEDICINE
In a survival situation you will have to use what is available. In using plants and other natural remedies, positive identification of
the plants involved is as critical as in using them for food. Proper use of these plants is equally important.
Terms and Definitions
The following terms, and their definitions, are associated with medicinal plant use:
Poultice. The name given to crushed leaves or other plant parts, possibly heated, that you apply to a wound or sore
either directly or wrapped in cloth or paper.
Infusion or tisane or tea. The preparation of medicinal herbs for internal or external application. You place a small
quantity of a herb in a container, pour hot water over it, and let it steep (covered or uncovered) before use.
Decoction. The extract of a boiled down or simmered herb leaf or root. You add herb leaf or root to water. You bring
them to a sustained boil or simmer to draw their chemicals into the water. The average ratio is about 28 to 56 grams (1
to 2 ounces) of herb to 0.5 liter of water.
Expressed juice. Liquids or saps squeezed from plant material and either applied to the wound or made into another
medicine.
Many natural remedies work slower than the medicines you know. Therefore, start with smaller doses and allow more time for
them to take effect. Naturally, some will act more rapidly than others.
Specific Remedies
The following remedies are for use only in a survival situation, not for routine use:
Diarrhea. Drink tea made from the roots of blackberries and their relatives to stop diarrhea. White oak bark and other
barks containing tannin are also effective. However, use them with caution when nothing else is available because of
possible negative effects on the kidneys. You can also stop diarrhea by eating white clay or campfire ashes. Tea made
from cowberry or cranberry or hazel leaves works too.
Antihemorrhagics. Make medications to stop bleeding from a poultice of the puffball mushroom, from plantain leaves,
or most effectively from the leaves of the common yarrow or woundwort (Achillea millefolium).
Antiseptics. Use to cleanse wounds, sores, or rashes. You can make them from the expressed juice from wild onion or
garlic, or expressed juice from chickweed leaves or the crushed leaves of dock. You can also make antiseptics from a
decoction of burdock root, mallow leaves or roots, or white oak bark. All these medications are for external use only.
Fevers. Treat a fever with a tea made from willow bark, an infusion of elder flowers or fruit, linden flower tea, or elm
bark decoction.
Colds and sore throats. Treat these illnesses with a decoction made from either plantain leaves or willow bark. You can
also use a tea made from burdock roots, mallow or mullein flowers or roots, or mint leaves.
Aches, pains, and sprains. Treat with externally applied poultices of dock, plantain, chickweed, willow bark, garlic, or
sorrel. You can also use salves made by mixing the expressed juices of these plants in animal fat or vegetable oils.
Itching. Relieve the itch from insect bites, sunburn, or plant poisoning rashes by applying a poultice of jewelweed
(Impatiens biflora) or witch hazel leaves (Hamamelis virginiana). The jewelweed juice will help when applied to
poison ivy rashes or insect stings. It works on sunburn as well as aloe vera.
Sedatives. Get help in falling asleep by brewing a tea made from mint leaves or passionflower leaves.
Hemorrhoids. Treat them with external washes from elm bark or oak bark tea, from the expressed juice of plantain
leaves, or from a Solomon's seal root decoction.
Constipation. Relieve constipation by drinking decoctions from dandelion leaves, rose hips, or walnut bark. Eating raw
daylily flowers will also help.
Worms or intestinal parasites. Using moderation, treat with tea made from tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) or from wild
carrot leaves.
Gas and cramps. Use a tea made from carrot seeds as an antiflatulent; use tea made from mint leaves to settle the
stomach.
Antifungal washes. Make a decoction of walnut leaves or oak bark or acorns to treat ringworm and athlete's foot.
Apply frequently to the site, alternating with exposure to direct sunlight.
MISCELLANEOUS USES OF PLANTS
Make dyes from various plants to color clothing or to camouflage your skin. Usually, you will have to boil the
plants to get the best results. Onion skins produce yellow, walnut hulls produce brown, and pokeberries provide a
purple dye.
Make fibers and cordage from plant fibers. Most commonly used are the stems from nettles and milkweeds,
yucca plants, and the inner bark of trees like the linden.
Make fish poison by immersing walnut hulls in a small area of quiet water. This poison makes it impossible for the
fish to breathe but doesn't adversely affect their edibility.
Make tinder for starting fires from cattail fluff, cedar bark, lighter knot wood from pine trees, or hardened sap
from resinous wood trees.
Make insulation by fluffing up female cattail heads or milkweed down.
Make insect repellents by applying the expressed juice of wild garlic or onion to the skin, by placing sassafras
leaves in your shelter, or by burning or smudging cattail seed hair fibers.
Plants can be your ally as long as you use them cautiously. The key to the safe use of plants is positive identification
whether you use them as food or medicine or in constructing shelters or equipment.
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CHAPTER 10
POISONOUS PLANTS
Successful use of plants in a survival situation depends on positive identification. Knowing poisonous
plants is as important to a survivor as knowing edible plants. Knowing the poisonous plants will help you
avoid sustaining injuries from them.
HOW PLANTS POISON
Plants generally poison by--
Ingestion. When a person eats a part of a poisonous plant.
Contact. When a person makes contact with a poisonous plant that causes any type of skin irritation or dermatitis.
Absorption or inhalation. When a person either absorbs the poison through the skin or inhales it into the respiratory
system.
Plant poisoning ranges from minor irritation to death. A common question asked is, "How poisonous is this plant?" It is difficult
to say how poisonous plants are because--
Some plants require contact with a large amount of the plant before noticing any adverse reaction while others will cause
death with only a small amount.
Every plant will vary in the amount of toxins it contains due to different growing conditions and slight variations in
subspecies.
Every person has a different level of resistance to toxic substances.
Some persons may be more sensitive to a particular plant.
Some common misconceptions about poisonous plants are--
Watch the animals and eat what they eat. Most of the time this statement is true, but some animals can eat plants that
are poisonous to humans.
Boil the plant in water and any poisons will be removed. Boiling removes many poisons, but not all.
Plants with a red color are poisonous. Some plants that are red are poisonous, but not all.
The point is there is no one rule to aid in identifying poisonous plants. You must make an effort to learn as much about them as
possible.
ALL ABOUT PLANTS
It is to your benefit to learn as much about plants as possible. Many poisonous plants look like their edible relatives or like
other edible plants. For example, poison hemlock appears very similar to wild carrot. Certain plants are safe to eat in certain
seasons or stages of growth and poisonous in other stages. For example, the leaves of the pokeweed are edible when it first
starts to grow, but it soon becomes poisonous. You can eat some plants and their fruits only when they are ripe. For example,
the ripe fruit of mayapple is edible, but all other parts and the green fruit are poisonous. Some plants contain both edible and
poisonous parts; potatoes and tomatoes are common plant foods, but their green parts are poisonous.
Some plants become toxic after wilting. For example, when the black cherry starts to wilt, hydrocyanic acid develops. Specific
preparation methods make some plants edible that are poisonous raw. You can eat the thinly sliced and thoroughly dried corms
(drying may take a year) of the jack-in-the-pulpit, but they are poisonous if not thoroughly dried.
Learn to identify and use plants before a survival situation. Some sources of information about plants are pamphlets, books,
films, nature trails, botanical gardens, local markets, and local natives. Gather and cross-reference information from as many
sources as possible, because many sources will not contain all the information needed.
RULES FOR AVOIDING POISONOUS PLANTS
Your best policy is to be able to look at a plant and identify it with absolute certainty and to know its uses or dangers. Many
times this is not possible. If you have little or no knowledge of the local vegetation, use the rules to select plants for the
"Universal Edibility Test." Remember, avoid --
All mushrooms. Mushroom identification is very difficult and must be precise, even more so than with other plants.
Some mushrooms cause death very quickly. Some mushrooms have no known antidote. Two general types of
mushroom poisoning are gastrointestinal and central nervous system.
Contact with or touching plants unnecessarily.
CONTACT DERMATITIS
Contact dermatitis from plants will usually cause the most trouble in the field. The effects may be persistent, spread by
scratching, and are particularly dangerous if there is contact in or around the eyes.
The principal toxin of these plants is usually an oil that gets on the skin upon contact with the plant. The oil can also get on
equipment and then infect whoever touches the equipment. Never bum a contact poisonous plant because the smoke may be as
harmful as the plant. There is a greater danger of being affected when overheated and sweating. The infection may be local or it
may spread over the body.
Symptoms may take from a few hours to several days to appear. Signs and symptoms can include burning, reddening, itching,
swelling, and blisters.
When you first contact the poisonous plants or the first symptoms appear, try to remove the oil by washing with soap and cold
water. If water is not available, wipe your skin repeatedly with dirt or sand. Do not use dirt if blisters have developed. The dirt
may break open the blisters and leave the body open to infection. After you have removed the oil, dry the area. You can wash
with a tannic acid solution and crush and rub jewelweed on the affected area to treat plant-caused rashes. You can make tannic
acid from oak bark.
Poisonous plants that cause contact dermatitis are--
Cowhage.
Poison ivy.
Poison oak.
Poison sumac.
Rengas tree.
Trumpet vine.
INGESTION POISONING
Ingestion poisoning can be very serious and could lead to death very quickly. Do not eat any plant unless you have positively
identified it first. Keep a log of all plants eaten.
Signs and symptoms of ingestion poisoning can include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, depressed heartbeat and
respiration, headaches, hallucinations, dry mouth, unconsciousness, coma, and death.
If you suspect plant poisoning, try to remove the poisonous material from the victim's mouth and stomach as soon as possible.
Induce vomiting by tickling the back of his throat or by giving him warm saltwater, if he is conscious. Dilute the poison by
administering large quantities of water or milk, if he is conscious.
The following plants can cause ingestion poisoning if eaten:
Castor bean.
Chinaberry.
Death camas.
Lantana.
Manchineel.
Oleander.
Pangi.
Physic nut.
Poison and water hemlocks.
Rosary pea.
Strychnine tree.
See Appendix C for photographs and descriptions of these plants.
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CHAPTER 11
DANGEROUS ANIMALS
Animals rarely are as threatening to the survivor as the rest of the environment. Common sense tells the
survivor to avoid encounters with lions, bears, and other large or dangerous animals. You should also
avoid large grazing animals with horns, hooves, and great weight. Your actions may prevent unexpected
meetings. Move carefully through their environment. Do not attract large predators by leaving food lying
around your camp. Carefully survey the scene before entering water or forests.
Smaller animals actually present more of a threat to the survivor than large animals. To compensate for
their size, nature has given many small animals weapons such as fangs and stingers to defend themselves.
Each year, a few people are bitten by sharks, mauled by alligators, and attacked by bears. Most of these
incidents were in some way the victim's fault. However, each year more victims die from bites by relatively
small venomous snakes than by large dangerous animals. Even more victims die from allergic reactions to
bee stings. For this reason, we will pay more attention to smaller and potentially more dangerous
creatures. These are the animals you are more likely to meet as you unwittingly move into their habitat, or
they slip into your environment unnoticed.
Keeping a level head and an awareness of your surroundings will keep you alive if you use a few simple
safety procedures. Do not let curiosity and carelessness kill or injure you.
INSECTS AND ARACHNIDS
You recognize and identify insects, except centipedes and millipedes, by their six legs while arachnids have eight. All these small
creatures become pests when they bite, sting, or irritate you.
Although their venom can be quite painful, bee, wasp, and hornet stings rarely kill a survivor unless he is allergic to that
particular toxin. Even the most dangerous spiders rarely kill, and the effects of tick-borne diseases are very slow-acting.
However, in all cases, avoidance is the best defense. In environments known to have spiders and scorpions, check your
footgear and clothing every morning. Also check your bedding and shelter for them. Use care when turning over rocks and
logs. See Appendix D for examples of dangerous insects and arachnids.
Scorpions
You find scorpions (Buthotus species) in deserts, jungles, and forests of tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate areas of the
world. They are mostly nocturnal in habit. You can find desert scorpions from below sea level in Death Valley to elevations as
high as 3,600 meters in the Andes. Typically brown or black in moist areas, they may be yellow or light green in the desert.
Their average size is about 2.5 centimeters. However, there are 20-centimeter giants in the jungles of Central America, New
Guinea, and southern Africa. Fatalities from scorpion stings are rare, but they can occur in children, the elderly, and ill persons.
Scorpions resemble small lobsters with raised, jointed tails bearing a stinger in the tip. Nature mimics the scorpions with whip
scorpions or vinegar-roons. These are harmless and have a tail like a wire or whip, rather than the jointed tail and stinger of true
scorpions.
Spiders
You recognize the brown recluse or fiddleback spider of North America (Loxosceles reclusa) by a prominent violin-shaped
light spot on the back of its body. As its name suggests, this spider likes to hide in dark places. Though rarely fatal, its bite
causes excessive tissue degeneration around the wound and can even lead to amputation of the digits if left untreated.
You find members of the widow family (Latrodectus species) worldwide, though the black widow of North America is
perhaps the most well-known. Found in warmer areas of the world, the widows are small, dark spiders with often
hourglass-shaped white, red, or orange spots on their abdomens.
Funnelwebs (Atrax species) are large, gray or brown Australian spiders. Chunky, with short legs, they are able to move easily
up and down the cone-shaped webs from which they get their name. The local populace considers them deadly. Avoid them as
they move about, usually at night, in search of prey. Symptoms of their bite are similar to those of the widow's--severe pain
accompanied by sweating and shivering, weakness, and disabling episodes that can last a week.
Tarantulas are large, hairy spiders (Theraphosidae and Lycosa species) best known because they are often sold in pet stores.
There is one species in Europe, but most come from tropical America. Some South American species do inject a dangerous
toxin, but most simply produce a painful bite. Some tarantulas can be as large as a dinner plate. They all have large fangs for
capturing food such as birds, mice, and lizards. If bitten by a tarantula, pain and bleeding are certain, and infection is likely.
Centipedes and Millipedes
Centipedes and millipedes are mostly small and harmless, although some tropical and desert species may reach 25 centimeters.
A few varieties of centipedes have a poisonous bite, but infection is the greatest danger, as their sharp claws dig in and puncture
the skin. To prevent skin punctures, brush them off in the direction they are traveling, if you find them crawling on your skin.
Bees, Wasps, and Hornets
We are all familiar with bees, wasps, and hornets. They come in many varieties and have a wide diversity of habits and habitats.
You recognize bees by their hairy and usually thick body, while the wasps, hornets, and yellow jackets have more slender,
nearly hairless, bodies. Some bees, such as honeybees, live in colonies. They may be either domesticated or living wild in caves
or hollow trees. You may find other bees, such as carpenter bees, in individual nest holes in wood, or in the ground, like
bumblebees. The main danger from bees is their barbed stinger located on their abdomens. When the bee stings you, it rips its
stinger out of its abdomen along with the venom sac, and the bee dies. Except for killer bees, most bees tend to be more docile
than wasps, hornets, and yellow jackets that have smooth stingers and are capable of repeated attacks.
Avoidance is the best tactic for self-protection. Watch out for flowers or fruit where bees may be feeding. Be careful of
meat-eating yellow jackets when cleaning fish or game. The average person has a relatively minor and temporary reaction to
bee stings and recovers in a couple of hours when the pain and headache go away. Those who are allergic to bee venom have
severe reactions including anaphylactic shock, coma, and death. If antihistamine medicine is not available and you cannot find a
substitute, an allergy sufferer in a survival situation is in grave danger.
Ticks
Ticks are common in the tropics and temperate regions. They are familiar to most of us. Ticks are small round arachnids with
eight legs and can have either a soft or hard body. Ticks require a blood host to survive and reproduce. This makes them
dangerous because they spread diseases like Lyme disease, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, encephalitis, and others that can
ultimately be disabling or fatal. There is little you can do to treat these diseases once contracted, but time is your ally since they
are slow-acting ailments. According to most authorities, it takes at least 6 hours of attachment to the host for the tick to transmit
the disease organisms. Thus, you have time to thoroughly inspect your body for their presence. Beware of ticks when passing
through the thick vegetation they cling to, when cleaning host animals for food, and when gathering natural materials to construct
a shelter. Always use insect repellents, if possible.
LEECHES
Leeches are blood-sucking creatures with a wormlike appearance. You find them in the tropics and in temperate zones. You
will certainly encounter them when swimming in infested waters or making expedient water crossings. You can find them when
passing through swampy, tropical vegetation and bogs. You can also find them while cleaning food animals, such as turtles,
found in fresh water. Leeches can crawl into small openings; therefore, avoid camping in their habitats when possible. Keep
your trousers tucked in your boots. Check yourself frequently for leeches. Swallowed or eaten, leeches can be a great hazard.
It is therefore essential to treat water from questionable sources by boiling or using chemical water treatments. Survivors have
developed severe infections from wounds inside the throat or nose when sores from swallowed leeches became infected.
BATS
Despite the legends, bats (Desmodus species) are a relatively small hazard to the survivor. There are many bat varieties
worldwide, but you find the true vampire bats only in Central and South America. They are small, agile fliers that land on their
sleeping victims, mostly cows and horses, to lap a blood meal after biting their victim. Their saliva contains an anticoagulant that
keeps the blood slowly flowing while they feed. Only a small percentage of these bats actually carry rabies; however, avoid any
sick or injured bat. They can carry other diseases and infections and will bite readily when handled. Taking shelter in a cave
occupied by bats, however, presents the much greater hazard of inhaling powdered bat dung, or guano. Bat dung carries many
organisms that can cause diseases. Eating thoroughly cooked flying foxes or other bats presents no danger from rabies and
other diseases, but again, the emphasis is on thorough cooking.
POISONOUS SNAKES
There are no infallible rules for expedient identification of poisonous snakes in the field, because the guidelines all require close
observation or manipulation of the snake's body. The best strategy is to leave all snakes alone. Where snakes are plentiful and
poisonous species are present, the risk of their bites negates their food value. Apply the following safety rules when traveling in
areas where there are poisonous snakes:
Walk carefully and watch where you step. Step onto logs rather than over them before looking and moving on.
Look closely when picking fruit or moving around water.
Do not tease, molest, or harass snakes. Snakes cannot close their eyes. Therefore, you cannot tell if they are asleep.
Some snakes, such as mambas, cobras, and bushmasters, will attack aggressively when cornered or guarding a nest.
Use sticks to turn logs and rocks.
Wear proper footgear, particularly at night.
Carefully check bedding, shelter, and clothing.
Be calm when you encounter serpents. Snakes cannot hear and you can occasionally surprise them when they are
sleeping or sunning. Normally, they will flee if given the opportunity.
Use extreme care if you must kill snakes for food or safety. Although it is not common, warm, sleeping human bodies
occasionally attract snakes.
See Appendix E for detailed descriptions of the snakes listed below.
Snake-Free Areas
The polar regions are free of snakes due to their inhospitable environments. Other areas considered to be free of poisonous
snakes are New Zealand, Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Ireland, Polynesia, and Hawaii.
POISONOUS SNAKES OF THE AMERICAS
American Copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix)
Bushmaster (Lachesis mutus)
Coral snake (Micrurus fulvius)
Cottonmouth (Agkistrodon piscivorus)
Fer-de-lance (Bothrops atrox)
Rattlesnake (Crotalus species)
POISONOUS SNAKES OF EUROPE
Common adder (Vipers berus)
Pallas' viper (Agkistrodon halys)
POISONOUS SNAKES OF AFRICA AND ASIA
Boomslang (Dispholidus typus)
Cobra (Naja species)
Gaboon viper (Bitis gabonica)
Green tree pit viper (Trimeresurus gramineus)
Habu pit viper (Trimeresurus flavoviridis)
Krait (Bungarus caeruleus)
Malayan pit viper (Callaselasma rhodostoma)
Mamba (Dendraspis species)
Puff adder (Bitis arietans)
Rhinoceros viper (Bitis nasicornis)
Russell' s viper (Vipera russellii)
Sand viper (Cerastes vipera)
Saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus)
Wagler's pit viper (Trimeresurus wagleri)
POISONOUS SNAKES OF AUSTRALASIA
Death adder (Acanthophis antarcticus)
Taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus)
Tiger snake (Notechis scutatus)
Yellow-bellied sea snake (Pelamis platurus)
DANGEROUS LIZARDS
The Gila monster and the Mexican beaded lizard are dangerous and poisonous lizards.
Gila Monster
The Gila monster (Heloderma suspectrum) of the American southwest, including Mexico, is a large lizard with dark, highly
textured skin marked by pinkish mottling. It averages 35 to 45 centimeters in length and has a thick, stumpy tail. Unlikely to bite
unless molested, it has a poisonous bite.
Mexican Beaded Lizard
The Mexican beaded lizard (Heloderma horridum) resembles its relative, the Gila monster. It has more uniform spots rather
than bands of color (the Gila monster). It also is poisonous and has a docile nature. You find it from Mexico to Central
America.
Komodo Dragon
This giant lizard (Varanus komodoensis) grows to more than 3 meters in length and can be dangerous if you try to capture it.
This Indonesian lizard can weigh more than 135 kilograms.
DANGERS IN RIVERS
Common sense will tell you to avoid confrontations with hippopotami, alligators, crocodiles, and other large river creatures.
There are, however, a few smaller river creatures with which you should be cautious.
Electric Eel
Electric eels (Electrophorus electricus) may reach 2 meters in length and 20 centimeters in diameter. Avoid them. They are
capable of generating up to 500 volts of electricity in certain organs in their body. They use this shock to stun prey and enemies.
Normally, you find these eels in the Orinoco and Amazon River systems in South America. They seem to prefer shallow waters
that are more highly oxygenated and provide more food. They are bulkier than our native eels. Their upper body is dark gray or
black, with a lighter-colored underbelly.
Piranha
Piranhas (Serrasalmo species) are another hazard of the Orinoco and Amazon River systems, as well as the Paraguay River
Basin, where they are native. These fish vary greatly in size and coloration, but usually have a combination of orange undersides
and dark tops. They have white, razor-sharp teeth that are clearly visible. They may be as long as 50 centimeters. Use great
care when crossing waters where they live. Blood attracts them. They are most dangerous in shallow waters during the dry
season.
Turtle
Be careful when handling and capturing large freshwater turtles, such as the snapping turtles and soft-shelled turtles of North
America and the matamata and other turtles of South America. All of these turtles will bite in self-defense and can amputate
fingers and toes.
Platypus
The platypus or duckbill (Ornithorhyncus anatinus) is the only member of its family and is easily recognized. It has a long
body covered with grayish, short hair, a tail like a beaver, and a bill like a duck. Growing up to 60 centimeters in length, it may
appear to be a good food source, but this egg-laying mammal, the only one in the world, is very dangerous. The male has a
poisonous spur on each hind foot that can inflict intensely painful wounds. You find the platypus only in Australia, mainly along
mud banks on waterways.
DANGERS IN BAYS AND ESTUARIES
In areas where seas and rivers come together, there are dangers associated with both fresh and salt water. In shallow salt
waters, there are many creatures that can inflict pain and cause infection to develop. Stepping on sea urchins, for example, can
produce pain and infection. When moving about in shallow water, wear some form of footgear and shuffle your feet along the
bottom, rather than picking up your feet and stepping.
Stingrays (Dasyatidae species) are a real hazard in shallow waters, especially tropical waters. The type of bottom appears to
be irrelevant. There is a great variance between species, but all have a sharp spike in their tail that may be venomous and can
cause extremely painful wounds if stepped on. All rays have a typical shape that resembles a kite. You find them along the
coasts of the Americas, Africa, and Australasia.
SALTWATER DANGERS
There are several fish that you should not handle, touch, or contact. There are others that you should not eat.
Fish Dangerous to Handle, Touch, or Contact
There are several fish you should not handle, touch, or contact that are identified below.
Shark
Sharks are the most feared animal in the sea. Usually, shark attacks cannot be avoided and are considered accidents. You, as a
survivor, should take every precaution to avoid any contact with sharks. There are many shark species, but in general,
dangerous sharks have wide mouths and visible teeth, while relatively harmless ones have small mouths on the underside of their
heads. However, any shark can inflict painful and often fatal injuries, either through bites or through abrasions from their rough
skin.
Rabbitfish
Rabbitfish or spinefoot (Siganidae species) occur mainly on coral reefs in the Indian and Pacific oceans. They have very sharp,
possibly venomous spines in their fins. Handle them with care, if at all. This fish, like many others of the dangerous fish in this
section, is considered edible by native peoples where the fish are found, but deaths occur from careless handling. Seek other
nonpoisonous fish to eat if at all possible.
Tang
Tang or surgeonfish (Acanthuridae species) average 20 to 25 centimeters in length and often are beautifully colored. They are
called surgeonfish because of the scalpellike spines located in the tail. The wounds inflicted by these spines can bring about
death through infection, envenomation, and loss of blood, which may incidentally attract sharks.
Toadfish
Toadfish (Batrachoididae species) occur in tropical waters off the Gulf Coast of the United States and along both coasts of
Central and South America. These dully colored fish average 18 to 25 centimeters in length. They typically bury themselves in
the sand to await fish and other prey. They have sharp, very toxic spines along their backs.
Scorpion Fish
Poisonous scorpion fish or zebra fish (Scorpaenidae species) are mostly around reefs in the tropical Indian and Pacific oceans
and occasionally in the Mediterranean and Aegean seas. They average 30 to 75 centimeters in length. Their coloration is highly
variable, from reddish brown to almost purple or brownish yellow. They have long, wavy fins and spines and their sting is
intensively painful. Less poisonous relatives live in the Atlantic Ocean.
Stonefish
Stonefish (Synanceja species) are in the Pacific and Indian oceans. They can inject a painful venom from their dorsal spines
when stepped on or handled carelessly. They are almost impossible to see because of their lumpy shape and drab colors. They
range in size up to 40 centimeters.
Weever Fish
Weever fish (Trachinidae species) average 30 centimeters long. They are hard to see as they lie buried in the sand off the
coasts of Europe, Africa, and the Mediterranean. Their color is usually a dull brown. They have venomous spines on the back
and gills.
See Appendix F for more details on these venomous fish.
Animals and Fish Poisonous to Eat
Survival manuals often mention that the livers of polar bears are toxic due to their high concentrations of vitamin A. For this
reason, we mention the chance of death after eating this organ. Another toxic meat is the flesh of the hawksbill turtle. You
recognize them by their down-turned bill and yellow polka dots on their neck and front flippers. They weigh more than 275
kilograms and are unlikely to be captured.
Many fish living in reefs near shore, or in lagoons and estuaries, are poisonous to eat, though some are only seasonally
dangerous. The majority are tropical fish; however, be wary of eating any unidentifiable fish wherever you are. Some predatory
fish, such as barracuda and snapper, may become toxic if the fish they feed on in shallow waters are poisonous. The most
poisonous types appear to have parrotlike beaks and hard shell-like skins with spines and often can inflate their bodies like
balloons. However, at certain times of the year, indigenous populations consider the puffer a delicacy.
Blowfish
Blowfish or puffer (Tetraodontidae species) are more tolerant of cold water. You find them along tropical and temperate
coasts worldwide, even in some of the rivers of Southeast Asia and Africa. Stout-bodied and round, many of these fish have
short spines and can inflate themselves into a ball when alarmed or agitated. Their blood, liver, and gonads are so toxic that as
little as 28 milligrams (1 ounce) can be fatal. These fish vary in color and size, growing up to 75 centimeters in length.
Triggerfish
The triggerfish (Balistidae species) occur in great variety, mostly in tropical seas. They are deep-bodied and compressed,
resembling a seagoing pancake up to 60 centimeters in length, with large and sharp dorsal spines. Avoid them all, as many have
poisonous flesh.
Barracuda
Although most people avoid them because of their ferocity, they occasionally eat barracuda (Sphyraena barracuda). These
predators of mostly tropical seas can reach almost 1.5 meters in length and have attacked humans without provocation. They
occasionally carry the poison ciguatera in their flesh, making them deadly if consumed.
See Appendix F for more details on toxic fish and toxic mollusks.
Other Dangerous Sea Creatures
The blue-ringed octopus, jellyfish, and the cone and auger shells are other dangerous sea creatures.
Blue-Ringed Octopus
Most octopi are excellent when properly prepared. However, the blueringed octopus (Hapalochlaena lunulata) can inflict a
deadly bite from its parrotlike beak. Fortunately, it is restricted to the Great Barrier Reef of Australia and is very small. It is
easily recognized by its grayish white overall color and iridescent blue rings. Authorities warn that all tropical octopus species
should be treated with caution, since many have poisonous bites, although the flesh is edible.
Jellyfish
Jellyfish-related deaths are rare, but the sting they inflict is extremely painful. The Portuguese man-of-war resembles a large
pink or purple balloon floating on the sea. It has poisonous tentacles hanging up to 12 meters below its body. The huge
tentacles are actually colonies of stinging cells. Most known deaths from jellyfish are attributed to the man-of-war. Other
jellyfish can inflict very painful stings as well. Avoid the long tentacles of any jellyfish, even those washed up on the beach and
apparently dead.
Cone Shell
The subtropical and tropical cone shells (Conidae species) have a venomous harpoonlike barb. All are cone-shaped and have
a fine netlike pattern on the shell. A membrane may possibly obscure this coloration. There are some very poisonous cone
shells, even some lethal ones in the Indian and Pacific oceans. Avoid any shell shaped like an ice cream cone.
Auger Shell
The auger shell or terebra (Terebridae species) are much longer and thinner than the cone shells, but can be nearly as deadly
as the cone shells. They are found in temperate and tropical seas. Those in the Indian and Pacific oceans have a more toxic
venom in their stinging barb. Do not eat these snails, as their flesh may be poisonous.
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CHAPTER 12
FIELD-EXPEDIENT WEAPONS, TOOLS,
AND EQUIPMENT
As a soldier you know the importance of proper care and use of your weapons, tools, and equipment. This
is especially true of your knife. You must always keep it sharp and ready to use. A knife is your most
valuable tool in a survival situation. Imagine being in a survival situation without any weapons, tools, or
equipment except your knife. It could happen! You might even be without a knife. You would probably feel
helpless, but with the proper knowledge and skills, you can easily improvise needed items.
In survival situations, you may have to fashion any number and type of field-expedient tools and
equipment to survive. Examples of tools and equipment that could make your life much easier are ropes,
rucksacks, clothes, nets, and so on.
Weapons serve a dual purpose. You use them to obtain and prepare food and to provide self-defense. A
weapon can also give you a feeling of security and provide you with the ability to hunt on the move.
CLUBS
You hold clubs, you do not throw them. As a field-expedient weapon, the club does not protect you from enemy soldiers. It
can, however, extend your area of defense beyond your fingertips. It also serves to increase the force of a blow without injuring
yourself. There are three basic types of clubs. They are the simple, weighted, and sling club.
Simple Club
A simple club is a staff or branch. It must be short enough for you to swing easily, but long enough and strong enough for you to
damage whatever you hit. Its diameter should fit comfortably in your palm, but it should not be so thin as to allow the club to
break easily upon impact. A straight-grained hardwood is best if you can find it.
Weighted Club
A weighted club is any simple club with a weight on one end. The weight may be a natural weight, such as a knot on the wood,
or something added, such as a stone lashed to the club.
To make a weighted club, first find a stone that has a shape that will allow you to lash it securely to the club. A stone with a
slight hourglass shape works well. If you cannot find a suitably shaped stone, you must fashion a groove or channel into the
stone by a technique known as pecking. By repeatedly rapping the club stone with a smaller hard stone, you can get the desired
shape.
Next, find a piece of wood that is the right length for you. A straight-grained hardwood is best. The length of the wood should
feel comfortable in relation to the weight of the stone. Finally, lash the stone to the handle.
There are three techniques for lashing the stone to the handle: split handle, forked branch, and wrapped handle. The technique
you use will depend on the type of handle you choose. See Figure 12-1.
Sling Club
A sling club is another type of weighted club. A weight hangs 8 to 10 centimeters from the handle by a strong, flexible lashing
(Figure 12-2). This type of club both extends the user's reach and multiplies the force of the blow.
EDGED WEAPONS
Knives, spear blades, and arrow points fall under the category of edged weapons. The following paragraphs will discuss the
making of such weapons.
Knives
A knife has three basic functions. It can puncture, slash or chop, and cut. A knife is also an invaluable tool used to construct
other survival items. You may find yourself without a knife or you may need another type knife or a spear. To improvise you
can use stone, bone, wood, or metal to make a knife or spear blade.
Stone
To make a stone knife, you will need a sharp-edged piece of stone, a chipping tool, and a flaking tool. A chipping tool is a light,
blunt-edged tool used to break off small pieces of stone. A flaking tool is a pointed tool used to break off thin, flattened pieces
of stone. You can make a chipping tool from wood, bone, or metal, and a flaking tool from bone, antler tines, or soft iron
(Figure 12-3).
Start making the knife by roughing out the desired shape on your sharp piece of stone, using the chipping tool. Try to make the
knife fairly thin. Then, using the flaking tool, press it against the edges. This action will cause flakes to come off the opposite
side of the edge, leaving a razor sharp edge. Use the flaking tool along the entire length of the edge you need to sharpen.
Eventually, you will have a very sharp cutting edge that you can use as a knife.
Lash the blade to some type of hilt (Figure 12-3).
Note: Stone will make an excellent puncturing tool and a good chopping tool but will not hold a fine edge.
Some stones such as chert or flint can have very fine edges.
Bone
You can also use bone as an effective field-expedient edged weapon. First, you will need to select a suitable bone. The larger
bones, such as the leg bone of a deer or another medium-sized animal, are best. Lay the bone upon another hard object.
Shatter the bone by hitting it with a heavy object, such as a rock. From the pieces, select a suitable pointed splinter. You can
further shape and sharpen this splinter by rubbing it on a rough-surfaced rock. If the piece is too small to handle, you can still
use it by adding a handle to it. Select a suitable piece of hardwood for a handle and lash the bone splinter securely to it.
Note: Use the bone knife only to puncture. It will not hold an edge and it may flake or break if used
differently.
Wood
You can make field-expedient edged weapons from wood. Use these only to puncture. Bamboo is the only wood that will hold
a suitable edge. To make a knife using wood, first select a straight-grained piece of hardwood that is about 30 centimeters long
and 2.5 centimeters in diameter. Fashion the blade about 15 centimeters long. Shave it down to a point. Use only the
straight-grained portions of the wood. Do not use the core or pith, as it would make a weak point.
Harden the point by a process known as fire hardening. If a fire is possible, dry the blade portion over the fire slowly until lightly
charred. The drier the wood, the harder the point. After lightly charring the blade portion, sharpen it on a coarse stone. If using
bamboo and after fashioning the blade, remove any other wood to make the blade thinner from the inside portion of the
bamboo. Removal is done this way because bamboo's hardest part is its outer layer. Keep as much of this layer as possible to
ensure the hardest blade possible. When charring bamboo over a fire, char only the inside wood; do not char the outside.
Metal
Metal is the best material to make field-expedient edged weapons. Metal, when properly designed, can fulfill a knife's three
uses--puncture, slice or chop, and cut. First, select a suitable piece of metal, one that most resembles the desired end product.
Depending on the size and original shape, you can obtain a point and cutting edge by rubbing the metal on a rough-surfaced
stone. If the metal is soft enough, you can hammer out one edge while the metal is cold. Use a suitable flat, hard surface as an
anvil and a smaller, harder object of stone or metal as a hammer to hammer out the edge. Make a knife handle from wood,
bone, or other material that will protect your hand.
Other Materials
You can use other materials to produce edged weapons. Glass is a good alternative to an edged weapon or tool, if no other
material is available. Obtain a suitable piece in the same manner as described for bone. Glass has a natural edge but is less
durable for heavy work. You can also sharpen plastic--if it is thick enough or hard enough--into a durable point for puncturing.
Spear Blades
To make spears, use the same procedures to make the blade that you used to make a knife blade. Then select a shaft (a
straight sapling) 1.2 to 1.5 meters long. The length should allow you to handle the spear easily and effectively. Attach the spear
blade to the shaft using lashing. The preferred method is to split the handle, insert the blade, then wrap or lash it tightly. You can
use other materials without adding a blade. Select a 1.2-to 1.5-meter long straight hardwood shaft and shave one end to a
point. If possible, fire harden the point. Bamboo also makes an excellent spear. Select a piece 1.2 to 1.5 meters long. Starting
8 to 10 centimeters back from the end used as the point, shave down the end at a 45-degree angle (Figure 12-4). Remember,
to sharpen the edges, shave only the inner portion.
Arrow Points
To make an arrow point, use the same procedures for making a stone knife blade. Chert, flint, and shell-type stones are best
for arrow points. You can fashion bone like stone--by flaking. You can make an efficient arrow point using broken glass.
OTHER EXPEDIENT WEAPONS
You can make other field-expedient weapons such as the throwing stick, archery equipment, and the bola.
Throwing Stick
The throwing stick, commonly known as the rabbit stick, is very effective against small game (squirrels, chipmunks, and
rabbits). The rabbit stick itself is a blunt stick, naturally curved at about a 45-degree angle. Select a stick with the desired angle
from heavy hardwood such as oak. Shave off two opposite sides so that the stick is flat like a boomerang (Figure 12-5). You
must practice the throwing technique for accuracy and speed. First, align the target by extending the nonthrowing arm in line
with the mid to lower section of the target. Slowly and repeatedly raise the throwing arm up and back until the throwing stick
crosses the back at about a 45-degree angle or is in line with the nonthrowing hip. Bring the throwing arm forward until it is just
slightly above and parallel to the nonthrowing arm. This will be the throwing stick's release point. Practice slowly and repeatedly
to attain accuracy.
Archery Equipment
You can make a bow and arrow (Figure 12-6) from materials available in your survival area. To make a bow, use the
procedure described under Killing Devices in Chapter 8.
While it may be relatively simple to make a bow and arrow, it is not easy to use one. You must practice using it a long time to
be reasonably sure that you will hit your target. Also, a field-expedient bow will not last very long before you have to make a
new one. For the time and effort involved, you may well decide to use another type of field-expedient weapon.
Bola
The bola is another field-expedient weapon that is easy to make (Figure 12-7). It is especially effective for capturing running
game or low-flying fowl in a flock. To use the bola, hold it by the center knot and twirl it above your head. Release the knot so
that the bola flies toward your target. When you release the bola, the weighted cords will separate. These cords will wrap
around and immobilize the fowl or animal that you hit.
LASHING AND CORDAGE
Many materials are strong enough for use as lashing and cordage. A number of natural and man-made materials are available in
a survival situation. For example, you can make a cotton web belt much more useful by unraveling it. You can then use the
string for other purposes (fishing line, thread for sewing, and lashing).
Natural Cordage Selection
Before making cordage, there are a few simple tests you can do to determine you material's suitability. First, pull on a length of
the material to test for strength. Next, twist it between your fingers and roll the fibers together. If it withstands this handling and
does not snap apart, tie an overhand knot with the fibers and gently tighten. If the knot does not break, the material is usable.
Figure 12-8 shows various methods of making cordage.
Lashing Material
The best natural material for lashing small objects is sinew. You can make sinew from the tendons of large game, such as deer.
Remove the tendons from the game and dry them completely. Smash the dried tendons so that they separate into fibers.
Moisten the fibers and twist them into a continuous strand. If you need stronger lashing material, you can braid the strands.
When you use sinew for small lashings, you do not need knots as the moistened sinew is sticky and it hardens when dry.
You can shred and braid plant fibers from the inner bark of some trees to make cord. You can use the linden, elm, hickory,
white oak, mulberry, chestnut, and red and white cedar trees. After you make the cord, test it to be sure it is strong enough for
your purpose. You can make these materials stronger by braiding several strands together.
You can use rawhide for larger lashing jobs. Make rawhide from the skins of medium or large game. After skinning the animal,
remove any excess fat and any pieces of meat from the skin. Dry the skin completely. You do not need to stretch it as long as
there are no folds to trap moisture. You do not have to remove the hair from the skin. Cut the skin while it is dry. Make cuts
about 6 millimeters wide. Start from the center of the hide and make one continuous circular cut, working clockwise to the
hide's outer edge. Soak the rawhide for 2 to 4 hours or until it is soft. Use it wet, stretching it as much as possible while
applying it. It will be strong and durable when it dries.
RUCKSACK CONSTRUCTION
The materials for constructing a rucksack or pack are almost limitless. You can use wood, bamboo, rope, plant fiber, clothing,
animal skins, canvas, and many other materials to make a pack.
There are several construction techniques for rucksacks. Many are very elaborate, but those that are simple and easy are often
the most readily made in a survival situation.
Horseshoe Pack
This pack is simple to make and use and relatively comfortable to carry over one shoulder. Lay available square-shaped
material, such as poncho, blanket, or canvas, flat on the ground. Lay items on one edge of the material. Pad the hard items. Roll
the material (with the items) toward the opposite edge and tie both ends securely. Add extra ties along the length of the bundle.
You can drape the pack over one shoulder with a line connecting the two ends (Figure 12-9).
Square Pack
This pack is easy to construct if rope or cordage is available. Otherwise, you must first make cordage. To make this pack,
construct a square frame from bamboo, limbs, or sticks. Size will vary for each person and the amount of equipment carried
(Figure 12-10).
CLOTHING AND INSULATION
You can use many materials for clothing and insulation. Both man-made materials, such as parachutes, and natural materials,
such as skins and plant materials, are available and offer significant protection.
Parachute Assembly
Consider the entire parachute assembly as a resource. Use every piece of material and hardware, to include the canopy,
suspension lines, connector snaps, and parachute harness. Before disassembling the parachute, consider all of your survival
requirements and plan to use different portions of the parachute accordingly. For example, consider shelter requirements, need
for a rucksack, and so on, in addition to clothing or insulation needs.
Animal Skins
The selection of animal skins in a survival situation will most often be limited to what you manage to trap or hunt. However, if
there is an abundance of wildlife, select the hides of larger animals with heavier coats and large fat content. Do not use the skins
of infected or diseased animals if at all possible. Since they live in the wild, animals are carriers of pests such as ticks, lice, and
fleas. Because of these pests, use water to thoroughly clean any skin obtained from any animal. If water is not available, at least
shake out the skin thoroughly. As with rawhide, lay out the skin, and remove all fat and meat. Dry the skin completely. Use the
hind quarter joint areas to make shoes and mittens or socks. Wear the hide with the fur to the inside for its insulating factor.
Plant Fibers
Several plants are sources of insulation from cold. Cattail is a marshland plant found along lakes, ponds, and the backwaters of
rivers. The fuzz on the tops of the stalks forms dead air spaces and makes a good down-like insulation when placed between
two pieces of material. Milkweed has pollenlike seeds that act as good insulation. The husk fibers from coconuts are very good
for weaving ropes and, when dried, make excellent tinder and insulation.
COOKING AND EATING UTENSILS
Many materials may be used to make equipment for the cooking, eating, and storing of food.
Bowls
Use wood, bone, horn, bark, or other similar material to make bowls. To make wooden bowls, use a hollowed out piece of
wood that will hold your food and enough water to cook it in. Hang the wooden container over the fire and add hot rocks to
the water and food. Remove the rocks as they cool and add more hot rocks until your food is cooked.
CAUTION
Do not use rocks with air pockets, such as limestone and sandstone. They may explode while heating in the fire.
You can also use this method with containers made of bark or leaves. However, these containers will burn above the waterline
unless you keep them moist or keep the fire low.
A section of bamboo works very well, if you cut out a section between two sealed joints (Figure 12-11).
CAUTION
A sealed section of bamboo will explode if heated because of trapped air and water in the section.
Forks, Knives, and Spoons
Carve forks, knives, and spoons from nonresinous woods so that you do not get a wood resin aftertaste or do not taint the
food. Nonresinous woods include oak, birch, and other hardwood trees.
Note: Do not use those trees that secrete a syrup or resinlike liquid on the bark or when cut.
Pots
You can make pots from turtle shells or wood. As described with bowls, using hot rocks in a hollowed out piece of wood is
very effective. Bamboo is the best wood for making cooking containers.
To use turtle shells, first thoroughly boil the upper portion of the shell. Then use it to heat food and water over a flame (Figure
12-11).
Water Bottles
Make water bottles from the stomachs of larger animals. Thoroughly flush the stomach out with water, then tie off the bottom.
Leave the top open, with some means of fastening it closed.
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CHAPTER 13
DESERT SURVIVAL
To survive and evade in arid or desert areas, you must understand and prepare for the environment you
will face. You must determine your equipment needs, the tactics you will use, and how the environment
will affect you and your tactics. Your survival will depend upon your knowledge of the terrain, basic
climatic elements, your ability to cope with these elements, and your will to survive.
TERRAIN
Most arid areas have several types of terrain. The five basic desert terrain types are--
Mountainous (High Altitude).
Rocky plateau.
Sand dunes.
Salt marshes.
Broken, dissected terrain ("gebel" or "wadi").
Desert terrain makes movement difficult and demanding. Land navigation will be extremely difficult as there may be very few
landmarks. Cover and concealment may be very limited; therefore, the threat of exposure to the enemy remains constant.
Mountain Deserts
Scattered ranges or areas of barren hills or mountains separated by dry, flat basins characterize mountain deserts. High ground
may rise gradually or abruptly from flat areas to several thousand meters above sea level. Most of the infrequent rainfall occurs
on high ground and runs off rapidly in the form of flash floods. These floodwaters erode deep gullies and ravines and deposit
sand and gravel around the edges of the basins. Water rapidly evaporates, leaving the land as barren as before, although there
may be short-lived vegetation. If enough water enters the basin to compensate for the rate of evaporation, shallow lakes may
develop, such as the Great Salt Lake in Utah, or the Dead Sea. Most of these lakes have a high salt content.
Rocky Plateau Deserts
Rocky plateau deserts have relatively slight relief interspersed with extensive flat areas with quantities of solid or broken rock at
or near the surface. There may be steep-walled, eroded valleys, known as wadis in the Middle East and arroyos or canyons in
the United States and Mexico. Although their flat bottoms may be superficially attractive as assembly areas, the narrower
valleys can be extremely dangerous to men and material due to flash flooding after rains. The Golan Heights is an example of a
rocky plateau desert.
Sandy or Dune Deserts
Sandy or dune deserts are extensive flat areas covered with sand or gravel. "Flat" is a relative term, as some areas may contain
sand dunes that are over 300 meters high and 16 to 24 kilometers long. Trafficability in such terrain will depend on the
windward or leeward slope of the dunes and the texture of the sand. Other areas, however, may be flat for 3,000 meters and
more. Plant life may vary from none to scrub over 2 meters high. Examples of this type of desert include the edges of the
Sahara, the empty quarter of the Arabian Desert, areas of California and New Mexico, and the Kalahari in South Africa.
Salt Marshes
Salt marshes are flat, desolate areas, sometimes studded with clumps of grass but devoid of other vegetation. They occur in
arid areas where rainwater has collected, evaporated, and left large deposits of alkali salts and water with a high salt
concentration. The water is so salty it is undrinkable. A crust that may be 2.5 to 30 centimeters thick forms over the saltwater.
In arid areas there are salt marshes hundreds of kilometers square. These areas usually support many insects, most of which
bite. Avoid salt marshes. This type of terrain is highly corrosive to boots, clothing, and skin. A good example is the
Shat-el-Arab waterway along the Iran-Iraq border.
Broken Terrain
All arid areas contain broken or highly dissected terrain. Rainstorms that erode soft sand and carve out canyons form this
terrain. A wadi may range from 3 meters wide and 2 meters deep to several hundred meters wide and deep. The direction it
takes varies as much as its width and depth. It twists and turns and forms a mazelike pattern. A wadi will give you good cover
and concealment, but do not try to move through it because it is very difficult terrain to negotiate.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Surviving and evading the enemy in an arid area depends on what you know and how prepared you are for the environmental
conditions you will face. Determine what equipment you will need, the tactics you will use, and the environment's impact on
them and you.
In a desert area there are seven environmental factors that you must consider--
Low rainfall.
Intense sunlight and heat.
Wide temperature range.
Sparse vegetation.
High mineral content near ground surface.
Sandstorms.
Mirages.
Low Rainfall
Low rainfall is the most obvious environmental factor in an arid area. Some desert areas receive less than 10 centimeters of rain
annually, and this rain comes in brief torrents that quickly run off the ground surface. You cannot survive long without water in
high desert temperatures. In a desert survival situation, you must first consider "How much water do I have?" and "Where are
other water sources?"
Intense Sunlight and Heat
Intense sunlight and heat are present in all arid areas. Air temperature can rise as high as 60 degrees C (140 degrees F) during
the day. Heat gain results from direct sunlight, hot blowing winds, reflective heat (the sun's rays bouncing off the sand), and
conductive heat from direct contact with the desert sand and rock (Figure 13-1).
The temperature of desert sand and rock averages 16 to 22 degrees C (30 to 40 degrees F) more than that of the air. For
instance, when the air temperature is 43 degrees C (110 degrees F), the sand temperature may be 60 degrees C (140 degrees
F).
Intense sunlight and heat increase the body's need for water. To conserve your body fluids and energy, you will need a shelter
to reduce your exposure to the heat of the day. Travel at night to lessen your use of water.
Radios and sensitive items of equipment exposed to direct intense sunlight will malfunction.
Wide Temperature Range
Temperatures in arid areas may get as high as 55 degrees C during the day and as low as 10 degrees C during the night. The
drop in temperature at night occurs rapidly and will chill a person who lacks warm clothing and is unable to move about. The
cool evenings and nights are the best times to work or travel. If your plan is to rest at night, you will find a wool sweater, long
underwear, and a wool stocking cap extremely helpful.
Sparse Vegetation
Vegetation is sparse in arid areas. You will therefore have trouble finding shelter and camouflaging your movements. During
daylight hours large areas of terrain are visible and easily controlled by a small opposing force.
If traveling in hostile territory, follow the principles of desert camouflage--
Hide or seek shelter in dry washes (wadis) with thicker growths of vegetation and cover from oblique observation.
Use the shadows cast from brush, rocks, or outcropping. The temperature in shaded areas will be 11 to 17 degrees C
cooler than the air temperature.
Cover objects that will reflect the light from the sun.
Before moving, survey the area for sites that provide cover and concealment. You will have trouble estimating distance. The
emptiness of desert terrain causes most people to underestimate distance by a factor of three: What appears to be 1 kilometer
away is really 3 kilometers away.
High Mineral Content
All arid regions have areas where the surface soil has a high mineral content (borax, salt, alkali, and lime). Material in contact
with this soil wears out quickly, and water in these areas is extremely hard and undrinkable. Wetting your uniform in such water
to cool off may cause a skin rash. The Great Salt Lake area in Utah is an example of this type of mineral-laden water and soil.
There is little or no plant life; there-fore, shelter is hard to find. Avoid these areas if possible.
Sandstorms
Sandstorms (sand-laden winds) occur frequently in most deserts. The "Seistan" desert wind in Iran and Afghanistan blows
constantly for up to 120 days. Within Saudi Arabia, winds average 3.2 to 4.8 kilometers per hour (kph) and can reach 112 to
128 kph in early afternoon. Expect major sandstorms and dust storms at least once a week.
The greatest danger is getting lost in a swirling wall of sand. Wear goggles and cover your mouth and nose with cloth. If natural
shelter is unavailable, mark your direction of travel, lie down, and sit out the storm.
Dust and wind-blown sand interfere with radio transmissions. Therefore, be ready to use other means for signaling, such as
pyrotechnics, signal mirrors, or marker panels, if available.
Mirages
Mirages are optical phenomena caused by the refraction of light through heated air rising from a sandy or stony surface. They
occur in the interior of the desert about 10 kilometers from the coast. They make objects that are 1.5 kilometers or more away
appear to move.
This mirage effect makes it difficult for you to identify an object from a distance. It also blurs distant range contours so much
that you feel surrounded by a sheet of water from which elevations stand out as "islands."
The mirage effect makes it hard for a person to identify targets, estimate range, and see objects clearly. However, if you can get
to high ground (3 meters or more above the desert floor), you can get above the superheated air close to the ground and
overcome the mirage effect. Mirages make land navigation difficult because they obscure natural features. You can survey the
area at dawn, dusk, or by moonlight when there is little likelihood of mirage.
Light levels in desert areas are more intense than in other geographic areas. Moonlit nights are usually crystal clear, winds die
down, haze and glare disappear, and visibility is excellent. You can see lights, red flash-lights, and blackout lights at great
distances. Sound carries very far.
Conversely, during nights with little moonlight, visibility is extremely poor. Traveling is extremely hazardous. You must avoid
getting lost, falling into ravines, or stumbling into enemy positions. Movement during such a night is practical only if you have a
compass and have spent the day in a shelter, resting, observing and memorizing the terrain, and selecting your route.
NEED FOR WATER
The subject of man and water in the desert has generated considerable interest and confusion since the early days of World
War II when the U. S. Army was preparing to fight in North Africa. At one time the U. S. Army thought it could condition men
to do with less water by progressively reducing their water supplies during training. They called it water discipline. It caused
hundreds of heat casualties.
A key factor in desert survival is understanding the relationship between physical activity, air temperature, and water
consumption. The body requires a certain amount of water for a certain level of activity at a certain temperature. For example,
a person performing hard work in the sun at 43 degrees C requires 19 liters of water daily. Lack of the required amount of
water causes a rapid decline in an individual's ability to make decisions and to perform tasks efficiently.
Your body's normal temperature is 36.9 degrees C (98.6 degrees F). Your body gets rid of excess heat (cools off) by
sweating. The warmer your body becomes--whether caused by work, exercise, or air temperature--the more you sweat. The
more you sweat, the more moisture you lose. Sweating is the principal cause of water loss. If a person stops sweating during
periods of high air temperature and heavy work or exercise, he will quickly develop heat stroke. This is an emergency that
requires immediate medical attention.
Figure 13-2 shows daily water requirements for various levels of work. Understanding how the air temperature and your
physical activity affect your water requirements allows you to take measures to get the most from your water supply. These
measures are--
Find shade! Get out of the sun!
Place something between you and the hot ground.
Limit your movements!
Conserve your sweat. Wear your complete uniform to include T-shirt. Roll the sleeves down, cover your head, and
protect your neck with a scarf or similar item. These steps will protect your body from hot-blowing winds and the direct
rays of the sun. Your clothing will absorb your sweat, keeping it against your skin so that you gain its full cooling effect.
By staying in the shade quietly, fully clothed, not talking, keeping your mouth closed, and breathing through your nose,
your water requirement for survival drops dramatically.
If water is scarce, do not eat. Food requires water for digestion; therefore, eating food will use water that you need for
cooling.
Thirst is not a reliable guide for your need for water. A person who uses thirst as a guide will drink only two-thirds of his
daily water requirement. To prevent this "voluntary" dehydration, use the following guide:
At temperatures below 38 degrees C, drink 0.5 liter of water every hour.
At temperatures above 38 degrees C, drink 1 liter of water every hour.
Drinking water at regular intervals helps your body remain cool and decreases sweating. Even when your water supply is low,
sipping water constantly will keep your body cooler and reduce water loss through sweating. Conserve your fluids by reducing
activity during the heat of day. Do not ration your water! If you try to ration water, you stand a good chance of becoming a
heat casualty.
HEAT CASUALTIES
Your chances of becoming a heat casualty as a survivor are great, due to injury, stress, and lack of critical items of equipment.
Following are the major types of heat casualties and their treatment when little water and no medical help are available.
Heat Cramps
The loss of salt due to excessive sweating causes heat cramps. Symptoms are moderate to severe muscle cramps in legs, arms,
or abdomen. These symptoms may start as a mild muscular discomfort. You should now stop all activity, get in the shade, and
drink water. If you fail to recognize the early symptoms and continue your physical activity, you will have severe muscle cramps
and pain. Treat as for heat exhaustion, below.
Heat Exhaustion
A large loss of body water and salt causes heat exhaustion. Symptoms are headache, mental confusion, irritability, excessive
sweating, weakness, dizziness, cramps, and pale, moist, cold (clammy) skin. Immediately get the patient under shade. Make
him lie on a stretcher or similar item about 45 centimeters off the ground. Loosen his clothing. Sprinkle him with water and fan
him. Have him drink small amounts of water every 3 minutes. Ensure he stays quiet and rests.
Heat Stroke
A severe heat injury caused by extreme loss of water and salt and the body's inability to cool itself. The patient may die if not
cooled immediately. Symptoms are the lack of sweat, hot and dry skin, headache, dizziness, fast pulse, nausea and vomiting,
and mental confusion leading to unconsciousness. Immediately get the person to shade. Lay him on a stretcher or similar item
about 45 centimeters off the ground. Loosen his clothing. Pour water on him (it does not matter if the water is polluted or
brackish) and fan him. Massage his arms, legs, and body. If he regains consciousness, let him drink small amounts of water
every 3 minutes.
PRECAUTIONS
In a desert survival and evasion situation, it is unlikely that you will have a medic or medical supplies with you to treat heat
injuries. Therefore, take extra care to avoid heat injuries. Rest during the day. Work during the cool evenings and nights. Use a
buddy system to watch for heat injury, and observe the following guidelines:
Make sure you tell someone where you are going and when you will return.
Watch for signs of heat injury. If someone complains of tiredness or wanders away from the group, he may be a heat
casualty.
Drink water at least once an hour.
Get in the shade when resting; do not lie directly on the ground.
Do not take off your shirt and work during the day.
Check the color of your urine. A light color means you are drinking enough water, a dark color means you need to drink
more.
DESERT HAZARDS
There are several hazards unique to desert survival. These include insects, snakes, thorned plants and cacti, contaminated
water, sunburn, eye irritation, and climatic stress.
Insects of almost every type abound in the desert. Man, as a source of water and food, attracts lice, mites, wasps, and flies.
They are extremely unpleasant and may carry diseases. Old buildings, ruins, and caves are favorite habitats of spiders,
scorpions, centipedes, lice, and mites. These areas provide protection from the elements and also attract other wild-life.
Therefore, take extra care when staying in these areas. Wear gloves at all times in the desert. Do not place your hands
anywhere without first looking to see what is there. Visually inspect an area before sitting or lying down. When you get up,
shake out and inspect your boots and clothing. All desert areas have snakes. They inhabit ruins, native villages, garbage dumps,
caves, and natural rock outcropping that offer shade. Never go barefoot or walk through these areas without carefully
inspecting them for snakes. Pay attention to where you place your feet and hands. Most snakebites result from stepping on or
handling snakes. Avoid them. Once you see a snake, give it a wide berth.
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CHAPTER 14
TROPICAL SURVIVAL
Most people think of the tropics as a huge and forbidding tropical rain forest through which every step
taken must be hacked out, and where every inch of the way is crawling with danger. Actually, over half of
the land in the tropics is cultivated in some way.
A knowledge of field skills, the ability to improvise, and the application of the principles of survival will
increase the prospects of survival. Do not be afraid of being alone in the jungle; fear will lead to panic.
Panic will lead to exhaustion and decrease your chance of survival.
Everything in the jungle thrives, including disease germs and parasites that breed at an alarming rate.
Nature will provide water, food, and plenty of materials to build shelters.
Indigenous peoples have lived for millennia by hunting and gathering. However, it will take an outsider
some time to get used to the conditions and the nonstop activity of tropical survival.
TROPICAL WEATHER
High temperatures, heavy rainfall, and oppressive humidity characterize equatorial and subtropical regions, except at high
altitudes. At low altitudes, temperature variation is seldom less than 10 degrees C and is often more than 35 degrees C. At
altitudes over 1,500 meters, ice often forms at night. The rain has a cooling effect, but when it stops, the temperature soars.
Rainfall is heavy, often with thunder and lightning. Sudden rain beats on the tree canopy, turning trickles into raging torrents and
causing rivers to rise. Just as suddenly, the rain stops. Violent storms may occur, usually toward the end of the summer months.
Hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons develop over the sea and rush inland, causing tidal waves and devastation ashore. In
choosing campsites, make sure you are above any potential flooding. Prevailing winds vary between winter and summer. The
dry season has rain once a day and the monsoon has continuous rain. In Southeast Asia, winds from the Indian Ocean bring the
monsoon, but it is dry when the wind blows from the landmass of China.
Tropical day and night are of equal length. Darkness falls quickly and daybreak is just as sudden.
JUNGLE TYPES
There is no standard jungle. The tropical area may be any of the following:
Rain forests.
Secondary jungles.
Semievergreen seasonal and monsoon forests.
Scrub and thorn forests.
Savannas.
Saltwater swamps.
Freshwater swamps.
Tropical Rain Forests
The climate varies little in rain forests. You find these forests across the equator in the Amazon and Congo basins, parts of
Indonesia, and several Pacific islands. Up to 3.5 meters of rain fall evenly throughout the year. Temperatures range from about
32 degrees C in the day to 21 degrees C at night.
There are five layers of vegetation in this jungle (Figure 14-1). Where untouched by man, jungle trees rise from buttress roots to
heights of 60 meters. Below them, smaller trees produce a canopy so thick that little light reaches the jungle floor. Seedlings
struggle beneath them to reach light, and masses of vines and lianas twine up to the sun. Ferns, mosses, and herbaceous plants
push through a thick carpet of leaves, and a great variety of fungi grow on leaves and fallen tree trunks.
Because of the lack of light on the jungle floor, there is little undergrowth to hamper movement, but dense growth limits visibility
to about 50 meters. You can easily lose your sense of direction in this jungle, and it is extremely hard for aircraft to see you.
Secondary Jungles
Secondary jungle is very similar to rain forest. Prolific growth, where sunlight penetrates to the jungle floor, typifies this type of
forest. Such growth happens mainly along river banks, on jungle fringes, and where man has cleared rain forest. When
abandoned, tangled masses of vegetation quickly reclaim these cultivated areas. You can often find cultivated food plants
among this vegetation.
Semievergreen Seasonal and Monsoon Forests
The characteristics of the American and African semievergreen seasonal forests correspond with those of the Asian monsoon
forests. These characteristics are--
Their trees fall into two stories of tree strata. Those in the upper story average 18 to 24 meters; those in the lower story
average 7 to 13 meters.
The diameter of the trees averages 0.5 meter.
Their leaves fall during a seasonal drought.
Except for the sago, nipa, and coconut palms, the same edible plants grow in these areas as in the tropical rain forests.
You find these forests in portions of Columbia and Venezuela and the Amazon basin in South America; in portions of southeast
coastal Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique in Africa; in Northeastern India, much of Burma, Thailand, Indochina, Java, and
parts of other Indonesian islands in Asia.
Tropical Scrub and Thorn Forests
The chief characteristics of tropical scrub and thorn forests are--
There is a definite dry season.
Trees are leafless during the dry season.
The ground is bare except for a few tufted plants in bunches; grasses are uncommon.
Plants with thorns predominate.
Fires occur frequently.
You find tropical scrub and thorn forests on the west coast of Mexico, Yucatan peninsula, Venezuela, Brazil; on the northwest
coast and central parts of Africa; and in Asia, in Turkestan and India.
Within the tropical scrub and thorn forest areas, you will find it hard to obtain food plants during the dry season. During the
rainy season, plants are considerably more abundant.
Tropical Savannas
General characteristics of the savanna are--
It is found within the tropical zones in South America and Africa.
It looks like a broad, grassy meadow, with trees spaced at wide intervals.
It frequently has red soil.
It grows scattered trees that usually appear stunted and gnarled like apple trees. Palms also occur on savannas.
You find savannas in parts of Venezuela, Brazil, and the Guianas in South America. In Africa, you find them in the southern
Sahara (north-central Cameroon and Gabon and southern Sudan), Benin, Togo, most of Nigeria, northeastern Zaire, northern
Uganda, western Kenya, part of Malawi, part of Tanzania, southern Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and western Madagascar.
Saltwater Swamps
Saltwater swamps are common in coastal areas subject to tidal flooding. Mangrove trees thrive in these swamps. Mangrove
trees can reach heights of 12 meters, and their tangled roots are an obstacle to movement. Visibility in this type of swamp is
poor, and movement is extremely difficult. Sometimes, streams that you can raft form channels, but you usually must travel on
foot through this swamp.
You find saltwater swamps in West Africa, Madagascar, Malaysia, the Pacific islands, Central and South America, and at the
mouth of the Ganges River in India. The swamps at the mouths of the Orinoco and Amazon rivers and rivers of Guyana consist
of mud and trees that offer little shade. Tides in saltwater swamps can vary as much as 12 meters.
Everything in a saltwater swamp may appear hostile to you, from leeches and insects to crocodiles and caimans. Avoid the
dangerous animals in this swamp.
Avoid this swamp altogether if you can. If there are water channels through it, you may be able to use a raft to escape.
Freshwater Swamps
You find freshwater swamps in low-lying inland areas. Their characteristics are masses of thorny undergrowth, reeds, grasses,
and occasional short palms that reduce visibility and make travel difficult. There are often islands that dot these swamps,
allowing you to get out of the water. Wildlife is abundant in these swamps.
TRAVEL THROUGH JUNGLE AREAS
With practice, movement through thick undergrowth and jungle can be done efficiently. Always wear long sleeves to avoid cuts
and scratches.
To move easily, you must develop "jungle eye," that is, you should not concentrate on the pattern of bushes and trees to your
immediate front. You must focus on the jungle further out and find natural breaks in the foliage. Look through the jungle, not at
it. Stop and stoop down occasionally to look along the jungle floor. This action may reveal game trails that you can follow.
Stay alert and move slowly and steadily through dense forest or jungle. Stop periodically to listen and take your bearings. Use a
machete to cut through dense vegetation, but do not cut unnecessarily or you will quickly wear yourself out. If using a machete,
stroke upward when cutting vines to reduce noise because sound carries long distances in the jungle. Use a stick to part the
vegetation. Using a stick will also help dislodge biting ants, spiders, or snakes. Do not grasp at brush or vines when climbing
slopes; they may have irritating spines or sharp thorns.
Many jungle and forest animals follow game trails. These trails wind and cross, but frequently lead to water or clearings. Use
these trails if they lead in your desired direction of travel.
In many countries, electric and telephone lines run for miles through sparsely inhabited areas. Usually, the right-of-way is clear
enough to allow easy travel. When traveling along these lines, be careful as you approach transformer and relay stations. In
enemy territory, they may be guarded.
TRAVEL TIPS
Pinpoint your initial location as accurately as possible to determine a general line of travel to safety. If you do not
have a compass, use a field-expedient direction finding method.
Take stock of water supplies and equipment.
Move in one direction, but not necessarily in a straight line. Avoid obstacles. In enemy territory, take advantage of
natural cover and concealment.
Move smoothly through the jungle. Do not blunder through it since you will get many cuts and scratches. Turn
your shoulders, shift your hips, bend your body, and shorten or lengthen your stride as necessary to slide between
the undergrowth.
IMMEDIATE CONSIDERATIONS
There is less likelihood of your rescue from beneath a dense jungle canopy than in other survival situations. You will probably
have to travel to reach safety.
If you are the victim of an aircraft crash, the most important items to take with you from the crash site are a machete, a
compass, a first aid kit, and a parachute or other material for use as mosquito netting and shelter.
Take shelter from tropical rain, sun, and insects. Malaria-carrying mosquitoes and other insects are immediate dangers, so
protect yourself against bites.
Do not leave the crash area without carefully blazing or marking your route. Use your compass. Know what direction you are
taking.
In the tropics, even the smallest scratch can quickly become dangerously infected. Promptly treat any wound, no matter how
minor.
WATER PROCUREMENT
Even though water is abundant in most tropical environments, you may, as a survivor, have trouble finding it. If you do find
water, it may not be safe to drink. Some of the many sources are vines, roots, palm trees, and condensation. You can
sometimes follow animals to water. Often you can get nearly clear water from muddy streams or lakes by digging a hole in
sandy soil about 1 meter from the bank. Water will seep into the hole. You must purify any water obtained in this manner.
Animals as Signs of Water
Animals can often lead you to water. Most animals require water regularly. Grazing animals such as deer, are usually never far
from water and usually drink at dawn and dusk. Converging game trails often lead to water. Carnivores (meat eaters) are not
reliable indicators of water. They get moisture from the animals they eat and can go without water for long periods.
Birds can sometimes also lead you to water. Grain eaters, such as finches and pigeons, are never far from water. They drink at
dawn and dusk. When they fly straight and low, they are heading for water. When returning from water, they are full and will fly
from tree to tree, resting frequently. Do not rely on water birds to lead you to water. They fly long distances without stopping.
Hawks, eagles, and other birds of prey get liquids from their victims; you cannot use them as a water indicator.
Insects can be good indicators of water, especially bees. Bees seldom range more than 6 kilometers from their nests or hives.
They usually will have a water source in this range. Ants need water. A column of ants marching up a tree is going to a small
reservoir of trapped water. You find such reservoirs even in arid areas. Most flies stay within 100 meters of water, especially
the European mason fly, easily recognized by its iridescent green body.
Human tracks will usually lead to a well, bore hole, or soak. Scrub or rocks may cover it to reduce evaporation. Replace the
cover after use.
Water From Plants
Plants such as vines, roots, and palm trees are good sources of water.
Vines
Vines with rough bark and shoots about 5 centimeters thick can be a useful source of water. You must learn by experience
which are the water-bearing vines, because not all have drinkable water. Some may even have a poisonous sap. The poisonous
ones yield a sticky, milky sap when cut. Nonpoisonous vines will give a clear fluid. Some vines cause a skin irritation on
contact; therefore let the liquid drip into your mouth, rather than put your mouth to the vine. Preferably, use some type of
container. Use the procedure described in Chapter 6 to obtain water from a vine.
Roots
In Australia, the water tree, desert oak, and bloodwood have roots near the surface. Pry these roots out of the ground and cut
them into 30-centimeter lengths. Remove the bark and suck out the moisture, or shave the root to a pulp and squeeze it over
your mouth.
Palm Trees
The buri, coconut, and nipa palms all contain a sugary fluid that is very good to drink. To obtain the liquid, bend a flowering
stalk of one of these palms downward, and cut off its tip. If you cut a thin slice off the stalk every 12 hours, the flow will renew,
making it possible to collect up to a liter per day. Nipa palm shoots grow from the base, so that you can work at ground level.
On grown trees of other species, you may have to climb them to reach a flowering stalk. Milk from coconuts has a large water
content, but may contain a strong laxative in ripe nuts. Drinking too much of this milk may cause you to lose more fluid than you
drink.
Water From Condensation
Often it requires too much effort to dig for roots containing water. It may be easier to let a plant produce water for you in the
form of condensation. Tying a clear plastic bag around a green leafy branch will cause water in the leaves to evaporate and
condense in the bag. Placing cut vegetation in a plastic bag will also produce condensation. This is a solar still (see Chapter 6).
FOOD
Food is usually abundant in a tropical survival situation. To obtain animal food, use the procedures outlined in Chapter 8.
In addition to animal food, you will have to supplement your diet with edible plants. The best places to forage are the banks of
streams and rivers. Wherever the sun penetrates the jungle, there will be a mass of vegetation, but river banks may be the most
accessible areas.
If you are weak, do not expend energy climbing or felling a tree for food. There are more easily obtained sources of food
nearer the ground. Do not pick more food than you need. Food spoils rapidly in tropical conditions. Leave food on the growing
plant until you need it, and eat it fresh.
There are an almost unlimited number of edible plants from which to choose. Unless you can positively identify these plants, it
may be safer at first to begin with palms, bamboos, and common fruits. The list below identifies some of the most common
foods. Detailed descriptions and photographs are at Appendix B.
TROPICAL ZONE FOOD PLANTS
Bael fruit (Aegle marmelos)
Bamboo (various species)
Banana or plantain (Musa species)
Bignay (Antidesma bunius)
Breadfruit (Artrocarpus incisa)
Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera)
Fishtail palm (Caryota urens)
Horseradish tree (Moringa pterygosperma)
Lotus (Nelumbo species)
Mango (Mangifera indica)
Manioc (Manihot utillissima)
Nipa palm (Nipa fruticans)
Papaya (Carica papaya)
Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana)
Rattan palm (Calamus species)
Sago palm (Metroxylon sagu)
Sterculia (Sterculia foetida)
Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)
Sugar palm (Arenga pinnata)
Sweetsop (Annona squamosa)
Taro (Colocasia and Alocasia species)
Water lily (Nymphaea odorata)
Wild fig (Ficus species)
Wild rice (Zizania aquatica)
Yam (Dioscorea species)
POISONOUS PLANTS
The proportion of poisonous plants in tropical regions is no greater than in any other area of the world. However, it may appear
that most plants in the tropics are poisonous because of the great density of plant growth in some tropical areas. See Appendix
C.
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CHAPTER 15
COLD WEATHER SURVIVAL
One of the most difficult survival situations is a cold weather scenario. Remember, cold weather is an
adversary that can be as dangerous as an enemy soldier. Every time you venture into the cold, you are
pitting yourself against the elements. With a little knowledge of the environment, proper plans, and
appropriate equipment, you can overcome the elements. As you remove one or more of these factors,
survival becomes increasingly difficult. Remember, winter weather is highly variable. Prepare yourself to
adapt to blizzard conditions even during sunny and clear weather.
Cold is a far greater threat to survival than it appears. It decreases your ability to think and weakens your
will to do anything except to get warm. Cold is an insidious enemy; as it numbs the mind and body, it
subdues the will to survive.
Cold makes it very easy to forget your ultimate goal--to survive.
COLD REGIONS AND LOCATIONS
Cold regions include arctic and subarctic areas and areas immediately adjoining them. You can classify about 48 percent of the
northern hemisphere's total landmass as a cold region due to the influence and extent of air temperatures. Ocean currents affect
cold weather and cause large areas normally included in the temperate zone to fall within the cold regions during winter periods.
Elevation also has a marked effect on defining cold regions.
Within the cold weather regions, you may face two types of cold weather environments--wet or dry. Knowing in which
environment your area of operations falls will affect planning and execution of a cold weather operation.
Wet Cold Weather Environments
Wet cold weather conditions exist when the average temperature in a 24-hour period is -10 degrees C or above.
Characteristics of this condition are freezing during the colder night hours and thawing during the day. Even though the
temperatures are warmer during this condition, the terrain is usually very sloppy due to slush and mud. You must concentrate on
protecting yourself from the wet ground and from freezing rain or wet snow.
Dry Cold Weather Environments
Dry cold weather conditions exist when the average temperature in a 24-hour period remains below -10 degrees C. Even
though the temperatures in this condition are much lower than normal, you do not have to contend with the freezing and
thawing. In these conditions, you need more layers of inner clothing to protect you from temperatures as low as -60 degrees C.
Extremely hazardous conditions exist when wind and low temperature combine.
WINDCHILL
Windchill increases the hazards in cold regions. Windchill is the effect of moving air on exposed flesh. For instance, with a
27.8-kph (15-knot) wind and a temperature of -10 degrees C, the equivalent windchill temperature is -23 degrees C. Figure
15-1 gives the windchill factors for various temperatures and wind speeds.
Remember, even when there is no wind, you will create the equivalent wind by skiing, running, being towed on skis behind a
vehicle, working around aircraft that produce wind blasts.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COLD
WEATHER SURVIVAL
It is more difficult for you to satisfy your basic water, food, and shelter needs in a cold environment than in a warm
environment. Even if you have the basic requirements, you must also have adequate protective clothing and the will to survive.
The will to survive is as important as the basic needs. There have been incidents when trained and well-equipped individuals
have not survived cold weather situations because they lacked the will to live. Conversely, this will has sustained individuals less
well-trained and equipped.
There are many different items of cold weather equipment and clothing issued by the U.S. Army today. Specialized units may
have access to newer, lightweight gear such as polypropylene underwear, GORE-TEX outerwear and boots, and other special
equipment. Remember, however, the older gear will keep you warm as long as you apply a few cold weather principles. If the
newer types of clothing are available, use them. If not, then your clothing should be entirely wool, with the possible exception of
a windbreaker.
You must not only have enough clothing to protect you from the cold, you must also know how to maximize the warmth you get
from it. For example, always keep your head covered. You can lose 40 to 45 percent of body heat from an unprotected head
and even more from the unprotected neck, wrist, and ankles. These areas of the body are good radiators of heat and have very
little insulating fat. The brain is very susceptible to cold and can stand the least amount of cooling. Because there is much blood
circulation in the head, most of which is on the surface, you can lose heat quickly if you do not cover your head.
There are four basic principles to follow to keep warm. An easy way to remember these basic principles is to use the word
COLD--
C - Keep clothing clean.
O - Avoid overheating.
L - Wear clothes loose and in layers.
D - Keep clothing dry.
C -
Keep clothing clean. This principle is always important for sanitation and comfort. In winter, it is also important
from the standpoint of warmth. Clothes matted with dirt and grease lose much of their insulation value. Heat can
escape more easily from the body through the clothing's crushed or filled up air pockets.
O -
Avoid overheating. When you get too hot, you sweat and your clothing absorbs the moisture. This affects your
warmth in two ways: dampness decreases the insulation quality of clothing, and as sweat evaporates, your body
cools. Adjust your clothing so that you do not sweat. Do this by partially opening your parka or jacket, by
removing an inner layer of clothing, by removing heavy outer mittens, or by throwing back your parka hood or
changing to lighter headgear. The head and hands act as efficient heat dissipaters when overheated.
L -
Wear your clothing loose and in layers. Wearing tight clothing and footgear restricts blood circulation and invites
cold injury. It also decreases the volume of air trapped between the layers, reducing its insulating value. Several
layers of lightweight clothing are better than one equally thick layer of clothing, because the layers have dead-air
space between them. The dead-air space provides extra insulation. Also, layers of clothing allow you to take off
or add clothing layers to prevent excessive sweating or to increase warmth.
D -
Keep clothing dry. In cold temperatures, your inner layers of clothing can become wet from sweat and your outer
layer, if not water repellent, can become wet from snow and frost melted by body heat. Wear water repellent
outer clothing, if available. It will shed most of the water collected from melting snow and frost. Before entering a
heated shelter, brush off the snow and frost. Despite the precautions you take, there will be times when you cannot
keep from getting wet. At such times, drying your clothing may become a major problem. On the march, hang
your damp mittens and socks on your rucksack. Sometimes in freezing temperatures, the wind and sun will dry this
clothing. You can also place damp socks or mittens, unfolded, near your body so that your body heat can dry
them. In a campsite, hang damp clothing inside the shelter near the top, using drying lines or improvised racks.
You may even be able to dry each item by holding it before an open fire. Dry leather items slowly. If no other
means are available for drying your boots, put them between your sleeping bag shell and liner. Your body heat will
help to dry the leather.
A heavy, down-lined sleeping bag is a valuable piece of survival gear in cold weather. Ensure the down remains dry. If wet, it
loses a lot of its insulation value. If you do not have a sleeping bag, you can make one out of parachute cloth or similar material
and natural dry material, such as leaves, pine needles, or moss. Place the dry material between two layers of the material.
Other important survival items are a knife; waterproof matches in a waterproof container, preferably one with a flint attached; a
durable compass; map; watch; waterproof ground cloth and cover; flashlight; binoculars; dark glasses; fatty emergency foods;
food gathering gear; and signaling items.
Remember, a cold weather environment can be very harsh. Give a good deal of thought to selecting the right equipment for
survival in the cold. If unsure of an item you have never used, test it in an "overnight backyard" environment before venturing
further. Once you have selected items that are essential for your survival, do not lose them after you enter a cold weather
environment.
HYGIENE
Although washing yourself may be impractical and uncomfortable in a cold environment, you must do so. Washing helps
prevent skin rashes that can develop into more serious problems.
In some situations, you may be able to take a snow bath. Take a handful of snow and wash your body where sweat and
moisture accumulate, such as under the arms and between the legs, and then wipe yourself dry. If possible, wash your feet daily
and put on clean, dry socks. Change your underwear at least twice a week. If you are unable to wash your underwear, take it
off, shake it, and let it air out for an hour or two.
If you are using a previously used shelter, check your body and clothing for lice each night. If your clothing has become
infested, use insecticide powder if you have any. Otherwise, hang your clothes in the cold, then beat and brush them. This will
help get rid of the lice, but not the eggs.
If you shave, try to do so before going to bed. This will give your skin a chance to recover before exposing it to the elements.
MEDICAL ASPECTS
When you are healthy, your inner core temperature (torso temperature) remains almost constant at 37 degrees C (98.6 degrees
F). Since your limbs and head have less protective body tissue than your torso, their temperatures vary and may not reach core
temperature.
Your body has a control system that lets it react to temperature extremes to maintain a temperature balance. There are three
main factors that affect this temperature balance--heat production, heat loss, and evaporation. The difference between the
body's core temperature and the environment's temperature governs the heat production rate. Your body can get rid of heat
better than it can produce it. Sweating helps to control the heat balance. Maximum sweating will get rid of heat about as fast as
maximum exertion produces it.
Shivering causes the body to produce heat. It also causes fatigue that, in turn, leads to a drop in body temperature. Air
movement around your body affects heat loss. It has been calculated that a naked man exposed to still air at or about 0 degrees
C can maintain a heat balance if he shivers as hard as he can. However, he can't shiver forever.
It has also been calculated that a man at rest wearing the maximum arctic clothing in a cold environment can keep his internal
heat balance during temperatures well below freezing. To withstand really cold conditions for any length of time, however, he
will have to become active or shiver.
COLD INJURIES
The best way to deal with injuries and sicknesses is to take measures to prevent them from happening in the first place. Treat
any injury or sickness that occurs as soon as possible to prevent it from worsening.
The knowledge of signs and symptoms and the use of the buddy system are critical in maintaining health. Following are cold
injuries that can occur.
Hypothermia
Hypothermia is the lowering of the body temperature at a rate faster than the body can produce heat. Causes of hypothermia
may be general exposure or the sudden wetting of the body by falling into a lake or spraying with fuel or other liquids.
The initial symptom is shivering. This shivering may progress to the point that it is uncontrollable and interferes with an
individual's ability to care for himself. This begins when the body's core (rectal) temperature falls to about 35.5 degrees C (96
degrees F). When the core temperature reaches 35 to 32 degrees C (95 to 90 degrees F), sluggish thinking, irrational
reasoning, and a false feeling of warmth may occur. Core temperatures of 32 to 30 degrees C (90 to 86 degrees F) and below
result in muscle rigidity, unconsciousness, and barely detectable signs of life. If the victim's core temperature falls below 25
degrees C (77 degrees F), death is almost certain.
To treat hypothermia, rewarm the entire body. If there are means available, rewarm the person by first immersing the trunk area
only in warm water of 37.7 to 43.3 degrees C (100 to 110 degrees F).
CAUTION
Rewarming the total body in a warm water bath should be done only in a hospital environment because of the increased risk
of cardiac arrest and rewarming shock.
One of the quickest ways to get heat to the inner core is to give warm water enemas. Such an action, however, may not be
possible in a survival situation. Another method is to wrap the victim in a warmed sleeping bag with another person who is
already warm; both should be naked.
CAUTION
The individual placed in the sleeping bag with victim could also become a hypothermia victim if left in the bag too long.
If the person is conscious, give him hot, sweetened fluids. One of the best sources of calories is honey or dextrose; if
unavailable, use sugar, cocoa, or a similar soluble sweetener.
CAUTION
Do not force an unconscious person to drink.
There are two dangers in treating hypothermia--rewarming too rapidly and "after drop." Rewarming too rapidly can cause the
victim to have circulatory problems, resulting in heart failure. After drop is the sharp body core temperature drop that occurs
when taking the victim from the warm water. Its probable muse is the return of previously stagnant limb blood to the core (inner
torso) area as recirculation occurs. Concentrating on warming the core area and stimulating peripheral circulation will lessen the
effects of after drop. Immersing the torso in a warm bath, if possible, is the best treatment.
Frostbite
This injury is the result of frozen tissues. Light frostbite involves only the skin that takes on a dull whitish pallor. Deep frostbite
extends to a depth below the skin. The tissues become solid and immovable. Your feet, hands, and exposed facial areas are
particularly vulnerable to frostbite.
The best frostbite prevention, when you are with others, is to use the buddy system. Check your buddy's face often and make
sure that he checks yours. If you are alone, periodically cover your nose and lower part of your face with your mittened hand.
The following pointers will aid you in keeping warm and preventing frostbite when it is extremely cold or when you have less
than adequate clothing:
Face. Maintain circulation by twitching and wrinkling the skin on your face making faces. Warm with your hands.
Ears. Wiggle and move your ears. Warm with your hands.
Hands. Move your hands inside your gloves. Warm by placing your hands close to your body.
Feet. Move your feet and wiggle your toes inside your boots.
A loss of feeling in your hands and feet is a sign of frostbite. If you have lost feeling for only a short time, the frostbite is
probably light. Otherwise, assume the frostbite is deep. To rewarm a light frostbite, use your hands or mittens to warm your
face and ears. Place your hands under your armpits. Place your feet next to your buddy's stomach. A deep frostbite injury, if
thawed and refrozen, will cause more damage than a nonmedically trained person can handle. Figure 15-2 lists some do's and
don'ts regarding frostbite.
Trench Foot and Immersion Foot
These conditions result from many hours or days of exposure to wet or damp conditions at a temperature just above freezing.
The symptoms are a sensation of pins and needles, tingling, numbness, and then pain. The skin will initially appear wet, soggy,
white, and shriveled. As it progresses and damage appears, the skin will take on a red and then a bluish or black discoloration.
The feet become cold, swollen, and have a waxy appearance. Walking becomes difficult and the feet feel heavy and numb. The
nerves and muscles sustain the main damage, but gangrene can occur. In extreme cases, the flesh dies and it may become
necessary to have the foot or leg amputated. The best prevention is to keep your feet dry. Carry extra socks with you in a
waterproof packet. You can dry wet socks against your torso (back or chest). Wash your feet and put on dry socks daily.
Dehydration
When bundled up in many layers of clothing during cold weather, you may be unaware that you are losing body moisture. Your
heavy clothing absorbs the moisture that evaporates in the air. You must drink water to replace this loss of fluid. Your need for
water is as great in a cold environment as it is in a warm environment (Chapter 13). One way to tell if you are becoming
dehydrated is to check the color of your urine on snow. If your urine makes the snow dark yellow, you are becoming
dehydrated and need to replace body fluids. If it makes the snow light yellow to no color, your body fluids have a more normal
balance.
Cold Diuresis
Exposure to cold increases urine output. It also decreases body fluids that you must replace.
Sunburn
Exposed skin can become sunburned even when the air temperature is below freezing. The sun's rays reflect at all angles from
snow, ice, and water, hitting sensitive areas of skin--lips, nostrils, and eyelids. Exposure to the sun results in sunburn more
quickly at high altitudes than at low altitudes. Apply sunburn cream or lip salve to your face when in the sun.
Snow Blindness
The reflection of the sun's ultraviolet rays off a snow-covered area causes this condition. The symptoms of snow blindness are a
sensation of grit in the eyes, pain in and over the eyes that increases with eyeball movement, red and teary eyes, and a
headache that intensifies with continued exposure to light. Prolonged exposure to these rays can result in permanent eye
damage. To treat snow blindness, bandage your eyes until the symptoms disappear.
You can prevent snow blindness by wearing sunglasses. If you don't have sunglasses, improvise. Cut slits in a piece of
cardboard, thin wood, tree bark, or other available material (Figure 15-3). Putting soot under your eyes will help reduce shine
and glare.
Constipation
It is very important to relieve yourself when needed. Do not delay because of the cold condition. Delaying relieving yourself
because of the cold, eating dehydrated foods, drinking too little liquid, and irregular eating habits can cause you to become
constipated. Although not disabling, constipation can cause some discomfort. Increase your fluid intake to at least 2 liters above
your normal 2 to 3 liters daily intake and, if available, eat fruit and other foods that will loosen the stool.
Insect Bites
Insect bites can become infected through constant scratching. Flies can carry various disease-producing germs. To prevent
insect bites, use insect repellent, netting, and wear proper clothing. See Chapter 11 for information on insect bites and Chapter
4 for treatment.
SHELTERS
Your environment and the equipment you carry with you will determine the type of shelter you can build. You can build shelters
in wooded areas, open country, and barren areas. Wooded areas usually provide the best location, while barren areas have
only snow as building material. Wooded areas provide timber for shelter construction, wood for fire, concealment from
observation, and protection from the wind.
Note: In extreme cold, do not use metal, such as an aircraft fuselage, for shelter. The metal will conduct
away from the shelter what little heat you can generate.
Shelters made from ice or snow usually require tools such as ice axes or saws. You must also expend much time and energy to
build such a shelter. Be sure to ventilate an enclosed shelter, especially if you intend to build a fire in it. Always block a shelter's
entrance, if possible, to keep the heat in and the wind out. Use a rucksack or snow block. Construct a shelter no larger than
needed. This will reduce the amount of space to heat. A fatal error in cold weather shelter construction is making the shelter so
large that it steals body heat rather than saving it. Keep shelter space small.
Never sleep directly on the ground. Lay down some pine boughs, grass, or other insulating material to keep the ground from
absorbing your body heat.
Never fall asleep without turning out your stove or lamp. Carbon monoxide poisoning can result from a fire burning in an
unventilated shelter. Carbon monoxide is a great danger. It is colorless and odorless. Any time you have an open flame, it may
generate carbon monoxide. Always check your ventilation. Even in a ventilated shelter, incomplete combustion can cause
carbon monoxide poisoning. Usually, there are no symptoms. Unconsciousness and death can occur without warning.
Sometimes, however, pressure at the temples, burning of the eyes, headache, pounding pulse, drowsiness, or nausea may
occur. The one characteristic, visible sign of carbon monoxide poisoning is a cherry red coloring in the tissues of the lips, mouth,
and inside of the eyelids. Get into fresh air at once if you have any of these symptoms.
There are several types of field-expedient shelters you can quickly build or employ. Many use snow for insulation.
Snow Cave Shelter
The snow cave shelter (Figure 15-4) is a most effective shelter because of the insulating qualities of snow. Remember that it
takes time and energy to build and that you will get wet while building it. First, you need to find a drift about 3 meters deep into
which you can dig. While building this shelter, keep the roof arched for strength and to allow melted snow to drain down the
sides. Build the sleeping platform higher than the entrance. Separate the sleeping platform from the snow cave's walls or dig a
small trench between the platform and the wall. This platform will prevent the melting snow from wetting you and your
equipment. This construction is especially important if you have a good source of heat in the snow cave. Ensure the roof is high
enough so that you can sit up on the sleeping platform. Block the entrance with a snow block or other material and use the
lower entrance area for cooking. The walls and ceiling should be at least 30 centimeters thick. Install a ventilation shaft. If you
do not have a drift large enough to build a snow cave, you can make a variation of it by piling snow into a mound large enough
to dig out.
Snow Trench Shelter
The idea behind this shelter (Figure 15-4) is to get you below the snow and wind level and use the snow's insulating qualities. If
you are in an area of compacted snow, cut snow blocks and use them as overhead cover. If not, you can use a poncho or
other material. Build only one entrance and use a snow block or rucksack as a door.
Snow Block and Parachute Shelter
Use snow blocks for the sides and parachute material for overhead cover (Figure 15-4). If snowfall is heavy, you will have to
clear snow from the top at regular intervals to prevent the collapse of the parachute material.
Snow House or Igloo
In certain areas, the natives frequently use this type of shelter (Figure 15-4) as hunting and fishing shelters. They are efficient
shelters but require some practice to make them properly. Also, you must be in an area that is suitable for cutting snow blocks
and have the equipment to cut them (snow saw or knife).
Lean-To Shelter
Construct this shelter in the same manner as for other environments; however, pile snow around the sides for insulation (Figure
15-5).
Fallen Tree Shelter
To build this shelter, find a fallen tree and dig out the snow underneath it (Figure 15-6). The snow will not be deep under the
tree. If you must remove branches from the inside, use them to line the floor.
Tree-Pit Shelter
Dig snow out from under a suitable large tree. It will not be as deep near the base of the tree. Use the cut branches to line the
shelter. Use a ground sheet as overhead cover to prevent snow from falling off the tree into the shelter. If built properly, you
can have 360-degree visibility (Figure 5-12, Chapter 5).
20-Man Life Raft
This raft is the standard overwater raft on U.S. Air Force aircraft. You can use it as a shelter. Do not let large amounts of snow
build up on the overhead protection. If placed in an open area, it also serves as a good signal to overhead aircraft.
FIRE
Fire is especially important in cold weather. It not only provides a means to prepare food, but also to get warm and to melt
snow or ice for water. It also provides you with a significant psychological boost by making you feel a little more secure in your
situation.
Use the techniques described in Chapter 7 to build and light your fire. If you are in enemy territory, remember that the smoke,
smell, and light from your fire may reveal your location. Light reflects from surrounding trees or rocks, making even indirect light
a source of danger. Smoke tends to go straight up in cold, calm weather, making it a beacon during the day, but helping to
conceal the smell at night. In warmer weather, especially in a wooded area, smoke tends to hug the ground, making it less
visible in the day, but making its odor spread.
If you are in enemy territory, cut low tree boughs rather than the entire tree for firewood. Fallen trees are easily seen from the
air.
All wood will burn, but some types of wood create more smoke than others. For instance, coniferous trees that contain resin
and tar create more and darker smoke than deciduous trees.
There are few materials to use for fuel in the high mountainous regions of the arctic. You may find some grasses and moss, but
very little. The lower the elevation, the more fuel available. You may find some scrub willow and small, stunted spruce trees
above the tree line. On sea ice, fuels are seemingly nonexistent. Driftwood or fats may be the only fuels available to a survivor
on the barren coastlines in the arctic and subarctic regions.
Abundant fuels within the tree line are--
Spruce trees are common in the interior regions. As a conifer, spruce makes a lot of smoke when burned in the spring
and summer months. However, it burns almost smoke-free in late fall and winter.
The tamarack tree is also a conifer. It is the only tree of the pine family that loses its needles in the fall. Without its
needles, it looks like a dead spruce, but it has many knobby buds and cones on its bare branches. When burning,
tamarack wood makes a lot of smoke and is excellent for signaling purposes.
Birch trees are deciduous and the wood burns hot and fast, as if soaked with oil or kerosene. Most birches grow near
streams and lakes, but occasionally you will find a few on higher ground and away from water.
Willow and alder grow in arctic regions, normally in marsh areas or near lakes and streams. These woods burn hot and
fast without much smoke.
Dried moss, grass, and scrub willow are other materials you can use for fuel. These are usually plentiful near streams in tundras
(open, treeless plains). By bundling or twisting grasses or other scrub vegetation to form a large, solid mass, you will have a
slower burning, more productive fuel.
If fuel or oil is available from a wrecked vehicle or downed aircraft, use it for fuel. Leave the fuel in the tank for storage,
drawing on the supply only as you need it. Oil congeals in extremely cold temperatures, therefore, drain it from the vehicle or
aircraft while still warm if there is no danger of explosion or fire. If you have no container, let the oil drain onto the snow or ice.
Scoop up the fuel as you need it.
CAUTION
Do not expose flesh to petroleum, oil, and lubricants in extremely cold temperatures. The liquid state of these products is
deceptive in that it can cause frostbite.
Some plastic products, such as MRE spoons, helmet visors, visor housings, aid foam rubber will ignite quickly from a burning
match. They will also burn long enough to help start a fire. For example, a plastic spoon will burn for about 10 minutes.
In cold weather regions, there are some hazards in using fires, whether to keep warm or to cook. For example--
Fires have been known to burn underground, resurfacing nearby. Therefore, do not build a fire too close to a shelter.
In snow shelters, excessive heat will melt the insulating layer of snow that may also be your camouflage.
A fire inside a shelter lacking adequate ventilation can result in carbon monoxide poisoning.
A person trying to get warm or to dry clothes may become careless and burn or scorch his clothing and equipment.
Melting overhead snow may get you wet, bury you and your equipment, and possibly extinguish your fire.
In general, a small fire and some type of stove is the best combination for cooking purposes. A hobo stove (Figure 15-7) is
particularly suitable to the arctic. It is easy to make out of a tin can, and it conserves fuel. A bed of hot coals provides the best
cooking heat. Coals from a crisscross fire will settle uniformly. Make this type of fire by crisscrossing the firewood. A simple
crane propped on a forked stick will hold a cooking container over a fire.
For heating purposes, a single candle provides enough heat to warm an enclosed shelter. A small fire about the size of a man's
hand is ideal for use in enemy territory. It requires very little fuel, yet it generates considerable warmth and is hot enough to
warm liquids.
WATER
There are many sources of water in the arctic and subarctic. Your location and the season of the year will determine where and
how you obtain water.
Water sources in arctic and subarctic regions are more sanitary than in other regions due to the climatic and environmental
conditions. However, always purify the water before drinking it. During the summer months, the best natural sources of water
are freshwater lakes, streams, ponds, rivers, and springs. Water from ponds or lakes may be slightly stagnant, but still usable.
Running water in streams, rivers, and bubbling springs is usually fresh and suitable for drinking.
The brownish surface water found in a tundra during the summer is a good source of water. However, you may have to filter
the water before purifying it.
You can melt freshwater ice and snow for water. Completely melt both before putting them in your mouth. Trying to melt ice or
snow in your mouth takes away body heat and may cause internal cold injuries. If on or near pack ice in the sea, you can use
old sea ice to melt for water. In time, sea ice loses its salinity. You can identify this ice by its rounded corners and bluish color.
You can use body heat to melt snow. Place the snow in a water bag and place the bag between your layers of clothing. This is
a slow process, but you can use it on the move or when you have no fire.
Note: Do not waste fuel to melt ice or snow when drinkable water is available from other sources.
When ice is available, melt it, rather than snow. One cup of ice yields more water than one cup of snow. Ice also takes less
time to melt. You can melt ice or snow in a water bag, MRE ration bag, tin can, or improvised container by placing the
container near a fire. Begin with a small amount of ice or snow in the container and, as it turns to water, add more ice or snow.
Another way to melt ice or snow is by putting it in a bag made from porous material and suspending the bag near the fire. Place
a container under the bag to catch the water.
During cold weather, avoid drinking a lot of liquid before going to bed. Crawling out of a warm sleeping bag at night to relieve
yourself means less rest and more exposure to the cold.
Once you have water, keep it next to you to prevent refreezing. Also, do not fill your canteen completely. Allowing the water to
slosh around will help keep it from freezing.
FOOD
There are several sources of food in the arctic and subarctic regions. The type of food--fish, animal, fowl, or plant--and the
ease in obtaining it depend on the time of the year and your location.
Fish
During the summer months, you can easily get fish and other water life from coastal waters, streams, rivers, and lakes. Use the
techniques described in Chapter 8 to catch fish.
The North Atlantic and North Pacific coastal waters are rich in seafood. You can easily find crawfish, snails, clams, oysters,
and king crab. In areas where there is a great difference between the high and low tide water levels, you can easily find shellfish
at low tide. Dig in the sand on the tidal flats. Look in tidal pools and on offshore reefs. In areas where there is a small difference
between the high- and low-tide water levels, storm waves often wash shellfish onto the beaches.
The eggs of the spiny sea urchin that lives in the waters around the Aleutian Islands and southern Alaska are excellent food.
Look for the sea urchins in tidal pools. Break the shell by placing it between two stones. The eggs are bright yellow in color.
Most northern fish and fish eggs are edible. Exceptions are the meat of the arctic shark and the eggs of the sculpins.
The bivalves, such as clams and mussels, are usually more palatable than spiral-shelled seafood, such as snails.
WARNING
The black mussel, a common mollusk of the far north, may be poisonous in any season. Toxins sometimes found
in the mussel's tissue are as dangerous as strychnine.
The sea cucumber is another edible sea animal. Inside its body are five long white muscles that taste much like clam meat.
In early summer, smelt spawn in the beach surf. Sometimes you can scoop them up with your hands.
You can often find herring eggs on the seaweed in midsummer. Kelp, the long ribbonlike seaweed, and other smaller seaweed
that grow among offshore rocks are also edible.
Sea Ice Animals
You find polar bears in practically all arctic coastal regions, but rarely inland. Avoid them if possible. They are the most
dangerous of all bears. They are tireless, clever hunters with good sight and an extraordinary sense of smell. If you must kill one
for food, approach it cautiously. Aim for the brain; a bullet elsewhere will rarely kill one. Always cook polar bear meat before
eating it.
CAUTION
Do not eat polar bear liver as it contains a toxic concentration of vitamin A.
Earless seal meat is some of the best meat available. You need considerable skill, however, to get close enough to an earless
seal to kill it. In spring, seals often bask on the ice beside their breathing holes. They raise their heads about every 30 seconds,
however, to look for their enemy, the polar bear.
To approach a seal, do as the Eskimos do--stay downwind from it, cautiously moving closer while it sleeps. If it moves, stop
and imitate its movements by lying flat on the ice, raising your head up and down, and wriggling your body slightly. Approach
the seal with your body side-ways to it and your arms close to your body so that you look as much like another seal as
possible. The ice at the edge of the breathing hole is usually smooth and at an incline, so the least movement of the seal may
cause it to slide into the water. Therefore, try to get within 22 to 45 meters of the seal and kill it instantly (aim for the brain). Try
to reach the seal before it slips into the water. In winter, a dead seal will usually float, but it is difficult to retrieve from the water.
Keep the seal blubber and skin from coming into contact with any scratch or broken skin you may have. You could get
"spekk-finger," that is, a reaction that causes the hands to become badly swollen.
Keep in mind that where there are seals, there are usually polar bears, and polar bears have stalked and killed seal hunters.
You can find porcupines in southern subarctic regions where there are trees. Porcupines feed on bark; if you find tree limbs
stripped bare, you are likely to find porcupines in the area.
Ptarmigans, owls, Canadian jays, grouse, and ravens are the only birds that remain in the arctic during the winter. They are
scarce north of the tree line. Ptarmigans and owls are as good for food as any game bird. Ravens are too thin to be worth the
effort it takes to catch them. Ptarmigans, which change color to blend with their surroundings, are hard to spot. Rock
ptarmigans travel in pairs and you can easily approach them. Willow ptarmigans live among willow clumps in bottom-lands.
They gather in large flocks and you can easily snare them. During the summer months all arctic birds have a 2- to 3-week
molting period during which they cannot fly and are easy to catch. Use one of the techniques described in Chapter 8 to catch
them.
Skin and butcher game (see Chapter 8) while it is still warm. If you do not have time to skin the game, at least remove its
entrails, musk glands, and genitals before storing. If time allows, cut the meat into usable pieces and freeze each separately so
that you can use the pieces as needed. Leave the fat on all animals except seals. During the winter, game freezes quickly if left in
the open. During the summer, you can store it in underground ice holes.
Plants
Although tundras support a variety of plants during the warm months, all are small, however, when compared to plants in
warmer climates. For instance, the arctic willow and birch are shrubs rather than trees. The following is a list of some plant
foods found in arctic and subarctic regions (see Appendix B for descriptions).
ARCTIC FOOD PLANTS
Arctic raspberry and blueberry
Arctic willow
Bearberry
Cranberry
Crowberry
Dandelion
Eskimo potato
Fireweed
Iceland moss
Marsh marigold
Reindeer moss
Rock tripe
Spatterdock
There are some plants growing in arctic and subarctic regions that are poisonous if eaten (see Appendix C). Use the plants that
you know are edible. When in doubt, follow the Universal Edibility Test in Chapter 9, Figure 9-5.
TRAVEL
As a survivor or an evader in an arctic or subarctic region, you will face many obstacles. Your location and the time of the year
will determine the types of obstacles and the inherent dangers. You should--
Avoid traveling during a blizzard.
Take care when crossing thin ice. Distribute your weight by lying flat and crawling.
Cross streams when the water level is lowest. Normal freezing and thawing action may cause a stream level to vary as
much as 2 to 2.5 meters per day. This variance may occur any time during the day, depending on the distance from a
glacier, the temperature, and the terrain. Consider this variation in water level when selecting a campsite near a stream.
Consider the clear arctic air. It makes estimating distance difficult. You more frequently underestimate than overestimate
distances.
Do not travel in "whiteout" conditions. The lack of contrasting colors makes it impossible to judge the nature of the
terrain.
Always cross a snow bridge at right angles to the obstacle it crosses. Find the strongest part of the bridge by poking
ahead of you with a pole or ice axe. Distribute your weight by crawling or by wearing snowshoes or skis.
Make camp early so that you have plenty of time to build a shelter.
Consider frozen or unfrozen rivers as avenues of travel. However, some rivers that appear frozen may have soft, open
areas that make travel very difficult or may not allow walking, skiing, or sledding.
Use snowshoes if you are traveling over snow-covered terrain. Snow 30 or more centimeters deep makes traveling
difficult. If you do not have snowshoes, make a pair using willow, strips of cloth, leather, or other suitable material.
It is almost impossible to travel in deep snow without snowshoes or skis. Traveling by foot leaves a well-marked trail for any
pursuers to follow. If you must travel in deep snow, avoid snow-covered streams. The snow, which acts as an insulator, may
have prevented ice from forming over the water. In hilly terrain, avoid areas where avalanches appear possible. Travel in the
early morning in areas where there is danger of avalanches. On ridges, snow gathers on the lee side in overhanging piles called
cornices. These often extend far out from the ridge and may break loose if stepped on.
WEATHER SIGNS
There are several good indicators of climatic changes.
Wind
You can determine wind direction by dropping a few leaves or grass or by watching the treetops. Once you determine the wind
direction, you can predict the type of weather that is imminent. Rapidly shifting winds indicate an unsettled atmosphere and a
likely change in the weather.
Clouds
Clouds come in a variety of shapes and patterns. A general knowledge of clouds and the atmospheric conditions they indicate
can help you predict the weather. See Appendix G for details.
Smoke
Smoke rising in a thin vertical column indicates fair weather. Low rising or "flattened out" smoke indicates stormy weather.
Birds and Insects
Birds and insects fly lower to the ground than normal in heavy, moisture-laden air. Such flight indicates that rain is likely. Most
insect activity increases before a storm, but bee activity increases before fair weather.
Low-Pressure Front
Slow-moving or imperceptible winds and heavy, humid air often indicate a low-pressure front. Such a front promises bad
weather that will probably linger for several days. You can "smell" and "hear" this front. The sluggish, humid air makes
wilderness odors more pronounced than during high-pressure conditions. In addition, sounds are sharper and carry farther in
low-pressure than high-pressure conditions.
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CHAPTER 16
SEA SURVIVAL
Perhaps the most difficult survival situation to be in is sea survival. Short-or long-term survival depends
upon rations and equipment available and your ingenuity. You must be resourceful to survive.
Water covers about 75 percent of the earth's surface, with about 70 percent being oceans and seas. You
can assume that you will sometime cross vast expanses of water. There is always the chance that the plane
or ship you are on will become crippled by such hazards as storms, collision, fire, or war.
THE OPEN SEA
As a survivor on the open sea, you will face waves and wind. You may also face extreme heat or cold. To keep these
environmental hazards from becoming serious problems, take precautionary measures as soon as possible. Use the available
resources to protect yourself from the elements and from heat or extreme cold and humidity.
Protecting yourself from the elements meets only one of your basic needs. You must also be able to obtain water and food.
Satisfying these three basic needs will help prevent serious physical and psychological problems. However, you must know
how to treat health problems that may result from your situation.
Precautionary Measures
Your survival at sea depends upon--
Your knowledge of and ability to use the available survival equipment.
Your special skills and ability to apply them to cope with the hazards you face.
Your will to live.
When you board a ship or aircraft, find out what survival equipment is on board, where it is stowed, and what it contains. For
instance, how many life preservers and lifeboats or rafts are on board? Where are they located? What type of survival
equipment do they have? How much food, water, and medicine do they contain? How many people are they designed to
support?
If you are responsible for other personnel on board, make sure you know where they are and they know where you are.
Down at Sea
If you are in an aircraft that goes down at sea, take the following actions once you clear the aircraft. Whether you are in the
water or in a raft --
Get clear and upwind of the aircraft as soon as possible, but stay in the vicinity until the aircraft sinks.
Get clear of fuel-covered water in case the fuel ignites.
Try to find other survivors.
A search for survivors usually takes place around the entire area of and near the crash site. Missing personnel may be
unconscious and floating low in the water. Figure 16-1 illustrates rescue procedures.
The best technique for rescuing personnel from the water is to throw them a life preserver attached to a line. Another is to send
a swimmer (rescuer) from the raft with a line attached to a flotation device that will support the rescuer's weight. This device will
help conserve a rescuer's energy while recovering the survivor. The least acceptable technique is to send an attached swimmer
without flotation devices to retrieve a survivor. In all cases, the rescuer wears a life preserver. A rescuer should not
underestimate the strength of a panic-stricken person in the water. A careful approach can prevent injury to the rescuer.
When the rescuer approaches a survivor in trouble from behind, there is little danger the survivor will kick, scratch, or grab him.
The rescuer swims to a point directly behind the survivor and grasps the life preserver's backstrap. The rescuer uses the
sidestroke to drag the survivor to the raft.
If you are in the water, make your way to a raft. If no rafts are available, try to find a large piece of floating debris to cling to.
Relax; a person who knows how to relax in ocean water is in very little danger of drowning. The body's natural buoyancy will
keep at least the top of the head above water, but some movement is needed to keep the face above water.
Floating on your back takes the least energy. Lie on your back in the water, spread your arms and legs, and arch your back.
By controlling your breathing in and out, your face will always be out of the water and you may even sleep in this position for
short periods. Your head will be partially submerged, but your face will be above water. If you cannot float on your back or if
the sea is too rough, float facedown in the water as shown in Figure 16-2.
The following are the best swimming strokes during a survival situation:
Dog paddle. This stroke is excellent when clothed or wearing a life jacket. Although slow in speed, it requires very little
energy.
Breaststroke. Use this stroke to swim underwater, through oil or debris, or in rough seas. It is probably the best stroke
for long-range swimming: it allows you to conserve your energy and maintain a reasonable speed.
Sidestroke. It is a good relief stroke because you use only one arm to maintain momentum and buoyancy.
Backstroke. This stroke is also an excellent relief stroke. It relieves the muscles that you use for other strokes. Use it if
an underwater explosion is likely.
If you are in an area where surface oil is burning--
Discard your shoes and buoyant life preserver.
Note: If you have an uninflated life preserver, keep it.
Cover your nose, mouth, and eyes and quickly go underwater.
Swim underwater as far as possible before surfacing to breathe.
Before surfacing to breathe and while still underwater, use your hands to push burning fluid away from the area where
you wish to surface. Once an area is clear of burning liquid, you can surface and take a few breaths. Try to face
downwind before inhaling.
Submerge feet first and continue as above until clear of the flames.
If you are in oil-covered water that is free of fire, hold your head high to keep the oil out of your eyes. Attach your life
preserver to your wrist and then use it as a raft.
If you have a life preserver, you can stay afloat for an indefinite period. In this case, use the "HELP" body position: Heat
Escaping Lessening Posture (HELP). Remain still and assume the fetal position to help you retain body heat. You lose about 50
percent of your body heat through your head. Therefore, keep your head out of the water. Other areas of high heat loss are the
neck, the sides, and the groin. Figure 16-3 illustrates the HELP position.
If you are in a raft--
Check the physical condition of all on board. Give first aid if necessary. Take seasickness pills if available. The best way
to take these pills is to place them under the tongue and let them dissolve. There are also suppositories or injections
against seasickness. Vomiting, whether from seasickness or other causes, increases the danger of dehydration.
Try to salvage all floating equipment--rations; canteens, thermos jugs, and other containers; clothing; seat cushions;
parachutes; and anything else that will be useful to you. Secure the salvaged items in or to your raft. Make sure the items
have no sharp edges that can puncture the raft.
If there are other rafts, lash the rafts together so they are about 7.5 meters apart. Be ready to draw them closer together
if you see or hear an aircraft. It is easier for an aircrew to spot rafts that are close together rather than scattered.
Remember, rescue at sea is a cooperative effort. Use all available visual or electronic signaling devices to signal and
make contact with rescuers. For example, raise a flag or reflecting material on an oar as high as possible to attract
attention.
Locate the emergency radio and get it into operation. Operating instructions are on it. Use the emergency transceiver
only when friendly aircraft are likely to be in the area.
Have other signaling devices ready for instant use. If you are in enemy territory, avoid using a signaling device that will
alert the enemy. However, if your situation is desperate, you may have to signal the enemy for rescue if you are to
survive.
Check the raft for inflation, leaks, and points of possible chafing. Make sure the main buoyancy chambers are firm (well
rounded) but not overly tight (Figure 16-4). Check inflation regularly. Air expands with heat; therefore, on hot days,
release some air and add air when the weather cools.
Decontaminate the raft of all fuel. Petroleum will weaken its surfaces and break down its glued joints.
Throw out the sea anchor, or improvise a drag from the raft's case, bailing bucket, or a roll of clothing. A sea anchor
helps you stay close to your ditching site, making it easier for searchers to find you if you have relayed your location.
Without a sea anchor, your raft may drift over 160 kilometers in a day, making it much harder to find you. You can
adjust the sea anchor to act as a drag to slow down the rate of travel with the current, or as a means to travel with the
current. You make this adjustment by opening or closing the sea anchor's apex. When open, the sea anchor (Figure
16-5) acts as a drag that keeps you in the general area. When closed, it forms a pocket for the current to strike and
propels the raft in the current's direction.
Additionally, adjust the sea anchor so that when the raft is on the wave's crest, the sea anchor is in the wave's trough (Figure
16-6).
Wrap the sea anchor rope with cloth to prevent its chafing the raft. The anchor also helps to keep the raft headed into
the wind and waves.
In stormy water, rig the spray and windshield at once. In a 20-man raft, keep the canopy erected at all times. Keep your
raft as dry as possible. Keep it properly balanced. All personnel should stay seated, the heaviest one in the center.
Calmly consider all aspects of your situation and determine what you and your companions must do to survive. Inventory
all equipment, food, and water. Waterproof items that salt water may affect. These include compasses, watches, sextant,
matches, and lighters. Ration food and water.
Assign a duty position to each person: for example, water collector, food collector, lookout, radio operator, signaler,
and water bailers.
Note: Lookout duty should not exceed 2 hours. Keep in mind and remind others that cooperation is one of
the keys to survival.
Keep a log. Record the navigator's last fix, the time of ditching, the names and physical condition of personnel, and the
ration schedule. Also record the winds, weather, direction of swells, times of sunrise and sunset, and other navigational
data.
If you are down in unfriendly waters, take special security measures to avoid detection. Do not travel in the daytime.
Throw out the sea anchor and wait for nightfall before paddling or hoisting sail. Keep low in the raft; stay covered with
the blue side of the camouflage cloth up. Be sure a passing ship or aircraft is friendly or neutral be-fore trying to attract its
attention. If the enemy detects you and you are close to capture, destroy the log book, radio, navigation equipment,
maps, signaling equipment, and firearms. Jump overboard and submerge if the enemy starts strafing.
Decide whether to stay in position or to travel. Ask yourself, "How much information was signaled before the accident?
Is your position known to rescuers? Do you know it yourself? Is the weather favorable for a search? Are other ships or
aircraft likely to pass your present position? How many days supply of food and water do you have?"
Cold Weather Considerations
If you are in a cold climate--
Put on an antiexposure suit. If unavailable, put on any extra clothing available. Keep clothes loose and comfortable.
Take care not to snag the raft with shoes or sharp objects. Keep the repair kit where you can readily reach it.
Rig a windbreak, spray shield, and canopy.
Try to keep the floor of the raft dry. Cover it with canvas or cloth for insulation.
Huddle with others to keep warm, moving enough to keep the blood circulating. Spread an extra tarpaulin, sail, or
parachute over the group.
Give extra rations, if available, to men suffering from exposure to cold.
The greatest problem you face when submerged in cold water is death due to hypothermia. When you are immersed in cold
water, hypothermia occurs rapidly due to the decreased insulating quality of wet clothing and the result of water displacing the
layer of still air that normally surrounds the body. The rate of heat exchange in water is about 25 times greater than it is in air of
the same temperature. Figure 16-7 lists life expectancy times for immersion in water.
Your best protection against the effects of cold water is to get into the life raft, stay dry, and insulate your body from the cold
surface of the bottom of the raft. If these actions are not possible, wearing an antiexposure suit will extend your life expectancy
considerably. Remember, keep your head and neck out of the water and well insulated from the cold water's effects when the
temperature is below 19 degrees C. Wearing life preservers increases the predicted survival time as body position in the water
increases the chance of survival.
Hot Weather Considerations
If you are in a hot climate--
Rig a sunshade or canopy. Leave enough space for ventilation.
Cover your skin, where possible, to protect it from sunburn. Use sunburn cream, if available, on all exposed skin. Your
eyelids, the back of your ears, and the skin under your chin sunburn easily.
Raft Procedures
Most of the rafts in the U. S. Army and Air Force inventories can satisfy the needs for personal protection, mode of travel, and
evasion and camouflage.
Note: Before boarding any raft, remove and tether (attach) your life preserver to yourself or the raft.
Ensure there are no other metallic or sharp objects on your clothing or equipment that could damage the
raft. After boarding the raft, don your life preserver again.
One-Man Raft
The one-man raft has a main cell inflation. If the CO2 bottle should malfunction or if the raft develops a leak, you can inflate it
by mouth.
The spray shield acts as a shelter from the cold, wind, and water. In some cases, this shield serves as insulation. The raft's
insulated bottom limits the conduction of cold thereby protecting you from hypothermia (Figure 16-8).
You can travel more effectively by inflating or deflating the raft to take advantage of the wind or current. You can use the spray
shield as a sail white the ballast buckets serve to increase drag in the water. You may use the sea anchor to control the raft's
speed and direction.
There are rafts developed for use in tactical areas that are black. These rafts blend with the sea's background. You can further
modify these rafts for evasion by partially deflating them to obtain a lower profile.
A lanyard connects the one-man raft to a parachutist (survivor) landing in the water. You (the survivor) inflate it upon landing.
You do not swim to the raft, but pull it to you via the lanyard. The raft may hit the water upside down, but you can right it by
approaching the side to which the bottle is attached and flipping the raft over. The spray shield must be in the raft to expose the
boarding handles. Follow the steps outlined in the note under raft procedures above when boarding the raft (Figure 16-9).
If you have an arm injury, the best way to board is by turning your back to the small end of the raft, pushing the raft under your
buttocks, and lying back. Another way to board the raft is to push down on its small end until one knee is inside and lie forward
(Figure 16-10).
In rough seas, it may be easier for you to grasp the small end of the raft and, in a prone position, to kick and pull yourself into
the raft. When you are lying face down in the raft, deploy and adjust the sea anchor. To sit upright, you may have to disconnect
one side of the seat kit and roll to that side. Then you adjust the spray shield. There are two variations of the one-man raft; the
improved model incorporates an inflatable spray shield and floor that provide additional insulation. The spray shield helps keep
you dry and warm in cold oceans and protects you from the sun in the hot climates (Figure 16-11).
Seven-Man Raft
Some multiplace aircraft carry the seven-man raft. It is a component of the survival drop kit (Figure 16-12). This raft may
inflate upside down and require you to right the raft before boarding. Always work from the bottle side to prevent injury if the
raft turns over. Facing into the wind, the wind provides additional help in righting the raft. Use the handles on the inside bottom
of the raft for boarding (Figure 16-13).
Use the boarding ramp if someone holds down the raft's opposite side. If you don't have help, again work from the bottle side
with the wind at your back to help hold down the raft. Follow the steps outlined in the note under raft procedures above. Then
grasp an oarlock and boarding handle, kick your legs to get your body prone on the water, and then kick and pull yourself into
the raft. If you are weak or injured, you may partially deflate the raft to make boarding easier (Figure 16-14).
Use the hand pump to keep the buoyancy chambers and cross seat firm. Never overinflate the raft.
Twenty- or Twenty-Five-Man Rafts
You may find 20- or 25-man rafts in multiplace aircraft (Figures 16-15 and 16-16). You will find them in accessible areas of
the fuselage or in raft compartments. Some may be automatically deployed from the cock-pit, while others may need manual
deployment. No matter how the raft lands in the water, it is ready for boarding. A lanyard connects the accessory kit to the raft
and you retrieve the kit by hand. You must manually inflate the center chamber with the hand pump. Board the 20- or 25-man
raft from the aircraft, if possible. If not, board in the following manner:
Approach the lower boarding ramp.
Remove your life preserver and tether it to yourself so that it trails behind you.
Grasp the boarding handles and kick your legs to get your body into a prone position on the water's surface; then kick
and pull until you are inside the raft.
An incompletely inflated raft will make boarding easier. Approach the intersection of the raft and ramp, grasp the upper
boarding handle, and swing one leg onto the center of the ramp, as in mounting a horse (Figure 16-17).
Immediately tighten the equalizer clamp upon entering the raft to prevent deflating the entire raft in case of a puncture (Figure
16-18).
Use the pump to keep these rafts' chambers and center ring firm. They should be well rounded but not overly tight.
Sailing Rafts
Rafts do not have keels, therefore, you can't sail them into the wind. However, anyone can sail a raft downwind. You can
successfully sail multiplace (except 20- to 25-man) rafts 10 degrees off from the direction of the wind. Do not try to sail the raft
unless land is near. If you decide to sail and the wind is blowing toward a desired destination, fully inflate the raft, sit high, take
in the sea anchor, rig a sail, and use an oar as a rudder.
In a multiplace (except 20- to 25-man) raft, erect a square sail in the bow using the oars and their extensions as the mast and
crossbar (Figure 16-19). You may use a waterproof tarpaulin or parachute material for the sail. If the raft has no regular mast
socket and step, erect the mast by tying it securely to the front cross seat using braces. Pad the bottom of the mast to prevent it
from chafing or punching a hole through the floor, whether or not there is a socket. The heel of a shoe, with the toe wedged
under the seat, makes a good improvised mast step. Do not secure the comers of the lower edge of the sail. Hold the lines
attached to the comers with your hands so that a gust of wind will not rip the sail, break the mast, or capsize the raft.
Take every precaution to prevent the raft from turning over. In rough weather, keep the sea anchor away from the bow. Have
the passengers sit low in the raft, with their weight distributed to hold the upwind side down. To prevent falling out, they should
also avoid sitting on the sides of the raft or standing up. Avoid sudden movements without warning the other passengers. When
the sea anchor is not in use, tie it to the raft and stow it in such a manner that it will hold immediately if the raft capsizes.
Water
Water is your most important need. With it alone, you can live for ten days or longer, depending on your will to live. When
drinking water, moisten your lips, tongue, and throat before swallowing.
Short Water Rations
When you have a limited water supply and you can't replace it by chemical or mechanical means, use the water efficiently.
Protect freshwater supplies from seawater contamination. Keep your body well shaded, both from overhead sun and from
reflection off the sea surface. Allow ventilation of air; dampen your clothes during the hottest part of the day. Do not exert
yourself. Relax and sleep when possible. Fix your daily water ration after considering the amount of water you have, the output
of solar stills and desalting kit, and the number and physical condition of your party.
If you don't have water, don't eat. If your water ration is two liters or more per day, eat any part of your ration or any
additional food that you may catch, such as birds, fish, shrimp. The life raft's motion and anxiety may cause nausea. If you eat
when nauseated, you may lose your food immediately. If nauseated, rest and relax as much as you can, and take only water.
To reduce your loss of water through perspiration, soak your clothes in the sea and wring them out before putting them on
again. Don't overdo this during hot days when no canopy or sun shield is available. This is a trade-off between cooling and
saltwater boils and rashes that will result. Be careful not to get the bottom of the raft wet.
Watch the clouds and be ready for any chance of showers. Keep the tarpaulin handy for catching water. If it is encrusted with
dried salt, wash it in seawater. Normally, a small amount of seawater mixed with rain will hardly be noticeable and will not
cause any physical reaction. In rough seas you cannot get uncontaminated fresh water.
At night, secure the tarpaulin like a sunshade, and turn up its edges to collect dew. It is also possible to collect dew along the
sides of the raft using a sponge or cloth. When it rains, drink as much as you can hold.
Solar Still
When solar stills are available, read the instructions and set them up immediately. Use as many stills as possible, depending on
the number of men in the raft and the amount of sunlight available. Secure solar stills to the raft with care. This type of solar still
only works on flat, calm seas.
Desalting Kits
When desalting kits are available in addition to solar stills, use them only for immediate water needs or during long overcast
periods when you cannot use solar stills. In any event, keep desalting kits and emergency water stores for periods when you
cannot use solar stills or catch rainwater.
Water From Fish
Drink the aqueous fluid found along the spine and in the eyes of large fish. Carefully cut the fish in half to get the fluid along the
spine and suck the eye. If you are so short of water that you need to do this, then do not drink any of the other body fluids.
These other fluids are rich in protein and fat and will use up more of your reserve water in digestion than they supply.
Sea Ice
In arctic waters, use old sea ice for water. This ice is bluish, has rounded comers, and splinters easily. It is nearly free of salt.
New ice is gray, milky, hard, and salty. Water from icebergs is fresh, but icebergs are dangerous to approach. Use them as a
source of water only in emergencies.
REMEMBER!
Do not drink seawater.
Do not drink urine.
Do not drink alcohol.
Do not smoke.
Do not eat, unless water is available.
Sleep and rest are the best ways of enduring periods of reduced water and food intake. However, make sure that you have
enough shade when napping during the day. If the sea is rough, tie yourself to the raft, close any cover, and ride out the storm
as best you can. Relax is the key word--at least try to relax.
Food Procurement
In the open sea, fish will be the main food source. There are some poisonous and dangerous ocean fish, but, in general, when
out of sight of land, fish are safe to eat. Nearer the shore there are fish that are both dangerous and poisonous to eat. There are
some fish, such as the red snapper and barracuda, that are normally edible but poisonous when taken from the waters of atolls
and reefs. Flying fish will even jump into your raft!
Fish
When fishing, do not handle the fishing line with bare hands and never wrap it around your hands or tie it to a life raft. The salt
that adheres to it can make it a sharp cutting edge, an edge dangerous both to the raft and your hands. Wear gloves, if they are
available, or use a cloth to handle fish and to avoid injury from sharp fins and gill covers.
In warm regions, gut and bleed fish immediately after catching them. Cut fish that you do not eat immediately into thin, narrow
strips and hang them to dry. A well-dried fish stays edible for several days. Fish not cleaned and dried may spoil in half a day.
Fish with dark meat are very prone to decomposition. If you do not eat them all immediately, do not eat any of the leftovers.
Use the leftovers for bait.
Never eat fish that have pale, shiny gills, sunken eyes, flabby skin and flesh, or an unpleasant odor. Good fish show the
opposite characteristics. Sea fish have a saltwater or clean fishy odor. Do not confuse eels with sea snakes that have an
obviously scaly body and strongly compressed, paddle-shaped tail. Both eels and sea snakes are edible, but you must handle
the latter with care because of their poisonous bites. The heart, blood, intestinal wall, and liver of most fish are edible. Cook the
intestines. Also edible are the partly digested smaller fish that you may find in the stomachs of large fish. In addition, sea turtles
are edible.
Shark meat is a good source of food whether raw, dried, or cooked. Shark meat spoils very rapidly due to the high
concentration of urea in the blood, therefore, bleed it immediately and soak it in several changes of water. People prefer some
shark species over others. Consider them all edible except the Greenland shark whose flesh contains high quantities of vitamin
A. Do not eat the livers, due to high vitamin A content.
Fishing Aids
You can use different materials to make fishing aids as described in the following paragraphs:
Fishing line. Use pieces of tarpaulin or canvas. Unravel the threads and tie them together in short lengths in groups of
three or more threads. Shoelaces and parachute suspension line also work well.
Fish hooks. No survivor at sea should be without fishing equipment but if you are, improvise hooks as shown in Chapter
8.
Fish lures. You can fashion lures by attaching a double hook to any shiny piece of metal.
Grapple. Use grapples to hook seaweed. You may shake crabs, shrimp, or small fish out of the seaweed. These you
may eat or use for bait. You may eat seaweed itself, but only when you have plenty of drinking water. Improvise
grapples from wood. Use a heavy piece of wood as the main shaft, and lash three smaller pieces to the shaft as grapples.
Bait. You can use small fish as bait for larger ones. Scoop the small fish up with a net. If you don't have a net, make one
from cloth of some type. Hold the net under the water and scoop upward. Use all the guts from birds and fish for bait.
When using bait, try to keep it moving in the water to give it the appearance of being alive.
Helpful Fishing Hints
Your fishing should be successful if you remember the following important hints:
Be extremely careful with fish that have teeth and spines.
Cut a large fish loose rather than risk capsizing the raft. Try to catch small rather than large fish.
Do not puncture your raft with hooks or other sharp instruments.
Do not fish when large sharks are in the area.
Watch for schools of fish; try to move close to these schools.
Fish at night using a light. The light attracts fish.
In the daytime, shade attracts some fish. You may find them under your raft.
Improvise a spear by tying a knife to an oar blade. This spear can help you catch larger fish, but you must get them into
the raft quickly or they will slip off the blade. Also, tie the knife very securely or you may lose it.
Always take care of your fishing equipment. Dry your fishing lines, clean and sharpen the hooks, and do not allow the
hooks to stick into the fishing lines.
Birds
As stated in Chapter 8, all birds are edible. Eat any birds you can catch. Sometimes birds may land on your raft, but usually
they are cautious. You may be able to attract some birds by towing a bright piece of metal behind the raft. This will bring the
bird within shooting range, provided you have a firearm.
If a bird lands within your reach, you may be able to catch it. If the birds do not land close enough or land on the other end of
the raft, you may be able to catch them with a bird noose. Bait the center of the noose and wait for the bird to land. When the
bird's feet are in the center of the noose, pull it tight.
Use all parts of the bird. Use the feathers for insulation, the entrails and feet for bait, and so on. Use your imagination.
Medical Problems Associated With Sea Survival
At sea, you may become seasick, get saltwater sores, or face some of the same medical problems that occur on land, such as
dehydration or sunburn. These problems can become critical if left untreated.
Seasickness
Seasickness is the nausea and vomiting caused by the motion of the raft. It can result in--
Extreme fluid loss and exhaustion.
Loss of the will to survive.
Others becoming seasick.
Attraction of sharks to the raft.
Unclean conditions.
To treat seasickness--
Wash both the patient and the raft to remove the sight and odor of vomit.
Keep the patient from eating food until his nausea is gone.
Have the patient lie down and rest.
Give the patient seasickness pills if available. If the patient is unable to take the pills orally, insert them rectally for
absorption by the body.
Note: Some survivors have said that erecting a canopy or using the horizon as a focal point helped
overcome seasickness. Others have said that swimming alongside the raft for short periods helped, but
extreme care must be taken if swimming.
Saltwater Sores
These sores result from a break in skin exposed to saltwater for an extended period. The sores may form scabs and pus. Do
not open or drain. Flush the sores with fresh water, if available, and allow to dry. Apply an antiseptic, if available.
Immersion Rot, Frostbite, and Hypothermia
These problems are similar to those encountered in cold weather environments. Symptoms and treatment are the same as
covered in Chapter 15.
Blindness/Headache
If flame, smoke, or other contaminants get in the eyes, flush them immediately with salt water, then with fresh water, if available.
Apply ointment, if available. Bandage both eyes 18 to 24 hours, or longer if damage is severe. If the glare from the sky and
water causes your eyes to become bloodshot and inflamed, bandage them lightly. Try to prevent this problem by wearing
sunglasses. Improvise sunglasses if necessary.
Constipation
This condition is a common problem on a raft. Do not take a laxative, as this will cause further dehydration. Exercise as much
as possible and drink an adequate amount of water, if available.
Difficult Urination
This problem is not unusual and is due mainly to dehydration. It is best not to treat it, as it could cause further dehydration.
Sunburn
Sunburn is a serious problem in sea survival. Try to prevent sunburn by staying in shade and keeping your head and skin
covered. Use cream or Chap Stick from your first aid kit. Remember, reflection from the water also causes sunburn.
Sharks
Whether you are in the water or in a boat or raft, you may see many types of sea life around you. Some may be more
dangerous than others. Generally, sharks are the greatest danger to you. Other animals such as whales, porpoises, and stingrays
may look dangerous, but really pose little threat in the open sea.
Of the many hundreds of shark species, only about 20 species are known to attack man. The most dangerous are the great
white shark, the hammerhead, the mako, and the tiger shark. Other sharks known to attack man include the gray, blue, lemon,
sand, nurse, bull, and oceanic white tip sharks. Consider any shark longer than 1 meter dangerous.
There are sharks in all oceans and seas of the world. While many live and feed in the depths of the sea, others hunt near the
surface. The sharks living near the surface are the ones you will most likely see. Their dorsal fins frequently project above the
water. Sharks in the tropical and subtropical seas are far more aggressive than those in temperate waters.
All sharks are basically eating machines. Their normal diet is live animals of any type, and they will strike at injured or helpless
animals. Sight, smell, or sound may guide them to their prey. Sharks have an acute sense of smell and the smell of blood in the
water excites them. They are also very sensitive to any abnormal vibrations in the water. The struggles of a wounded animal or
swimmer, underwater explosions, or even a fish struggling on a fishline will attract a shark.
Sharks can bite from almost any position; they do not have to turn on their side to bite. The jaws of some of the larger sharks
are so far forward that they can bite floating objects easily without twisting to the side.
Sharks may hunt alone, but most reports of attacks cite more than one shark present. The smaller sharks tend to travel in
schools and attack in mass. Whenever one of the sharks finds a victim, the other sharks will quickly join it. Sharks will eat a
wounded shark as quickly as their prey.
Sharks feed at all hours of the day and night. Most reported shark contacts and attacks were during daylight, and many of
these have been in the late afternoon. Some of the measures that you can take to protect yourself against sharks when you are
in the water are--
Stay with other swimmers. A group can maintain a 360-degree watch. A group can either frighten or fight off sharks
better than one man.
Always watch for sharks. Keep all your clothing on, to include your shoes. Historically, sharks have attacked the
unclothed men in groups first, mainly in the feet. Clothing also protects against abrasions should the shark brush against
you.
Avoid urinating. If you must, only do so in small amounts. Let it dissipate between discharges. If you must defecate, do
so in small amounts and throw it as far away from you as possible. Do the same if you must vomit.
If a shark attack is imminent while you are in the water, splash and yell just enough to keep the shark at bay. Sometimes yelling
underwater or slapping the water repeatedly will scare the shark away. Conserve your strength for fighting in case the shark
attacks.
If attacked, kick and strike the shark. Hit the shark on the gills or eyes if possible. If you hit the shark on the nose, you may
injure your hand if it glances off and hits its teeth.
When you are in a raft and see sharks--
Do not fish. If you have hooked a fish, let it go. Do not clean fish in the water.
Do not throw garbage overboard.
Do not let your arms, legs, or equipment hang in the water.
Keep quiet and do not move around.
Bury all dead as soon as possible. If there are many sharks in the area, conduct the burial at night.
When you are in a raft and a shark attack is imminent, hit the shark with anything you have, except your hands. You will do
more damage to your hands than the shark. If you strike with an oar, be careful not to lose or break it.
Detecting Land
You should watch carefully for any signs of land. There are many indicators that land is near.
A fixed cumulus cloud in a clear sky or in a sky where all other clouds are moving often hovers over or slightly downwind from
an island.
In the tropics, the reflection of sunlight from shallow lagoons or shelves of coral reefs often causes a greenish tint in the sky.
In the arctic, light-colored reflections on clouds often indicate ice fields or snow-covered land. These reflections are quite
different from the dark gray ones caused by open water.
Deep water is dark green or dark blue. Lighter color indicates shallow water, which may mean land is near.
At night, or in fog, mist, or rain, you may detect land by odors and sounds. The musty odor of mangrove swamps and mud flats
carry a long way. You hear the roar of surf long before you see the surf. The continued cries of seabirds coming from one
direction indicate their roosting place on nearby land.
There usually are more birds near land than over the open sea. The direction from which flocks fly at dawn and to which they
fly at dusk may indicate the direction of land. During the day, birds are searching for food and the direction of flight has no
significance.
Mirages occur at any latitude, but they are more likely in the tropics, especially during the middle of the day. Be careful not to
mistake a mirage for nearby land. A mirage disappears or its appearance and elevation change when viewed from slightly
different heights.
You may be able to detect land by the pattern of the waves (refracted) as they approach land (Figure 16-20). By traveling with
the waves and parallel to the slightly turbulent area marked "X" on the illustration, you should reach land.
Rafting or Beaching Techniques
Once you have found land, you must get ashore safely. To raft ashore, you can usually use the one-man raft without danger.
However, going ashore in a strong surf is dangerous. Take your time. Select your landing point carefully. Try not to land when
the sun is low and straight in front of you. Try to land on the lee side of an island or on a point of land jutting out into the water.
Keep your eyes open for gaps in the surf line, and head for them. Avoid coral reefs and rocky cliffs. There are no coral reefs
near the mouths of freshwater streams. Avoid rip currents or strong tidal currents that may carry you far out to sea. Either signal
ashore for help or sail around and look for a sloping beach where the surf is gentle.
If you have to go through the surf to reach shore, take down the mast. Keep your clothes and shoes on to avoid severe cuts.
Adjust and inflate your life vest. Trail the sea anchor over the stem using as much line as you have. Use the oars or paddles and
constantly adjust the sea anchor to keep a strain on the anchor line. These actions will keep the raft pointed toward shore and
prevent the sea from throwing the stern around and capsizing you. Use the oars or paddles to help ride in on the seaward side
of a large wave.
The surf may be irregular and velocity may vary, so modify your procedure as conditions demand. A good method of getting
through the surf is to have half the men sit on one side of the raft, half on the other, facing away from each other. When a heavy
sea bears down, half should row (pull) toward the sea until the crest passes; then the other half should row (pull) toward the
shore until the next heavy sea comes along.
Against a strong wind and heavy surf, the raft must have all possible speed to pass rapidly through the oncoming crest to avoid
being turned broadside or thrown end over end. If possible, avoid meeting a large wave at the moment it breaks.
If in a medium surf with no wind or offshore wind, keep the raft from passing over a wave so rapidly that it drops suddenly after
topping the crest. If the raft turns over in the surf, try to grab hold of it and ride it in.
As the raft nears the beach, ride in on the crest of a large wave. Paddle or row hard and ride in to the beach as far as you can.
Do not jump out of the raft until it has grounded, then quickly get out and beach it.
If you have a choice, do not land at night. If you have reason to believe that people live on the shore, lay away from the beach,
signal, and wait for the inhabitants to come out and bring you in.
If you encounter sea ice, land only on large, stable floes. Avoid icebergs that may capsize and small floes or those obviously
disintegrating. Use oars and hands to keep the raft from rubbing on the edge of the ice. Take the raft out of the water and store
it well back from the floe's edge. You may be able to use it for shelter. Keep the raft inflated and ready for use. Any floe may
break up without warning.
Swimming Ashore
If rafting ashore is not possible and you have to swim, wear your shoes and at least one thickness of clothing. Use the
sidestroke or breaststroke to conserve strength.
If the surf is moderate, ride in on the back of a small wave by swimming forward with it. Dive to a shallow depth to end the ride
just before the wave breaks.
In high surf, swim toward shore in the trough between waves. When the seaward wave approaches, face it and submerge.
After it passes, work toward shore in the next trough. If caught in the undertow of a large wave, push off the bottom or swim to
the surface and proceed toward shore as above.
If you must land on a rocky shore, look for a place where the waves rush up onto the rocks. Avoid places where the waves
explode with a high, white spray. Swim slowly when making your approach. You will need your strength to hold on to the
rocks. You should be fully clothed and wear shoes to reduce injury.
After selecting your landing point, advance behind a large wave into the breakers. Face toward shore and take a sitting position
with your feet in front, 60 to 90 centimeters (2 or 3 feet) lower than your head. This position will let your feet absorb the shock
when you land or strike sub-merged boulders or reefs. If you do not reach shore behind the wave you picked, swim with your
hands only. As the next wave approaches, take a sitting position with your feet forward. Repeat the procedure until you land.
Water is quieter in the lee of a heavy growth of seaweed. Take advantage of such growth. Do not swim through the seaweed;
crawl over the top by grasping the vegetation with overhand movements.
Cross a rocky or coral reef as you would land on a rocky shore. Keep your feet close together and your knees slightly bent in
a relaxed sitting posture to cushion the blows against the coral.
Pickup or Rescue
On sighting rescue craft approaching for pickup (boat, ship, conventional aircraft, or helicopter), quickly clear any lines (fishing
lines, desalting kit lines) or other gear that could cause entanglement during rescue. Secure all loose items in the raft. Take down
canopies and sails to ensure a safer pickup. After securing all items, put on your helmet, if available. Fully inflate your life
preserver. Remain in the raft, unless otherwise instructed, and remove all equipment except the preservers. If possible, you will
receive help from rescue personnel lowered into the water. Remember, follow all instructions given by the rescue personnel.
If the helicopter recovery is unassisted, do the following before pickup:
Secure all the loose equipment in the raft, accessory bag, or in pockets.
Deploy the sea anchor, stability bags, and accessory bag.
Partially deflate the raft and fill it with water.
Unsnap the survival kit container from the parachute harness.
Grasp the raft handhold and roll out of the raft.
Allow the recovery device or the cable to ground out on the water's surface.
Maintain the handhold until the recovery device is in your other hand.
Mount the recovery device, avoiding entanglement with the raft.
Signal the hoist operator for pickup.
SEASHORES
Search planes or ships do not always spot a drifting raft or swimmer. You may have to land along the coast before being
rescued. Surviving along the seashore is different from open sea survival. Food and water are more abundant and shelter is
obviously easier to locate and construct.
If you are in friendly territory and decide to travel, it is better to move along the coast than to go inland. Do not leave the coast
except to avoid obstacles (swamps and cliffs) or unless you find a trail that you know leads to human habitation.
In time of war, remember that the enemy patrols most coastlines. These patrols may cause problems for you if you land on a
hostile shore. You will have extremely limited travel options in this situation. Avoid all contact with other humans, and make
every effort to cover all tracks you leave on the shore.
Special Health Hazards
Coral, poisonous and aggressive fish, crocodiles, sea urchins, sea biscuits, sponges, anemones, and tides and undertow pose
special health hazards.
Coral
Coral, dead or alive, can inflict painful cuts. There are hundreds of water hazards that can cause deep puncture wounds, severe
bleeding, and the danger of infection. Clean all coral cuts thoroughly. Do not use iodine to disinfect any coral cuts. Some coral
polyps feed on iodine and may grow inside your flesh if you use iodine.
Poisonous Fish
Many reef fish have toxic flesh. For some species, the flesh is always poisonous, for other species, only at certain times of the
year. The poisons are present in all parts of the fish, but especially in the liver, intestines, and eggs.
Fish toxins are water soluble--no amount of cooking will neutralize them. They are tasteless, therefore the standard edibility
tests are use-less. Birds are least susceptible to the poisons. Therefore, do not think that because a bird can eat a fish, it is a
safe species for you to eat.
The toxins will produce a numbness of the lips, tongue, toes, and tips of the fingers, severe itching, and a clear reversal of
temperature sensations. Cold items appear hot and hot items cold. There will probably also be nausea, vomiting, loss of
speech, dizziness, and a paralysis that eventually brings death.
In addition to fish with poisonous flesh, there are those that are dangerous to touch. Many stingrays have a poisonous barb in
their tail. There are also species that can deliver an electric shock. Some reef fish, such as stonefish and toadfish, have
venomous spines that can cause very painful although seldom fatal injuries. The venom from these spines causes a burning
sensation or even an agonizing pain that is out of proportion to the apparent severity of the wound. Jellyfish, while not usually
fatal, can inflict a very painful sting if it touches you with its tentacles. See Chapter 11 and Appendix F for details on particularly
dangerous fish of the sea and seashore.
Aggressive Fish
You should also avoid some ferocious fish. The bold and inquisitive barracuda has attacked men wearing shiny objects. It may
charge lights or shiny objects at night. The sea bass, which can grow to 1.7 meters, is another fish to avoid. The moray eel,
which has many sharp teeth and grows to 1.5 meters, can also be aggressive if disturbed.
Sea Snakes
Sea snakes are venomous and sometimes found in mid ocean. They are unlikely to bite unless provoked. Avoid them.
Crocodiles
Crocodiles inhabit tropical saltwater bays and mangrove-bordered estuaries and range up to 65 kilometers into the open sea.
Few remain near inhabited areas. You commonly find crocodiles in the remote areas of the East Indies and Southeast Asia.
Consider specimens over 1 meter long dangerous, especially females guarding their nests. Crocodile meat is an excellent source
of food when available.
Sea Urchins, Sea Biscuits, Sponges, and Anemones
These animals can cause extreme, though seldom fatal, pain. Usually found in tropical shallow water near coral formations, sea
urchins resemble small, round porcupines. If stepped on, they slip fine needles of lime or silica into the skin, where they break
off and fester. If possible, remove the spines and treat the injury for infection. The other animals mentioned inflict injury similarly.
Tides and Undertow
These are another hazard to contend with. If caught in a large wave's undertow, push off the bottom or swim to the surface and
proceed shoreward in a trough between waves. Do not fight against the pull of the undertow. Swim with it or perpendicular to it
until it loses strength, then swim for shore.
Food
Obtaining food along a seashore should not present a problem. There are many types of seaweed and other plants you can
easily find and eat. See Chapter 9 and Appendix B for a discussion of these plants.
There is a great variety of animal life that can supply your need for food in this type of survival situation.
Mollusks
Mussels, limpets, clams, sea snails, octopuses, squids, and sea slugs are all edible. Shellfish will usually supply most of the
protein eaten by coastal survivors. Avoid the blue-ringed octopus and cone shells (described in Chapter 11 and Appendix F).
Also beware of "red tides" that make mollusks poisonous. Apply the edibility test on each species before eating.
Worms
Coastal worms are generally edible, but it is better to use them for fish bait. Avoid bristle worms that look like fuzzy caterpillars.
Also avoid tubeworms that have sharp-edged tubes. Arrowworms, alias amphioxus, are not true worms. You find them in the
sand and are excellent either fresh or dried.
Crabs, Lobsters, and Barnacles
These animals are seldom dangerous to man and are an excellent food source. The pincers of larger crabs or lobsters can crush
a man's finger. Many species have spines on their shells, making it preferable to wear gloves when catching them. Barnacles can
cause scrapes or cuts and are difficult to detach from their anchor, but the larger species are an excellent food source.
Sea Urchins
These are common and can cause painful injuries when stepped on or touched. They are also a good source of food. Handle
them with gloves, and remove all spines.
Sea Cucumbers
This animal is an important food source in the Indo-Pacific regions. Use them whole after evisceration or remove the five
muscular strips that run the length of its body. Eat them smoked, pickled, or cooked.
RDL
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CHAPTER 17
EXPEDIENT WATER CROSSINGS
In a survival situation, you may have to cross a water obstacle. It may be in the form of a river, a stream,
a lake, a bog, quicksand, quagmire, or muskeg. Even in the desert, flash floods occur, making streams an
obstacle. Whatever it is, you need to know how to cross it safely.
RIVERS AND STREAMS
You can apply almost every description to rivers and streams. They may be shallow or deep, slow or fast moving, narrow or
wide. Before you try to cross a river or stream, develop a good plan.
Your first step is to look for a high place from which you can get a good view of the river or stream. From this place, you can
look for a place to cross. If there is no high place, climb a tree. Good crossing locations include--
A level stretch where it breaks into several channels. Two or three narrow channels are usually easier to cross than a
wide river.
A shallow bank or sandbar. If possible, select a point upstream from the bank or sandbar so that the current will carry
you to it if you lose your footing.
A course across the river that leads downstream so that you will cross the current at about a 45-degree angle.
The following areas possess potential hazards; avoid them, if possible:
Obstacles on the opposite side of the river that might hinder your travel. Try to select the spot from which travel
will be the safest and easiest.
A ledge of rocks that crosses the river. This often indicates dangerous rapids or canyons.
A deep or rapid waterfall or a deep channel. Never try to ford a stream directly above or even close to such hazards.
Rocky places. You may sustain serious injuries from slipping or falling on rocks. Usually, submerged rocks are very
slick, making balance extremely difficult. An occasional rock that breaks the current, however, may help you.
An estuary of a river. An estuary is normally wide, has strong currents, and is subject to tides. These tides can influence
some rivers many kilometers from their mouths. Go back upstream to an easier crossing site.
Eddies. An eddy can produce a powerful backward pull downstream of the obstruction causing the eddy and pull you
under the surface.
The depth of a fordable river or stream is no deterrent if you can keep your footing. In fact, deep water sometimes runs more
slowly and is therefore safer than fast-moving shallow water. You can always dry your clothes later, or if necessary, you can
make a raft to carry your clothing and equipment across the river.
You must not try to swim or wade across a stream or river when the water is at very low temperatures. This swim could be
fatal. Try to make a raft of some type. Wade across if you can get only your feet wet. Dry them vigorously as soon as you
reach the other bank.
RAPIDS
If necessary, you can safely cross a deep, swift river or rapids. To swim across a deep, swift river, swim with the current, never
fight it. Try to keep your body horizontal to the water. This will reduce the danger of being pulled under.
In fast, shallow rapids, lie on your back, feet pointing downstream, finning your hands alongside your hips. This action will
increase buoyancy and help you steer away from obstacles. Keep your feet up to avoid getting them bruised or caught by
rocks.
In deep rapids, lie on your stomach, head downstream, angling toward the shore whenever you can. Watch for obstacles and
be careful of backwater eddies and converging currents, as they often contain dangerous swirls. Converging currents occur
where new watercourses enter the river or where water has been diverted around large obstacles such as small islands.
To ford a swift, treacherous stream, apply the following steps:
Remove your pants and shirt to lessen the water's pull on you. Keep your footgear on to protect your feet and ankles
from rocks. It will also provide you with firmer footing.
Tie your pants and other articles to the top of your rucksack or in a bundle, if you have no pack. This way, if you have to
release your equipment, all your articles will be together. It is easier to find one large pack than to find several small
items.
Carry your pack well up on your shoulders and be sure you can easily remove it, if necessary. Not being able to get a
pack off quickly enough can drag even the strongest swimmers under.
Find a strong pole about 7.5 centimeters in diameter and 2.1 to 2.4 meters long to help you ford the stream. Grasp the
pole and plant it firmly on your upstream side to break the current. Plant your feet firmly with each step, and move the
pole forward a little downstream from its previous position, but still upstream from you. With your next step, place your
foot below the pole. Keep the pole well slanted so that the force of the current keeps the pole against your shoulder
(Figure 17-1).
Cross the stream so that you will cross the downstream current at a 45-degree angle.
Using this method, you can safely cross currents usually too strong for one person to stand against. Do not concern yourself
about your pack's weight, as the weight will help rather than hinder you in fording the stream.
If there are other people with you, cross the stream together. Ensure that everyone has prepared their pack and clothing as
outlined above. Position the heaviest person on the downstream end of the pole and the lightest on the upstream end. In using
this method, the upstream person breaks the current, and those below can move with relative ease in the eddy formed by the
upstream person. If the upstream person gets temporarily swept off his feet, the others can hold steady while he regains his
footing (Figure 17-2).
If you have three or more people and a rope available, you can use the technique shown in Figure 17-3 to cross the stream.
The length of the rope must be three times the width of the stream.
RAFTS
If you have two ponchos, you can construct a brush raft or an Australian poncho raft. With either of these rafts, you can safely
float your equipment across a slow-moving stream or river.
Brush Raft
The brush raft, if properly constructed, will support about 115 kilograms. To construct it, use ponchos, fresh green brush, two
small saplings, and rope or vine as follows (Figure 17-4):
Push the hood of each poncho to the inner side and tightly tie off the necks using the drawstrings.
Attach the ropes or vines at the corner and side grommets of each poncho. Make sure they are long enough to cross to
and tie with the others attached at the opposite corner or side.
Spread one poncho on the ground with the inner side up. Pile fresh, green brush (no thick branches) on the poncho until
the brush stack is about 45 centimeters high. Pull the drawstring up through the center of the brush stack.
Make an X-frame from two small saplings and place it on top of the brush stack. Tie the X-frame securely in place with
the poncho drawstring.
Pile another 45 centimeters of brush on top of the X-frame, then compress the brush slightly.
Pull the poncho sides up around the brush and, using the ropes or vines attached to the comer or side grommets, tie them
diagonally from comer to corner and from side to side.
Spread the second poncho, inner side up, next to the brush bundle.
Roll the brush bundle onto the second poncho so that the tied side is down. Tie the second poncho around the brush
bundle in the same manner as you tied the first poncho around the brush.
Place it in the water with the tied side of the second poncho facing up.
Australian Poncho Raft
If you do not have time to gather brush for a brush raft, you can make an Australian poncho raft. This raft, although more
waterproof than the poncho brush raft, will only float about 35 kilograms of equipment. To construct this raft, use two ponchos,
two rucksacks, two 1.2-meter poles or branches, and ropes, vines, bootlaces, or comparable material as follows (Figure
17-5):
Push the hood of each poncho to the inner side and tightly tie off the necks using the drawstrings.
Spread one poncho on the ground with the inner side up. Place and center the two 1.2-meter poles on the poncho about
45 centimeters apart.
Place your rucksacks or packs or other equipment between the poles. Also place other items that you want to keep dry
between the poles. Snap the poncho sides together.
Use your buddy's help to complete the raft. Hold the snapped portion of the poncho in the air and roll it tightly down to
the equipment. Make sure you roll the full width of the poncho.
Twist the ends of the roll to form pigtails in opposite directions. Fold the pigtails over the bundle and tie them securely in
place using ropes, bootlaces, or vines.
Spread the second poncho on the ground, inner side up. If you need more buoyancy, place some fresh green brush on
this poncho.
Place the equipment bundle, tied side down, on the center of the second poncho. Wrap the second poncho around the
equipment bundle following the same procedure you used for wrapping the equipment in the first poncho.
Tie ropes, bootlaces, vines, or other binding material around the raft about 30 centimeters from the end of each pigtail.
Place and secure weapons on top of the raft.
Tie one end of a rope to an empty canteen and the other end to the raft. This will help you to tow the raft.
Poncho Donut Raft
Another type of raft is the poncho donut raft. It takes more time to construct than the brush raft or Australian poncho raft, but it
is effective. To construct it, use one poncho, small saplings, willow or vines, and rope, bootlaces, or other binding material
(Figure 17-6) as follows:
Make a framework circle by placing several stakes in the ground that roughly outline an inner and outer circle.
Using young saplings, willow, or vines, construct a donut ring within the circles of stakes.
Wrap several pieces of cordage around the donut ring about 30 to 60 centimeters apart and tie them securely.
Push the poncho's hood to the inner side and tightly tie off the neck using the drawstring.
Place the poncho on the ground, inner side up. Place the donut ring on the center of the poncho. Wrap the poncho up
and over the donut ring and tie off each grommet on the poncho to the ring.
Tie one end of a rope to an empty canteen and the other end to the raft. This rope will help you to tow the raft.
When launching any of the above rafts, take care not to puncture or tear it by dragging it on the ground. Before you start to
cross the river or stream, let the raft lay on the water a few minutes to ensure that it floats.
If the river is too deep to ford, push the raft in front of you while you are swimming. The design of the above rafts does not
allow them to carry a person's full body weight. Use them as a float to get you and your equipment safely across the river or
stream.
Be sure to check the water temperature before trying to cross a river or water obstacle. If the water is extremely cold and you
are unable to find a shallow fording place in the river, do not try to ford it. Devise other means for crossing. For instance, you
might improvise a bridge by felling a tree over the river. Or you might build a raft large enough to carry you and your
equipment. For this, however, you will need an axe, a knife, a rope or vines, and time.
Log Raft
You can make a raft using any dry, dead, standing trees for logs. However, spruce trees found in polar and subpolar regions
make the best rafts. A simple method for making a raft is to use pressure bars lashed securely at each end of the raft to hold the
logs together (Figure 17-7).
FLOTATION DEVICES
If the water is warm enough for swimming and you do not have the time or materials to construct one of the poncho-type rafts,
you can use various flotation devices to negotiate the water obstacle. Some items you can use for flotation devices are--
Trousers. Knot each trouser leg at the bottom and close the fly. With both hands, grasp the waistband at the sides and
swing the trousers in the air to trap air in each leg. Quickly press the sides of the waistband together and hold it
underwater so that the air will not escape. You now have water wings to keep you afloat as you cross the body of
water.
Note: Wet the trousers before inflating to trap the air better You may have to reinflate the trousers several
times when crossing a large body of water.
Empty containers. Lash together her empty gas cans, water jugs, ammo cans, boxes, or other items that will trap or
hold air. Use them as water wings. Use this type of flotation device only in a slow-moving river or stream.
Plastic bags and ponchos. Fill two or more plastic bags with air and secure them together at the opening. Use your
poncho and roll green vegetation tightly inside it so that you have a roll at least 20 centimeters in diameter. Tie the ends
of the roll securely. You can wear it around your waist or across one shoulder and under the opposite arm.
Logs. Use a stranded drift log if one is available, or find a log near the water to use as a float. Be sure to test the log
before starting to cross. Some tree logs, palm for example, will sink even when the wood is dead. Another method is to
tie two logs about 60 centimeters apart. Sit between the logs with your back against one and your legs over the other
(Figure 17-8).
Cattails. Gather stalks of cattails and tie them in a bundle 25 centimeters or more in diameter. The many air cells in each
stalk cause a stalk to float until it rots. Test the cattail bundle to be sure it will support your weight before trying to cross
a body of water.
There are many other flotation devices that you can devise by using some imagination. Just make sure to test the device before
trying to use it.
OTHER WATER OBSTACLES
Other water obstacles that you may face are bogs, quagmire, muskeg, or quicksand. Do not try to walk across these. Trying to
lift your feet while standing upright will make you sink deeper. Try to bypass these obstacles. If you are unable to bypass them,
you may be able to bridge them using logs, branches, or foliage.
A way to cross a bog is to lie face down, with your arms and legs spread. Use a flotation device or form pockets of air in your
clothing. Swim or pull your way across moving slowly and trying to keep your body horizontal.
In swamps, the areas that have vegetation are usually firm enough to support your weight. However, vegetation will usually not
be present in open mud or water areas. If you are an average swimmer, however, you should have no problem swimming,
crawling, or pulling your way through miles of bog or swamp.
Quicksand is a mixture of sand and water that forms a shifting mass. It yields easily to pressure and sucks down and engulfs
objects resting on its surface. It varies in depth and is usually localized. Quicksand commonly occurs on flat shores, in
silt-choked rivers with shifting watercourses, and near the mouths of large rivers. If you are uncertain whether a sandy area is
quicksand, toss a small stone on it. The stone will sink in quicksand. Although quicksand has more suction than mud or muck,
you can cross it just as you would cross a bog. Lie face down, spread your arms and legs, and move slowly across.
VEGETATION OBSTACLES
Some water areas you must cross may have underwater and floating plants that will make swimming difficult. However, you can
swim through relatively dense vegetation if you remain calm and do not thrash about. Stay as near the surface as possible and
use the breaststroke with shallow leg and arm motion. Remove the plants around you as you would clothing. When you get
tired, float or swim on your back until you have rested enough to continue with the breaststroke.
The mangrove swamp is another type of obstacle that occurs along tropical coastlines. Mangrove trees or shrubs throw out
many prop roots that form dense masses. To get through a mangrove swamp, wait for low tide. If you are on the inland side,
look for a narrow grove of trees and work your way seaward through these. You can also try to find the bed of a waterway or
creek through the trees and follow it to the sea. If you are on the seaward side, work inland along streams or channels. Be on
the lookout for crocodiles that you find along channels and in shallow water. If there are any near you, leave the water and
scramble over the mangrove roots. While crossing a mangrove swamp, it is possible to gather food from tidal pools or tree
roots.
To cross a large swamp area, construct some type of raft.
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CHAPTER 18
FIELD-EXPEDIENT DIRECTION FINDING
In a survival situation, you will be extremely fortunate if you happen to have a map and compass. If you
do have these two pieces of equipment, you will most likely be able to move toward help. If you are not
proficient in using a map and compass, you must take the steps to gain this skill.
There are several methods by which you can determine direction by using the sun and the stars. These
methods, however, will give you only a general direction. You can come up with a more nearly true
direction if you know the terrain of the territory or country.
You must learn all you can about the terrain of the country or territory to which you or your unit may be
sent, especially any prominent features or landmarks. This knowledge of the terrain together with using
the methods explained below will let you come up with fairly true directions to help you navigate.
USING THE SUN AND SHADOWS
The earth's relationship to the sun can help you to determine direction on earth. The sun always rises in the east and sets in the
west, but not exactly due east or due west. There is also some seasonal variation. In the northern hemisphere, the sun will be
due south when at its highest point in the sky, or when an object casts no appreciable shadow. In the southern hemisphere, this
same noonday sun will mark due north. In the northern hemisphere, shadows will move clockwise. Shadows will move
counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere. With practice, you can use shadows to determine both direction and time of day.
The shadow methods used for direction finding are the shadow-tip and watch methods.
Shadow-Tip Methods
In the first shadow-tip method, find a straight stick 1 meter long, and a level spot free of brush on which the stick will cast a
definite shadow. This method is simple and accurate and consists of four steps:
Step 1. Place the stick or branch into the ground at a level spot where it will cast a distinctive shadow. Mark the
shadow's tip with a stone, twig, or other means. This first shadow mark is always west--everywhere on earth.
Step 2. Wait 10 to 15 minutes until the shadow tip moves a few centimeters. Mark the shadow tip's new position in the
same way as the first.
Step 3. Draw a straight line through the two marks to obtain an approximate east-west line.
Step 4. Stand with the first mark (west) to your left and the second mark to your right--you are now facing north. This
fact is true everywhere on earth.
An alternate method is more accurate but requires more time. Set up your shadow stick and mark the first shadow in the
morning. Use a piece of string to draw a clean arc through this mark and around the stick. At midday, the shadow will shrink
and disappear. In the afternoon, it will lengthen again and at the point where it touches the arc, make a second mark. Draw a
line through the two marks to get an accurate east-west line (see Figure 18-1).
The Watch Method
You can also determine direction using a common or analog watch--one that has hands. The direction will be accurate if you
are using true local time, without any changes for daylight savings time. Remember, the further you are from the equator, the
more accurate this method will be. If you only have a digital watch, you can overcome this obstacle. Quickly draw a watch on a
circle of paper with the correct time on it and use it to determine your direction at that time.
In the northern hemisphere, hold the watch horizontal and point the hour hand at the sun. Bisect the angle between the hour
hand and the 12 o'clock mark to get the north-south line (Figure 18-2). If there is any doubt as to which end of the line is north,
remember that the sun rises in the east, sets in the west, and is due south at noon. The sun is in the east before noon and in the
west after noon.
Note: If your watch is set on daylight savings time, use the midway point between the hour hand and 1
o'clock to determine the north-south line.
In the southern hemisphere, point the watch's 12 o'clock mark toward the sun and a midpoint halfway between 12 and the hour
hand will give you the north-south line (Figure 18-2).
USING THE MOON
Because the moon has no light of its own, we can only see it when it reflects the sun's light. As it orbits the earth on its 28-day
circuit, the shape of the reflected light varies according to its position. We say there is a new moon or no moon when it is on the
opposite side of the earth from the sun. Then, as it moves away from the earth's shadow, it begins to reflect light from its right
side and waxes to become a full moon before waning, or losing shape, to appear as a sliver on the left side. You can use this
information to identify direction.
If the moon rises before the sun has set, the illuminated side will be the west. If the moon rises after midnight, the illuminated
side will be the east. This obvious discovery provides us with a rough east-west reference during the night.
USING THE STARS
Your location in the Northern or Southern Hemisphere determines which constellation you use to determine your north or south
direction.
The Northern Sky
The main constellations to learn are the Ursa Major, also known as the Big Dipper or the Plow, and Cassiopeia (Figure 18-3).
Neither of these constellations ever sets. They are always visible on a clear night. Use them to locate Polaris, also known as the
polestar or the North Star. The North Star forms part of the Little Dipper handle and can be confused with the Big Dipper.
Prevent confusion by using both the Big Dipper and Cassiopeia together. The Big Dipper and Cassiopeia are always directly
opposite each. other and rotate counterclockwise around Polaris, with Polaris in the center. The Big Dipper is a seven star
constellation in the shape of a dipper. The two stars forming the outer lip of this dipper are the "pointer stars" because they
point to the North Star. Mentally draw a line from the outer bottom star to the outer top star of the Big Dipper's bucket. Extend
this line about five times the distance between the pointer stars. You will find the North Star along this line.
Cassiopeia has five stars that form a shape like a "W" on its side. The North Star is straight out from Cassiopeia's center star.
After locating the North Star, locate the North Pole or true north by drawing an imaginary line directly to the earth.
The Southern Sky
Because there is no star bright enough to be easily recognized near the south celestial pole, a constellation known as the
Southern Cross is used as a signpost to the South (Figure 18-4). The Southern Cross or Crux has five stars. Its four brightest
stars form a cross that tilts to one side. The two stars that make up the cross's long axis are the pointer stars. To determine
south, imagine a distance five times the distance between These stars and the point where this imaginary line ends is in the
general direction of south. Look down to the horizon from this imaginary point and select a landmark to steer by. In a static
survival situation, you can fix this location in daylight if you drive stakes in the ground at night to point the way.
MAKING IMPROVISED COMPASSES
You can construct improvised compasses using a piece of ferrous metal that can be needle shaped or a flat double-edged razor
blade and a piece of nonmetallic string or long hair from which to suspend it. You can magnetize or polarize the metal by slowly
stroking it in one direction on a piece of silk or carefully through your hair using deliberate strokes. You can also polarize metal
by stroking it repeatedly at one end with a magnet. Always rub in one direction only. If you have a battery and some electric
wire, you can polarize the metal electrically. The wire should be insulated. If not insulated, wrap the metal object in a single, thin
strip of paper to prevent contact. The battery must be a minimum of 2 volts. Form a coil with the electric wire and touch its
ends to the battery's terminals. Repeatedly insert one end of the metal object in and out of the coil. The needle will become an
electromagnet. When suspended from a piece of nonmetallic string, or floated on a small piece of wood in water, it will align
itself with a north-south line.
You can construct a more elaborate improvised compass using a sewing needle or thin metallic object, a nonmetallic container
(for example, a plastic dip container), its lid with the center cut out and waterproofed, and the silver tip from a pen. To
construct this compass, take an ordinary sewing needle and break in half. One half will form your direction pointer and the
other will act as the pivot point. Push the portion used as the pivot point through the bottom center of your container; this
portion should be flush on the bottom and not interfere with the lid. Attach the center of the other portion (the pointer) of the
needle on the pen's silver tip using glue, tree sap, or melted plastic. Magnetize one end of the pointer and rest it on the pivot
point.
OTHER MEANS OF DETERMINING DIRECTION
The old saying about using moss on a tree to indicate north is not accurate because moss grows completely around some trees.
Actually, growth is more lush on the side of the tree facing the south in the Northern Hemisphere and vice versa in the Southern
Hemisphere. If there are several felled trees around for comparison, look at the stumps. Growth is more vigorous on the side
toward the equator and the tree growth rings will be more widely spaced. On the other hand, the tree growth rings will be
closer together on the side toward the poles.
Wind direction may be helpful in some instances where there are prevailing directions and you know what they are.
Recognizing the differences between vegetation and moisture patterns on north- and south-facing slopes can aid in determining
direction. In the northern hemisphere, north-facing slopes receive less sun than south-facing slopes and are therefore cooler and
damper. In the summer, north-facing slopes retain patches of snow. In the winter, the trees and open areas on south-facing
slopes are the first to lose their snow, and ground snowpack is shallower.
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CHAPTER 19
SIGNALING TECHNIQUES
One of your first concerns when you find yourself in a survival situation is to communicate with your
friends or allies. Generally, communication is the giving and receiving of information. As a survivor, you
must get your rescuer's attention first, and second, send a message your rescuer understands. Some
attention-getters are man-made geometric patterns such as straight lines, circles, triangles, or X's
displayed in uninhabited areas; a large fire or flash of light; a large, bright object moving slowly; or
contrast, whether from color or shadows. The type of signal used will depend on your environment and the
enemy situation.
APPLICATION
If in a noncombat situation, you need to find the largest available clear and flat area on the highest possible terrain. Use as
obvious a signal as you can create. On the other hand, you will have to be more discreet in combat situations. You do not want
to signal and attract the enemy. Pick an area that is visible from the air, but ensure there are hiding places nearby. Try to have a
hill or other object between the signal site and the enemy to mask your signal from the enemy. Perform a thorough
reconnaissance of the area to ensure there are no enemy forces nearby.
Whatever signaling technique or device you plan to use, know how to use it and be ready to put it into operation on short
notice. If possible, avoid using signals or signaling techniques that can physically endanger you. Keep in mind that signals to
your friends may alert the enemy of your presence and location. Before signaling, carefully weigh your rescue chances by
friends against the danger of capture by the enemy.
A radio is probably the surest and quickest way to let others know where you are and to let you receive their messages.
Become familiar with the radios in your unit. Learn how to operate them and how to send and receive messages.
You will find descriptions of other signaling techniques, devices, and articles you can use. Learn how to use them. Think of
ways in which you can adapt or change them for different environments. Practice using these signaling techniques, devices, and
articles before you need them. Planned, prearranged signaling techniques may improve your chance of rescue.
MEANS FOR SIGNALING
There are two main ways to get attention or to communicate--visual and audio. The means you use will depend on your
situation and the material you have available. Whatever the means, always have visual and audio signals ready for use.
Visual Signals
These signals are materials or equipment you use to make your presence known to rescuers.
Fire
During darkness, fire is the most effective visual means for signaling. Build three fires in a triangle (the international distress
signal) or in a straight line with about 25 meters between the fires. Build them as soon as time and the situation permit and
protect them until you need them. If you are alone, maintaining three fires may be difficult. If so, maintain one signal fire.
When constructing signal fires, consider your geographic location. If in a jungle, find a natural clearing or the edge of a stream
where you can build fires that the jungle foliage will not hide. You may even have to clear an area. If in a snow-covered area,
you may have to clear the ground of snow or make a platform on which to build the fire so that melting snow will not extinguish
it.
A burning tree (tree torch) is another way to attract attention (Figure 19-1). You can set pitch-bearing trees afire, even when
green. You can get other types of trees to burn by placing dry wood in the lower branches and igniting it so that the flames flare
up and ignite the foliage. Before the primary tree is consumed, cut and add more small green trees to the fire to produce more
smoke. Always select an isolated tree so that you do not start a forest fire and endanger yourself.
Smoke
During daylight, build a smoke generator and use smoke to gain attention (Figure 19-2). The international distress signal is three
columns of smoke. Try to create a color of smoke that contrasts with the background; dark smoke against a light background
and vice versa. If you practically smother a large fire with green leaves, moss, or a little water, the fire will produce white
smoke. If you add rubber or oil-soaked rags to a fire, you will get black smoke.
In a desert environment, smoke hangs close to the ground, but a pilot can spot it in open desert terrain.
Smoke signals are effective only on comparatively calm, clear days. High winds, rain, or snow disperse smoke, lessening its
chances of being seen.
Smoke Grenades
If you have smoke grenades with you, use them in the same pattern as described for fires. Keep them dry so that they will work
when you need them. Take care not to ignite the vegetation in the area when you use them.
Pen Flares
These flares are part of an aviator's survival vest. The device consists of a pen-shaped gun with a flare attached by a nylon
cord. When fired, the pen flare sounds like a pistol shot and fires the flare about 150 meters high. It is about 3 centimeters in
diameter.
To have the pen flare ready for immediate use, take it out of its wrapper, attach the flare, leave the gun uncocked, and wear it
on a cord or chain around your neck. Be ready to fire it in front of search aircraft and be ready with a secondary signal. Also,
be ready to take cover in case the pilot mistakes the flare for enemy fire.
Tracer Ammunition
You may use rifle or pistol tracer ammunition to signal search aircraft. Do not fire the ammunition in front of the aircraft. As
with pen flares, be ready to take cover if the pilot mistakes your tracers for enemy fire.
Star Clusters
Red is the international distress color; therefore, use a red star cluster whenever possible. Any color, however, will let your
rescuers know where you are. Star clusters reach a height of 200 to 215 meters, burn an average of 6 to 10 seconds, and
descend at a rate of 14 meters per second.
Star Parachute Flares
These flares reach a height of 200 to 215 meters and descend at a rate of 2.1 meters per second. The M126 (red) burns about
50 seconds and the M127 (white) about 25 seconds. At night you can see these flares at 48 to 56 kilometers.
Mirrors or Shiny Objects
On a sunny day, a mirror is your best signaling device. If you don't have a mirror, polish your canteen cup, your belt buckle, or
a similar object that will reflect the sun's rays. Direct the flashes in one area so that they are secure from enemy observation.
Practice using a mirror or shiny object for signaling now; do not wait until you need it. If you have an MK-3 signal mirror,
follow the instructions on its back (Figure 19-3).
Wear the signal mirror on a cord or chain around your neck so that it is ready for immediate use. However, be sure the glass
side is against your body so that it will not flash; the enemy can see the flash.
CAUTION
Do not flash a signal mirror rapidly because a pilot may mistake the flashes for enemy fire. Do not direct the beam in the
aircraft's cockpit for more than a few seconds as it may blind the pilot.
Haze, ground fog, and mirages may make it hard for a pilot to spot signals from a flashing object. So, if possible, get to the
highest point in your area when signaling. If you can't determine the aircraft's location, flash your signal in the direction of the
aircraft noise.
Note: Pilots have reported seeing mirror flashes up to 160 kilometers away under ideal conditions.
Figures 19-4 and 19-5 show methods of aiming a signal mirror for signaling.
Flashlight or Strobe Light
At night you can use a flashlight or a strobe light to send an SOS to an aircraft. When using a strobe light, take care to prevent
the pilot from mistaking it for incoming ground fire. The strobe light flashes 60 times per minute. Some strobe lights have
infrared covers and lenses. Blue flash collimators are also available for strobe lights.
VS-17 Panel
During daylight you can use a VS-17 panel to signal. Place the orange side up as it is easier to see from the air than the violet
side. Flashing the panel will make it easier for the aircrew to spot. You can use any bright orange or violet cloth as a substitute
for the VS-17.
Clothing
Spreading clothing on the ground or in the top of a tree is another way to signal. Select articles whose color will contrast with
the natural surroundings. Arrange them in a large geometric pattern to make them more likely to attract attention.
Natural Material
If you lack other means, you can use natural materials to form a symbol or message that can be seen from the air. Build mounds
that cast shadows; you can use brush, foliage of any type, rocks, or snow blocks.
In snow-covered areas, tramp the snow to form letters or symbols and fill the depression with contrasting material (twigs or
branches). In sand, use boulders, vegetation, or seaweed to form a symbol or message. In brush-covered areas, cut out
patterns in the vegetation or sear the ground. In tundra, dig trenches or turn the sod upside down.
In any terrain, use contrasting materials that will make the symbols visible to the aircrews.
Sea Dye Markers
All Army aircraft involved in operations near or over water will normally carry a water survival kit that contains sea dye
markers. If you are in a water survival situation, use sea dye markers during daylight to indicate your location. These spots of
dye stay conspicuous for about 3 hours, except in very rough seas. Use them only if you are in a friendly area. Keep the
markers wrapped until you are ready to use them. Use them only when you hear or sight an aircraft. Sea dye markers are also
very effective on snow-covered ground; use them to write distress code letters.
Audio Signals
Radios, whistles, and gunshots are some of the methods you can use to signal your presence to rescuers.
Radio Equipment
The AN/PRC-90 survival radio is a part of the Army aviator's survival vest. The AN/PRC-112 will eventually replace the
AN/PRC-90. Both radios can transmit either tone or voice. Any other type of Army radio can do the same. The ranges of the
different radios vary depending on the altitude of the receiving aircraft, terrain, vegetation density, weather, battery strength,
type of radio, and interference. To obtain maximum performance from radios, use the following procedures:
Try to transmit only in clear, unobstructed terrain. Since radios are line-of-sight communications devices, any terrain
between the radio and the receiver will block the signal.
Keep the antenna at right angles to the rescuing aircraft. There is no signal from the tip of the antenna.
If the radio has tone capability, place it upright on a flat, elevated surface so that you can perform other survival tasks.
Never let the antenna touch your clothing, body, foliage, or the ground. Such contact greatly reduces the range of the
signal.
Conserve battery power. Turn the radio off when you are not using it. Do not transmit or receive constantly. In hostile
territory, keep transmissions short to avoid enemy radio direction finding.
In cold weather, keep the battery inside your clothing when not using the radio. Cold quickly drains the battery's power.
Do not expose the battery to extreme heat such as desert sun. High heat may cause the battery to explode. Try to keep
the radio and battery as dry as possible, as water may destroy the circuitry.
Whistles
Whistles provide an excellent way for close up signaling. In some documented cases, they have been heard up to 1.6
kilometers away. Manufactured whistles have more range than a human whistle.
Gunshots
In some situations you can use firearms for signaling. Three shots fired at distinct intervals usually indicate a distress signal. Do
not use this technique in enemy territory. The enemy will surely come to investigate shots.
CODES AND SIGNALS
Now that you know how to let people know where you are, you need to know how to give them more information. It is easier
to form one symbol than to spell out an entire message. Therefore, learn the codes and symbols that all aircraft pilots
understand.
SOS
You can use lights or flags to send an SOS--three dots, three dashes, three dots. The SOS is the internationally recognized
distress signal in radio Morse code. A dot is a short, sharp pulse; a dash is a longer pulse. Keep repeating the signal. When
using flags, hold flags on the left side for dashes and on the right side for dots.
Ground-to-Air Emergency Code
This code (Figure 19-6) is actually five definite, meaningful symbols. Make these symbols a minimum of 1 meter wide and 6
meters long. If you make them larger, keep the same 1: 6 ratio. Ensure the signal contrasts greatly with the ground it is on. Place
it in an open area easily spotted from the air.
Body Signals
When an aircraft is close enough for the pilot to see you clearly, use body movements or positions (Figure 19-7) to convey a
message.
Panel Signals
If you have a life raft cover or sail, or a suitable substitute, use the symbols shown in Figure 19-8 to convey a message.
Aircraft Acknowledgments
Once the pilot of a fixed-wing aircraft has sighted you, he will normally indicate he has seen you by flying low, moving the plane,
and flashing lights as shown in Figure 19-9. Be ready to relay other messages to the pilot once he acknowledges that he
received and understood your first message. Use a radio, if possible, to relay further messages. If no radio is available, use the
codes covered in the previous paragraphs.
AIRCRAFT VECTORING PROCEDURES
If you can contact a friendly aircraft with a radio, guide the pilot to your location. Use the following general format to guide the
pilot:
Mayday, Mayday.
Call sign (if any).
Name.
Location.
Number of survivors.
Available landing sites.
Any remarks such as medical aid or other specific types of help needed immediately.
Simply because you have made contact with rescuers does not mean you are safe. Follow instructions and continue to use
sound survival and evasion techniques until you are actually rescued.
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CHAPTER 20
SURVIVAL MOVEMENT IN HOSTILE AREAS
The "rescue at any cost" philosophy of previous conflicts is not likely to be possible in future conflicts. Our
potential adversaries have made great progress in air defense measures and radio direction finding (RDF)
techniques. We must assume that U.S. military forces trapped behind enemy lines in future conflicts may
not experience quick recovery by friendly elements. Soldiers may have to move for extended times and
distances to places less threatening to the recovery forces. The soldier will not likely know the type of
recovery to expect. Each situation and the available resources determine the type of recovery possible.
Since no one can be absolutely sure until the recovery effort begins, soldiers facing a potential cutoff from
friendly forces should be familiar with all the possible types of recovery, their related problems, and their
responsibilities to the recovery effort. Preparation and training can improve the chances of success.
PHASES OF PLANNING
Preparation is a requirement for all missions. When planning, you must consider how to avoid capture and return to your unit.
Contingency plans must be prepared in conjunction with unit standing operating procedures (SOPs). Courses of action you or
your unit will take must also be considered.
Contingency Plan of Action (CPA)
Intelligence sections can help prepare personnel for contingency actions through information supplied in area studies, SERE
(survival, evasion, resistance, and escape) contingency guides, threat briefings, current intelligence reports, and current contact
and authentication procedures. Pre-mission preparation includes the completion of a CPA. The study and research needed to
develop the CPA will make you aware of the current situation in your mission area. Your CPA will let recovery forces know
your probable actions should you have to move to avoid capture.
Start preparing even before pre-mission planning. Many parts of the CPA are SOP for your unit. Include the CPA in your
training. Planning starts in your daily training.
The CPA is your entire plan for your return to friendly control. It consists of five paragraphs written in the operation order
format. You can take most of paragraph 1, Situation, with you on the mission. Appendix H contains the CPA format. It also
indicates what portion of the CPA you can take with you.
A comprehensive CPA is a valuable asset to the soldier trapped behind enemy lines who must try to avoid capture. To
complete paragraph 1, know your unit's assigned area or concentrate on potential mission areas of the world. Many open or
closed sources contain the information you need to complete a CPA. Open sources may include newspapers, magazines,
country or area handbooks, area studies, television, radio, persons familiar with the area, and libraries. Closed sources may
include area studies, area assessments, SERE contingency guides, various classified field manuals, and intelligence reports.
Prepare your CPA in three phases. During your normal training, prepare paragraph 1, Situation. Prepare paragraphs 2, 3, 4,
and 5 during your pre-mission planning. After deployment into an area, continually update your CPA based on mission changes
and intelligence updates.
The CPA is a guide. You may add or delete certain portions based on the mission. The CPA may be a recovery force's only
means of determining your location and intentions after you start to move. It is an essential tool for your survival and return to
friendly control.
Standing Operating Procedures
Unit SOPs are valuable tools your unit has that will help your planning. When faced with a dangerous situation requiring
immediate action, it is not the time to discuss options; it is the time to act. Many of the techniques used during small unit
movement can be carried over to fit requirements for moving and returning to friendly control. Items from the SOP should
include, but are not limited to--
Movement team size (three to four persons per team).
Team communications (technical and nontechnical).
Essential equipment.
Actions at danger areas.
Signaling techniques.
Immediate action drills.
Linkup procedures.
Helicopter recovery devices and procedures.
Security procedures during movement and at hide sites.
Rally points.
Rehearsals work effectively for reinforcing these SOP skills and also provide opportunities for evaluation and improvement.
Notification to Move and Avoid Capture
An isolated unit has several general courses of action it can take to avoid the capture of the group or individuals. These courses
of action are not courses the commander can choose instead of his original mission. He cannot arbitrarily abandon the assigned
mission. Rather, he may adopt these courses of action after completing his mission when his unit cannot complete its assigned
mission (because of combat power losses) or when he receives orders to extract his unit from its current position. If such
actions are not possible, the commander may decide to have the unit try to move to avoid capture and return to friendly control.
In either case, as long as there is communication with higher headquarters, that headquarters will make the decision.
If the unit commander loses contact with higher headquarters, he must make the decision to move or wait. He bases his
decision on many factors, including the mission, rations and ammunition on hand, casualties, the chance of relief by friendly
forces, and the tactical situation. The commander of an isolated unit faces other questions. What course of action will inflict
maximum damage on the enemy? What course of action will assist in completing the higher headquarters' overall mission?
Movement teams conduct the execution portion of the plan when notified by higher headquarters or, if there is no contact with
higher headquarters, when the highest ranking survivor decides that the situation requires the unit to try to escape capture or
destruction. Movement team leaders receive their notification through prebriefed signals. Once the signal to try to avoid capture
is given, it must be passed rapidly to all personnel. Notify higher headquarters, if possible. If unable to communicate with higher
headquarters, leaders must recognize that organized resistance has ended, and that organizational control has ceased.
Command and control is now at the movement team or individual level and is returned to higher organizational control only after
reaching friendly lines.
EXECUTION
Upon notification to avoid capture, all movement team members will try to link up at the initial movement point. This point is
where team members rally and actually begin their movement. Tentatively select the initial movement point during your planning
phase through a map recon. Once on the ground, the team verifies this location or selects a better one. All team members must
know its location. The initial movement point should be easy to locate and occupy for a minimum amount of time.
Once the team has rallied at the initial movement point, it must--
Give first aid.
Inventory its equipment (decide what to abandon, destroy, or take along).
Apply camouflage.
Make sure everyone knows the tentative hide locations.
Ensure everyone knows the primary and alternate routes and rally points en route to the hide locations.
Always maintain security.
Split the team into smaller elements. The ideal element should have two to three members; however, it could include
more depending on team equipment and experience.
The movement portion of returning to friendly control is the most dangerous as you are now most vulnerable. It is usually better
to move at night because of the concealment darkness offers. Exceptions to such movement would be when moving through
hazardous terrain or dense vegetation (for example, jungle or mountainous terrain). When moving, avoid the following even if it
takes more time and energy to bypass:
Obstacles and barriers.
Roads and trails.
Inhabited areas.
Waterways and bridges.
Natural lines of drift.
Man-made structures.
All civilian and military personnel.
Movement in enemy-held territory is a very slow and deliberate process. The slower you move and the more careful you are,
the better. Your best security will be using your senses. Use your eyes and ears to detect people before they detect you. Make
frequent listening halts. In daylight, observe a section of your route before you move along it. The distance you travel before
you hide will depend on the enemy situation, your health, the terrain, the availability of cover and concealment for hiding, and
the amount of darkness left.
Once you have moved into the area in which you want to hide (hide area), select a hide site. Keep the following formula in mind
when selecting a hide site: BLISS.
B - Blends in with the surroundings.
L - Low in silhouette.
I - Irregular in shape.
S - Small in size.
S - Secluded.
Avoid the use of existing buildings or shelters. Usually, your best option will be to crawl into the thickest vegetation you can
find. Construct any type of shelter within the hide area only in cold weather and desert environments. If you build a shelter,
follow the BLISS formula.
Hide Site Activities
After you have located your hide site, do not move straight into it. Use a button hook or other deceptive technique to move to a
position outside of the hide site. Conduct a listening halt before moving individually into the hide site. Be careful not to disturb or
cut any vegetation. Once you have occupied the hide site, limit your activities to maintaining security, resting, camouflaging, and
planning your next moves.
Maintain your security through visual scanning and listening. Upon detection of the enemy, the security personnel alert all
personnel, even if the team's plan is to stay hidden and not move upon sighting the enemy. Take this action so that everyone is
aware of the danger and ready to react.
If any team member leaves the team, give him a five-point contingency plan. Take such steps especially when a recon team or a
work party is out of the hole-up or hide site.
It is extremely important to stay healthy and alert when trying to avoid capture. Take every opportunity to rest, but do not
sacrifice security. Rotate security so that all members of your movement team can rest. Treat all injuries, no matter how minor.
Loss of your health will mean loss of your ability to continue to avoid capture.
Camouflage is an important aspect of both moving and securing a hide site. Always use a buddy system to ensure that
camouflage is complete. Ensure that team members blend with the hide site. Use natural or man-made materials. If you add any
additional camouflage material to the hide site, do not cut vegetation in the immediate area.
Plan your next actions while at the hide site. Start your planning process immediately upon occupying the hide site. Inform all
team members of their current location and designate an alternate hide site location. Once this is done, start planning for the
team's next movement.
Planning the team's movement begins with a map recon. Choose the next hide area first. Then choose a primary and an
alternate route to the hide area. In choosing the routes, do not use straight lines. Use one or two radical changes in direction.
Pick the routes that offer the best cover and concealment, the fewest obstacles, and the least likelihood of contact with humans.
There should be locations along the route where the team can get water. To aid team navigation, use azimuths, distances,
checkpoints or steering marks, and corridors. Plan rally points and rendezvous points at intervals along the route.
Other planning considerations may fall under what the team already has in the team SOP. Examples are immediate action drills,
actions on sighting the enemy, and hand-and-arm signals.
Once planning is complete, ensure everyone knows and memorizes the entire plan. The team members should know the
distances and azimuths for the entire route to the next hide area. They should study the map and know the various terrain they
will be moving across so that they can move without using the map.
Do not occupy a hide site for more than 24 hours. In most situations, hide during the day and move at night. Limit your actions
in the hide site to those discussed above. Once in the hide site, restrict all movement to less than 45 centimeters above the
ground. Do not build fires or prepare food. Smoke and food odors will reveal your location. Before leaving the hide site,
sterilize it to prevent tracking.
Hole-Up Areas
After moving and hiding for several days, usually three or four, you or the movement team will have to move into a hole-up
area. This is an area where you can rest, recuperate, and get and prepare food. Choose an area near a water source. You then
have a place to get water, to place fishing devices, and to trap game. Since waterways are a line of communication, locate your
hide site well away from the water.
The hole-up area should offer plenty of cover and concealment for movement in and around the area. Always maintain security
while in the hole-up area. Always man the hole-up area. Actions in the hole-up area are the same as in hide site, except that
you can move away from the hole-up area to get and prepare food. Actions in the hole-up area include--
Selecting and occupying the next hide site (remember you are still in a dangerous situation; this is not a friendly area).
Reconnoitering the area for resources and potential concealed movement routes to the alternate hide site.
Gathering food (nuts, berries, vegetables). When moving around the area for food, maintain security and avoid leaving
tracks or other signs. When setting traps and snares, keep them well-camouflaged and in areas where people are not
likely to discover them. Remember, the local population sometimes heavily travels trails near water sources.
Getting water from sources within the hide area. Be careful not to leave tracks of signs along the banks of water sources
when getting water. Moving on hard rocks or logs along the banks to get water will reduce the signs you leave.
Setting clandestine fishing devices, such as stakeouts, below the surface of the water to avoid detection.
Locating a fire site well away from the hide site. Use this site to prepare food or boil water. Camouflage and sterilize the
fire site after each use. Be careful that smoke and light from the fire does not compromise the hole-up area.
While in the hole-up area, security is still your primary concern. Designate team members to perform specific tasks. To limit
movement around the area, you may have a two-man team perform more than one task. For example, the team getting water
could also set the fishing devices. Do not occupy the hole-up area longer than 72 hours.
RETURN TO FRIENDLY CONTROL
Establishing contact with friendly lines or patrols is the most crucial part of movement and return to friendly control. All your
patience, planning, and hardships will be in vain if you do not exercise caution when contacting friendly frontline forces. Friendly
patrols have killed personnel operating behind enemy lines because they did not make contact properly. Most of the casualties
could have been avoided if caution had been exercised and a few simple procedures followed. The normal tendency is to throw
caution to the winds when in sight of friendly forces. You must overcome this tendency and understand that linkup is a very
sensitive situation.
Border Crossings
If you have made your way to a friendly or neutral country, use the following procedures to cross the border and link up with
friendly forces on the other side:
Occupy a hide site on the near side of the border and send a team out to reconnoiter the potential crossing site.
Surveil the crossing site for at least 24 hours, depending on the enemy situation.
Make a sketch of the site, taking note of terrain, obstacles, guard routines and rotations, and any sensor devices or trip
wires. Once the recon is complete, the team moves to the hide site, briefs the rest of the team, and plans to cross the
border at night.
After crossing the border, set up a hide site on the far side of the border and try to locate friendly positions. Do not
reveal your presence.
Depending on the size of your movement team, have two men surveil the potential linkup site with friendly forces until
satisfied that the personnel are indeed friendly.
Make contact with the friendly forces during daylight. Personnel chosen to make contact should be unarmed, have no
equipment, and have positive identification readily available. The person who actually makes the linkup should be
someone who looks least like the enemy.
During the actual contact, have only one person make the contact. The other person provides the security and observes
the linkup area from a safe distance. The observer should be far enough away so that he can warn the rest of the
movement team if something goes wrong.
Wait until the party he is contacting looks in his direction so that he does not surprise the contact. He stands up from
behind cover, with hands overhead and states that he is an American. After this, he follows any instructions given him.
He avoids answering any tactical questions and does not give any indication that there are other team members.
Reveal that there are other personnel with him only after verifying his identity and satisfying himself he has made contact
with friendly forces.
Language problems or difficulties confirming identities may arise. The movement team should maintain security, be patient, and
have a contingency plan.
Note: If you are moving to a neutral country, you are surrendering to that power and become a detained
person.
Linkup at the FEBA/FLOT
If caught between friendly and enemy forces and there is heavy fighting in the area, you may choose to hide and let the friendly
lines pass over you. If overrun by friendly forces, you may try to link up from their rear during daylight hours. If overrun by
enemy forces, you may move further to the enemy rear, try to move to the forward edge of the battle area (FEBA)/forward line
of own troops (FLOT) during a lull in the fighting, or move to another area along the front.
The actual linkup will be done as for linkup during a border crossing. The only difference is that you must be more careful on
the initial contact. Frontline personnel are more likely to shoot first and ask questions later, especially in areas of heavy fighting.
You should be near or behind cover before trying to make contact.
Linkup With Friendly Patrols
If friendly lines are a circular perimeter or an isolated camp, for example, any direction you approach from will be considered
enemy territory. You do not have the option of moving behind the lines and trying to link up. This move makes the linkup
extremely dangerous. One option you have is to place the perimeter under observation and wait for a friendly patrol to move
out in your direction, providing a chance for a linkup. You may also occupy a position outside of the perimeter and call out to
get the attention of the friendly forces. Ideally, display anything that is white while making contact. If nothing else is available,
use any article of clothing. The idea is to draw attention while staying behind cover. Once you have drawn attention to your
signal and called out, follow instructions given to you.
Be constantly on the alert for friendly patrols because these provide a means for return to friendly control. Find a concealed
position that allows you maximum visual coverage of the area. Try to memorize every terrain feature so that, if necessary, you
can infiltrate to friendly positions under the cover of darkness. Remember, trying to infiltrate in darkness is extremely dangerous.
Because of the missions of combat and recon patrols and where they are operating, making contact can be dangerous. If you
decide not to make contact, you can observe their route and approach friendly lines at about the same location. Such
observation will enable you to avoid mines and booby traps.
Once you have spotted a patrol, remain in position and, if possible, allow the patrol to move toward you. When the patrol is 25
to 50 meters from your position, signal them and call out a greeting that is clearly and unmistakably of American origin.
If you have nothing white, an article of clothing will suffice to draw attention. If the distance is greater than 50 meters, a recon
patrol may avoid contact and bypass your position. If the distance is less than 25 meters, a patrol member may react instantly
by firing a fatal shot.
It is crucial, at the time of contact, that there is enough light for the patrol to identify you as an American.
Whatever linkup technique you decide to use, use extreme caution. From the perspective of the friendly patrol or friendly
personnel occupying a perimeter, you are hostile until they make positive identification.
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CHAPTER 21
CAMOUFLAGE
In a survival situation, especially in a hostile environment, you may find it necessary to camouflage
yourself, your equipment, and your movement. It may mean the difference between survival and capture
by the enemy. Camouflage and movement techniques, such as stalking, will also help you get animals or
game for food using primitive weapons and skills.
PERSONAL CAMOUFLAGE
When camouflaging yourself, consider that certain shapes are particular to humans. The enemy will look for these shapes. The
shape of a hat, helmet, or black boots can give you away. Even animals know and run from the shape of a human silhouette.
Break up your outline by placing small amounts of vegetation from the surrounding area in your uniform, equipment, and
headgear. Try to reduce any shine from skin or equipment. Blend in with the surrounding colors and simulate the texture of your
surroundings.
Shape and Outline
Change the outline of weapons and equipment by tying vegetation or strips of cloth onto them. Make sure the added
camouflage does not hinder the equipment's operation. When hiding, cover yourself and your equipment with leaves, grass, or
other local debris. Conceal any signaling devices you have prepared, but keep them ready for use.
Color and Texture
Each area of the world and each climatic condition (arctic/winter, temperate/jungle, or swamp/desert) has color patterns and
textures that are natural for that area. While color is self-explanatory, texture defines the surface characteristics of something
when looking at it. For example, surface textures may be smooth, rough, rocky, leafy, or many other possible combinations.
Use color and texture together to camouflage yourself effectively. It makes little sense to cover yourself with dead, brown
vegetation in the middle of a large grassy field. Similarly, it would be useless to camouflage yourself with green grass in the
middle of a desert or rocky area.
To hide and camouflage movement in any specific area of the world, you must take on the color and texture of the immediate
surroundings. Use natural or man-made materials to camouflage yourself. Camouflage paint, charcoal from burned paper or
wood, mud, grass, leaves, strips of cloth or burlap, pine boughs, and camouflaged uniforms are a few examples.
Cover all areas of exposed skin, including face, hands, neck, and ears. Use camouflage paint, charcoal, or mud to camouflage
yourself. Cover with a darker color areas that stick out more and catch more light (forehead, nose, cheekbones, chin, and
ears). Cover other areas, particularly recessed or shaded areas (around the eyes and under the chin), with lighter colors. Be
sure to use an irregular pattern. Attach vegetation from the area or strips of cloth of the proper color to clothing and equipment.
If you use vegetation, replace it as it wilts. As you move through an area, be alert to the color changes and modify your
camouflage colors as necessary.
Figure 21-1 gives a general idea of how to apply camouflage for various areas and climates. Use appropriate colors for your
surroundings. The blotches or slashes will help to simulate texture.
Shine
As skin gets oily, it becomes shiny. Equipment with worn off paint is also shiny. Even painted objects, if smooth, may shine.
Glass objects such as mirrors, glasses, binoculars, and telescopes shine. You must cover these glass objects when not in use.
Anything that shines automatically attracts attention and will give away your location.
Whenever possible, wash oily skin and reapply camouflage. Skin oil will wash off camouflage, so reapply it frequently. If you
must wear glasses, camouflage them by applying a thin layer of dust to the outside of the lenses. This layer of dust will reduce
the reflection of light. Cover shiny spots on equipment by painting, covering with mud, or wrapping with cloth or tape. Pay
particular attention to covering boot eyelets, buckles on equipment, watches and jewelry, zippers, and uniform insignia. Carry a
signal mirror in its designed pouch or in a pocket with the mirror portion facing your body.
Shadow
When hiding or traveling, stay in the deepest part of the shadows. The outer edges of the shadows are lighter and the deeper
parts are darker. Remember, if you are in an area where there is plenty of vegetation, keep as much vegetation between you
and a potential enemy as possible. This action will make it very hard for the enemy to see you as the vegetation will partially
mask you from his view. Forcing an enemy to look through many layers of masking vegetation will fatigue his eyes very quickly.
When traveling, especially in built-up areas at night, be aware of where you cast your shadow. It may extend out around the
comer of a building and give away your position. Also, if you are in a dark shadow and there is a light source to one side, an
enemy on the other side can see your silhouette against the light.
Movement
Movement, especially fast movement, attracts attention. If at all possible, avoid movement in the presence of an enemy. If
capture appears imminent in your present location and you must move, move away slowly, making as little noise as possible. By
moving slowly in a survival situation, you decrease the chance of detection and conserve energy that you may need for
long-term survival or long-distance evasion.
When moving past obstacles, avoid going over them. If you must climb over an obstacle, keep your body level with its top to
avoid silhouetting yourself. Do not silhouette yourself against the skyline when crossing hills or ridges. When you are moving,
you will have difficulty detecting the movement of others. Stop frequently, listen, and look around slowly to detect signs of
hostile movement.
Noise
Noise attracts attention, especially if there is a sequence of loud noises such as several snapping twigs. If possible, avoid
making any noise at all. Slow down your pace as much as necessary to avoid making noise when moving around or away from
possible threats.
Use background noises to cover the noise of your movement. Sounds of aircraft, trucks, generators, strong winds, and people
talking will cover some or all the sounds produced by your movement. Rain will mask a lot of movement noise, but it also
reduces your ability to detect potential enemy noise.
Scent
Whether hunting animals or avoiding the enemy, it is always wise to camouflage the scent associated with humans. Start by
washing yourself and your clothes without using soap. This washing method removes soap and body odors. Avoiding strong
smelling foods, such as garlic, helps reduce body odors. Do not use tobacco products, candy, gum, or cosmetics.
You can use aromatic herbs or plants to wash yourself and your clothing, to rub on your body and clothing, or to chew on to
camouflage your breath. Pine needles, mint, or any similar aromatic plant will help camouflage your scent from both animals and
humans. Standing in smoke from a fire can help mask your scent from animals. While animals are afraid of fresh smoke from a
fire, older smoke scents are normal smells after forest fires and do not scare them.
While traveling, use your sense of smell to help you find or avoid humans. Pay attention to smells associated with humans, such
as fire, cigarettes, gasoline, oil, soap, and food. Such smells may alert you to their presence long before you can see or hear
them, depending on wind speed and direction. Note the wind's direction and, when possible, approach from or skirt around on
the downwind side when nearing humans or animals.
METHODS OF STALKING
Sometimes you need to move, undetected, to or from a location. You need more than just camouflage to make these moves
successfully. The ability to stalk or move without making any sudden quick movement or loud noise is essential to avoiding
detection.
You must practice stalking if it is to be effective. Use the following techniques when practicing.
Upright Stalking
Take steps about half your normal stride when stalking in the upright position. Such strides help you to maintain your balance.
You should be able to stop at any point in that movement and hold that position as long as necessary. Curl the toes up out of
the way when stepping down so the outside edge of the ball of the foot touches the ground. Feel for sticks and twigs that may
snap when you place your weight on them. If you start to step on one, lift your foot and move it. After making contact with the
outside edge of the ball of your foot, roll to the inside ball of your foot, place your heel down, followed by your toes. Then
gradually shift your weight forward to the front foot. Lift the back foot to about knee height and start the process over again.
Keep your hands and arms close to your body and avoid waving them about or hitting vegetation. When moving in a crouch,
you gain extra support by placing your hands on your knees. One step usually takes 1 minute to complete, but the time it takes
will depend on the situation.
Crawling
Crawl on your hands and knees when the vegetation is too low to allow you to walk upright without being seen. Move one limb
at a time and be sure to set it down softly, feeling for anything that may snap and make noise. Be careful that your toes and
heels do not catch on vegetation.
Prone Staking
To stalk in the prone position, you do a low, modified push-up on your hands and toes, moving yourself forward slightly, and
then lowering yourself again slowly. Avoid dragging and scraping along the ground as this makes excessive noise and leaves
large trails for trackers to follow.
Animal Stalking
Before stalking an animal, select the best route. If the animal is moving, you will need an intercepting route. Pick a route that
puts objects between you and the animal to conceal your movement from it. By positioning yourself in this way, you will be able
to move faster, until you pass that object. Some objects, such as large rocks and trees, may totally conceal you, and others,
such as small bushes and grass, may only partially conceal you. Pick the route that offers the best concealment and requires the
least amount of effort.
Keep your eyes on the animal and stop when it looks your way or turns its ears your way, especially if it suspects your
presence. As you get close, squint your eyes slightly to conceal both the light-dark contrast of the whites of the eyes and any
shine from your eyes. Keep your mouth closed so that the animal does not see the whiteness or shine of your teeth.
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CHAPTER 22
CONTACT WITH PEOPLE
Some of the best and most frequently given advice, when dealing with local peoples, is for the survivor to
accept, respect, and adapt to their ways. Thus, "when in Rome, do as the Romans do." This is excellent
advice, but there are several considerations involved in putting this advice into practice.
CONTACT WITH LOCAL PEOPLE
You must give serious consideration to dealing with the local people. Do they have a primitive culture? Are they farmers,
fishermen, friendly people, or enemy? As a survivor, "cross-cultural communication" can vary radically from area to area and
from people to people. It may mean interaction with people of an extremely primitive culture or contact with people who have a
relatively modem culture. A culture is identified by standards of behavior that its members consider proper and acceptable but
may or may not conform to your idea of what is proper. No matter who these people are, you can expect they will have laws,
social and economic values, and political and religious beliefs that may be radically different from yours. Before deploying into
your area of operations, study these different cultural aspects. Prior study and preparation will help you make or avoid contact
if you have to deal with the local population.
People will be friendly, unfriendly, or they will choose to ignore you. Their attitude may be unknown. If the people are known
to be friendly, try to keep them friendly through your courtesy and respect for their religion, politics, social customs, habits, and
all other aspects of their culture. If the people are known to be enemies or are unknowns, make every effort to avoid any
contact and leave no sign of your presence. A basic knowledge of the daily habits of the local people will be essential in this
attempt. If after careful observation you determine that an unknown people are friendly, you may contact them if you absolutely
need their help.
Usually, you have little to fear and much to gain from cautious and respectful contact with local people of friendly or neutral
countries. If you become familiar with the local customs, display common decency, and most important, show respect for their
customs, you should be able to avoid trouble and possibly gain needed help. To make contact, wait until only one person is
near and, if possible, let that person make the initial approach. Most people will be willing to help a survivor who appears to be
in need. However, local political attitudes, instruction, or propaganda efforts may change the attitudes of otherwise friendly
people. Conversely, in unfriendly countries, many people, especially in remote areas, may feel animosity toward their politicians
and may be more friendly toward a survivor.
The key to successful contact with local peoples is to be friendly, courteous, and patient. Displaying fear, showing weapons,
and making sudden or threatening movements can cause a local person to fear you. Such actions can prompt a hostile
response. When attempting a contact, smile as often as you can. Many local peoples are shy and seem unapproachable, or they
may ignore you. Approach them slowly and do not rush your contact.
THE SURVIVOR'S BEHAVIOR
Use salt, tobacco, silver money, and similar items discreetly when trading with local people. Paper money is well-known
worldwide. Do not overpay; it may lead to embarrassment and even danger. Always treat people with respect. Do not bully
them or laugh at them.
Using sign language or acting out needs or questions can be very effective. Many people are used to such language and
communicate using nonverbal sign language. Try to learn a few words and phrases of the local language in and around your
potential area of operations. Trying to speak someone's language is one of the best ways to show respect for his culture. Since
English is widely used, some of the local people may understand a few words of English.
Some areas may be taboo. They range from religious or sacred places to diseased or danger areas. In some areas, certain
animals must not be killed. Learn the rules and follow them. Watch and learn as much as possible. Such actions will help to
strengthen relations and provide new knowledge and skills that may be very important later. Seek advice on local hazards and
find out from friendly people where the hostile people are. Always remember that people frequently insist that other peoples are
hostile, simply because they do not understand different cultures and distant peoples. The people they can usually trust are their
immediate neighbors--much the same as in our own neighborhood.
Frequently, local people, like ourselves, will suffer from contagious diseases. Build a separate shelter, if possible, and avoid
physical contact without giving the impression of doing so. Personally prepare your food and drink, if you can do so without
giving offense. Frequently, the local people will accept the use of "personal or religious custom" as an explanation for isolationist
behavior.
Barter, or trading, is common in more primitive societies. Hard coin is usually good, whether for its exchange value or as
jewelry or trinkets. In isolated areas, matches, tobacco, salt, razor blades, empty containers, or cloth may be worth more than
any form of money.
Be very cautious when touching people. Many people consider "touching" taboo and such actions may be dangerous. Avoid
sexual contact.
Hospitality among some people is such a strong cultural trait that they may seriously reduce their own supplies to feed a
stranger. Accept what they offer and share it equally with all present. Eat in the same way they eat and, most important, try to
eat all they offer.
If you make any promises, keep them. Respect personal property and local customs and manners, even if they seem odd.
Make some kind of payment for food, supplies, and so forth. Respect privacy. Do not enter a house unless invited.
CHANGES TO POLITICAL ALLEGIANCE
In today's world of fast-paced international politics, political attitudes and commitments within nations are subject to rapid
change. The population of many countries, especially politically hostile countries, must not be considered friendly just because
they do not demonstrate open hostility. Unless briefed to the contrary; avoid all contact with such people.
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CHAPTER 23
SURVIVAL IN MAN-MADE HAZARDS
Nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons have become potential realities on any modern battlefield.
Recent experience in Afghanistan, Cambodia, and other areas of conflict has proved the use of chemical
and biological weapons (such as mycotoxins). The warfighting doctrine of the NATO and Warsaw Pact
nations addresses the use of both nuclear and chemical weapons. The potential use of these weapons
intensifies the problems of survival because of the serious dangers posed by either radioactive fallout or
contamination produced by persistent biological or chemical agents.
You must use special precautions if you expect to survive in these man-made hazards. If you are subjected
to any of the effects of nuclear, chemical, or biological warfare, the survival procedures recommended in
this chapter may save your life. This chapter presents some background information on each type of
hazard so that you may better understand the true nature of the hazard. Awareness of the hazards,
knowledge of this chapter, and application of common sense should keep you alive.
THE NUCLEAR ENVIRONMENT
Prepare yourself to survive in a nuclear environment. Know how to react to a nuclear hazard.
Effects of Nuclear Weapons
The effects of nuclear weapons are classified as either initial or residual. Initial effects occur in the immediate area of the
explosion and are hazardous in the first minute after the explosion. Residual effects can last for days or years and cause death.
The principal initial effects are blast and radiation.
Blast
Defined as the brief and rapid movement of air away from the explosion's center and the pressure accompanying this
movement. Strong winds accompany the blast. Blast hurls debris and personnel, collapses lungs, ruptures eardrums, collapses
structures and positions, and causes immediate death or injury with its crushing effect.
Thermal Radiation
The heat and light radiation a nuclear explosion's fireball emits. Light radiation consists of both visible light and ultraviolet and
infrared light. Thermal radiation produces extensive fires, skin burns, and flash blindness.
Nuclear Radiation
Nuclear radiation breaks down into two categories-initial radiation and residual radiation.
Initial nuclear radiation consists of intense gamma rays and neutrons produced during the first minute after the explosion. This
radiation causes extensive damage to cells throughout the body. Radiation damage may cause headaches, nausea, vomiting,
diarrhea, and even death, depending on the radiation dose received. The major problem in protecting yourself against the initial
radiation's effects is that you may have received a lethal or incapacitating dose before taking any protective action. Personnel
exposed to lethal amounts of initial radiation may well have been killed or fatally injured by blast or thermal radiation.
Residual radiation consists of all radiation produced after one minute from the explosion. It has more effect on you than initial
radiation. A discussion of residual radiation takes place in a subsequent paragraph.
Types of Nuclear Bursts
There are three types of nuclear bursts--airburst, surface burst, and subsurface burst. The type of burst directly affects your
chances of survival. A subsurface burst occurs completely underground or underwater. Its effects remain beneath the surface or
in the immediate area where the surface collapses into a crater over the burst's location. Subsurface bursts cause you little or no
radioactive hazard unless you enter the immediate area of the crater. No further discussion of this type of burst will take place.
An airburst occurs in the air above its intended target. The airburst provides the maximum radiation effect on the target and is,
therefore, most dangerous to you in terms of immediate nuclear effects.
A surface burst occurs on the ground or water surface. Large amounts of fallout result, with serious long-term effects for you.
This type of burst is your greatest nuclear hazard.
Nuclear Injuries
Most injuries in the nuclear environment result from the initial nuclear effects of the detonation. These injuries are classed as
blast, thermal, or radiation injuries. Further radiation injuries may occur if you do not take proper precautions against fallout.
Individuals in the area near a nuclear explosion will probably suffer a combination of all three types of injuries.
Blast Injuries
Blast injuries produced by nuclear weapons are similar to those caused by conventional high-explosive weapons. Blast
overpressure can produce collapsed lungs and ruptured internal organs. Projectile wounds occur as the explosion's force hurls
debris at you. Large pieces of debris striking you will cause fractured limbs or massive internal injuries. Blast over-pressure may
throw you long distances, and you will suffer severe injury upon impact with the ground or other objects. Substantial cover and
distance from the explosion are the best protection against blast injury. Cover blast injury wounds as soon as possible to
prevent the entry of radioactive dust particles.
Thermal Injuries
The heat and light the nuclear fireball emits causes thermal injuries. First-, second-, or third-degree burns may result. Flash
blindness also occurs. This blindness may be permanent or temporary depending on the degree of exposure of the eyes.
Substantial cover and distance from the explosion can prevent thermal injuries. Clothing will provide significant protection
against thermal injuries. Cover as much exposed skin as possible before a nuclear explosion. First aid for thermal injuries is the
same as first aid for burns. Cover open burns (second-or third-degree) to prevent the entry of radioactive particles. Wash all
burns before covering.
Radiation Injuries
Neutrons, gamma radiation, alpha radiation, and beta radiation cause radiation injuries. Neutrons are high-speed, extremely
penetrating particles that actually smash cells within your body. Gamma radiation is similar to X rays and is also a highly
penetrating radiation. During the initial fireball stage of a nuclear detonation, initial gamma radiation and neutrons are the most
serious threat. Beta and alpha radiation are radioactive particles normally associated with radioactive dust from fallout. They are
short-range particles and you can easily protect yourself against them if you take precautions. See Bodily Reactions to
Radiation, below, for the symptoms of radiation injuries.
Residual Radiation
Residual radiation is all radiation emitted after 1 minute from the instant of the nuclear explosion. Residual radiation consists of
induced radiation and fallout.
Induced Radiation
It describes a relatively small, intensely radioactive area directly underneath the nuclear weapon's fireball. The irradiated earth in
this area will remain highly radioactive for an extremely long time. You should not travel into an area of induced radiation.
Fallout
Fallout consists of radioactive soil and water particles, as well as weapon fragments. During a surface detonation, or if an
airburst's nuclear fireball touches the ground, large amounts of soil and water are vaporized along with the bomb's fragments,
and forced upward to altitudes of 25,000 meters or more. When these vaporized contents cool, they can form more than 200
different radioactive products. The vaporized bomb contents condense into tiny radioactive particles that the wind carries and
they fall back to earth as radioactive dust. Fallout particles emit alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Alpha and beta radiation are
relatively easy to counteract, and residual gamma radiation is much less intense than the gamma radiation emitted during the first
minute after the explosion. Fallout is your most significant radiation hazard, provided you have not received a lethal radiation
dose from the initial radiation.
Bodily Reactions to Radiation
The effects of radiation on the human body can be broadly classed as either chronic or acute. Chronic effects are those that
occur some years after exposure to radiation. Examples are cancer and genetic defects. Chronic effects are of minor concern
insofar as they affect your immediate survival in a radioactive environment. On the other hand, acute effects are of primary
importance to your survival. Some acute effects occur within hours after exposure to radiation. These effects result from the
radiation's direct physical damage to tissue. Radiation sickness and beta burns are examples of acute effects. Radiation sickness
symptoms include nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, fatigue, weakness, and loss of hair. Penetrating beta rays cause radiation burns;
the wounds are similar to fire burns.
Recovery Capability
The extent of body damage depends mainly on the part of the body exposed to radiation and how long it was exposed, as well
as its ability to recover. The brain and kidneys have little recovery capability. Other parts (skin and bone marrow) have a great
ability to recover from damage. Usually, a dose of 600 centigrams (cgys) to the entire body will result in almost certain death. If
only your hands received this same dose, your overall health would not suffer much, although your hands would suffer severe
damage.
External and Internal Hazards
An external or an internal hazard can cause body damage. Highly penetrating gamma radiation or the less penetrating beta
radiation that causes burns can cause external damage. The entry of alpha or beta radiation-emitting particles into the body can
cause internal damage. The external hazard produces overall irradiation and beta burns. The internal hazard results in irradiation
of critical organs such as the gastrointestinal tract, thyroid gland, and bone. A very small amount of radioactive material can
cause extreme damage to these and other internal organs. The internal hazard can enter the body either through consumption of
contaminated water or food or by absorption through cuts or abrasions. Material that enters the body through breathing
presents only a minor hazard. You can greatly reduce the internal radiation hazard by using good personal hygiene and carefully
decontaminating your food and water.
Symptoms
The symptoms of radiation injuries include nausea, diarrhea, and vomiting. The severity of these symptoms is due to the extreme
sensitivity of the gastrointestinal tract to radiation. The severity of the symptoms and the speed of onset after exposure are good
indicators of the degree of radiation damage. The gastrointestinal damage can come from either the external or the internal
radiation hazard.
Countermeasures Against Penetrating External Radiation
Knowledge of the radiation hazards discussed earlier is extremely important in surviving in a fallout area. It is also critical to
know how to protect yourself from the most dangerous form of residual radiation--penetrating external radiation.
The means you can use to protect yourself from penetrating external radiation are time, distance, and shielding. You can reduce
the level of radiation and help increase your chance of survival by controlling the duration of exposure. You can also get as far
away from the radiation source as possible. Finally you can place some radiation-absorbing or shielding material between you
and the radiation.
Time
Time is important to you, as the survivor, in two ways. First, radiation dosages are cumulative. The longer you are exposed to a
radioactive source, the greater the dose you will receive. Obviously, spend as little time in a radioactive area as possible.
Second, radioactivity decreases or decays over time. This concept is known as radioactive half-life. Thus, a radioactive
element decays or loses half of its radioactivity within a certain time. The rule of thumb for radioactivity decay is that it
decreases in intensity by a factor of ten for every sevenfold increase in time following the peak radiation level. For example, if a
nuclear fallout area had a maximum radiation rate of 200 cgys per hour when fallout is complete, this rate would fall to 20 cgys
per hour after 7 hours; it would fall still further to 2 cgys per hour after 49 hours. Even an untrained observer can see that the
greatest hazard from fallout occurs immediately after detonation, and that the hazard decreases quickly over a relatively short
time. As a survivor, try to avoid fallout areas until the radioactivity decays to safe levels. If you can avoid fallout areas long
enough for most of the radioactivity to decay, you enhance your chance of survival.
Distance
Distance provides very effective protection against penetrating gamma radiation because radiation intensity decreases by the
square of the distance from the source. For example, if exposed to 1,000 cgys of radiation standing 30 centimeters from the
source, at 60 centimeters, you would only receive 250 cgys. Thus, when you double the distance, radiation decreases to (0.5)2
or 0.25 the amount. While this formula is valid for concentrated sources of radiation in small areas, it becomes more
complicated for large areas of radiation such as fallout areas.
Shielding
Shielding is the most important method of protection from penetrating radiation. Of the three countermeasures against
penetrating radiation, shielding provides the greatest protection and is the easiest to use under survival conditions. Therefore, it
is the most desirable method.
If shielding is not possible, use the other two methods to the maximum extent practical.
Shielding actually works by absorbing or weakening the penetrating radiation, thereby reducing the amount of radiation reaching
your body. The denser the material, the better the shielding effect. Lead, iron, concrete, and water are good examples of
shielding materials.
Special Medical Aspects
The presence of fallout material in your area requires slight changes in first aid procedures. You must cover all wounds to
prevent contamination and the entry of radioactive particles. You must first wash burns of beta radiation, then treat them as
ordinary burns. Take extra measures to prevent infection. Your body will be extremely sensitive to infections due to changes in
your blood chemistry. Pay close attention to the prevention of colds or respiratory infections. Rigorously practice personal
hygiene to prevent infections. Cover your eyes with improvised goggles to prevent the entry of particles.
Shelter
As stated earlier, the shielding material's effectiveness depends on its thickness and density. An ample thickness of shielding
material will reduce the level of radiation to negligible amounts.
The primary reason for finding and building a shelter is to get protection against the high-intensity radiation levels of early
gamma fallout as fast as possible. Five minutes to locate the shelter is a good guide. Speed in finding shelter is absolutely
essential. Without shelter, the dosage received in the first few hours will exceed that received during the rest of a week in a
contaminated area. The dosage received in this first week will exceed the dosage accumulated during the rest of a lifetime spent
in the same contaminated area.
Shielding Materials
The thickness required to weaken gamma radiation from fallout is far less than that needed to shield against initial gamma
radiation. Fallout radiation has less energy than a nuclear detonation's initial radiation. For fallout radiation, a relatively small
amount of shielding material can provide adequate protection. Figure 23-1 gives an idea of the thickness of various materials
needed to reduce residual gamma radiation transmission by 50 percent.
The principle of half-value layer thickness is useful in understanding the absorption of gamma radiation by various materials.
According to this principle, if 5 centimeters of brick reduce the gamma radiation level by one-half, adding another 5 centimeters
of brick (another half-value layer) will reduce the intensity by another half, namely, to one-fourth the original amount. Fifteen
centimeters will reduce gamma radiation fallout levels to one-eighth its original amount, 20 centimeters to one-sixteenth, and so
on. Thus, a shelter protected by 1 meter of dirt would reduce a radiation intensity of 1,000 cgys per hour on the outside to
about 0.5 cgy per hour inside the shelter.
Natural Shelters
Terrain that provides natural shielding and easy shelter construction is the ideal location for an emergency shelter. Good
examples are ditches, ravines, rocky outcropping, hills, and river banks. In level areas without natural protection, dig a fighting
position or slit trench.
Trenches
When digging a trench, work from inside the trench as soon as it is large enough to cover part of your body thereby not
exposing all your body to radiation. In open country, try to dig the trench from a prone position, stacking the dirt carefully and
evenly around the trench. On level ground, pile the dirt around your body for additional shielding. Depending upon soil
conditions, shelter construction time will vary from a few minutes to a few hours. If you dig as quickly as possible, you will
reduce the dosage you receive.
Other Shelters
While an underground shelter covered by 1 meter or more of earth provides the best protection against fallout radiation, the
following unoccupied structures (in order listed) offer the next best protection:
Caves and tunnels covered by more than 1 meter of earth.
Storm or storage cellars.
Culverts.
Basements or cellars of abandoned buildings.
Abandoned buildings made of stone or mud.
Roofs
It is not mandatory that you build a roof on your shelter. Build one only if the materials are readily available with only a brief
exposure to outside contamination. If building a roof would require extended exposure to penetrating radiation, it would be
wiser to leave the shelter roofless. A roof's sole function is to reduce radiation from the fallout source to your body. Unless you
use a thick roof, a roof provides very little shielding.
You can construct a simple roof from a poncho anchored down with dirt, rocks, or other refuse from your shelter. You can
remove large particles of dirt and debris from the top of the poncho by beating it off from the inside at frequent intervals. This
cover will not offer shielding from the radioactive particles deposited on the surface, but it will increase the distance from the
fallout source and keep the shelter area from further contamination.
Shelter Site Selection and Preparation
To reduce your exposure time and thereby reduce the dosage received, remember the following factors when selecting and
setting up a shelter:
Where possible, seek a crude, existing shelter that you can improve. If none is available, dig a trench.
Dig the shelter deep enough to get good protection, then enlarge it as required for comfort.
Cover the top of the fighting position or trench with any readily available material and a thick layer of earth, if you can do
so without leaving the shelter. While a roof and camouflage are both desirable, it is probably safer to do without them
than to expose yourself to radiation outside your fighting position.
While building your shelter, keep all parts of your body covered with clothing to protect it against beta burns.
Clean the shelter site of any surface deposit using a branch or other object that you can discard. Do this cleaning to
remove contaminated materials from the area you will occupy. The cleaned area should extend at least 1.5 meters
beyond your shelter's area.
Decontaminate any materials you bring into the shelter. These materials include grass or foliage that you use as insulation
or bedding, and your outer clothing (especially footgear). If the weather permits and you have heavily contaminated outer
clothing, you may want to remove it and bury it under a foot of earth at the end of your shelter. You may retrieve it later
(after the radioactivity decays) when leaving the shelter. If the clothing is dry, you may decontaminate it by beating or
shaking it outside the shelter's entrance to remove the radioactive dust. You may use any body of water, even though
contaminated, to rid materials of excess fallout particles. Simply dip the material into the water and shake it to get rid of
the excess water. Do not wring it out, this action will trap the particles.
If at all possible and without leaving the shelter, wash your body thoroughly with soap and water, even if the water on
hand may be contaminated. This washing will remove most of the harmful radioactive particles that are likely to cause
beta burns or other damage. If water is not available, wipe your face and any other exposed skin surface to remove
contaminated dust and dirt. You may wipe your face with a clean piece of cloth or a handful of uncontaminated dirt. You
get this uncontaminated dirt by scraping off the top few inches of soil and using the "clean" dirt.
Upon completing the shelter, lie down, keep warm, and sleep and rest as much as possible while in the shelter.
When not resting, keep busy by planning future actions, studying your maps, or making the shelter more comfortable and
effective.
Don't panic if you experience nausea and symptoms of radiation sickness. Your main danger from radiation sickness is
infection. There is no first aid for this sickness. Resting, drinking fluids, taking any medicine that prevents vomiting,
maintaining your food intake, and preventing additional exposure will help avoid infection and aid recovery. Even small
doses of radiation can cause these symptoms which may disappear in a short time.
Exposure Timetable
The following timetable provides you with the information needed to avoid receiving serious dosage and still let you cope with
survival problems:
Complete isolation from 4 to 6 days following delivery of the last weapon.
A very brief exposure to procure water on the third day is permissible, but exposure should not exceed 30 minutes.
One exposure of not more than 30 minutes on the seventh day.
One exposure of not more than 1 hour on the eighth day.
Exposure of 2 to 4 hours from the ninth day through the twelfth day.
Normal operation, followed by rest in a protected shelter, from the thirteenth day on.
In all instances, make your exposures as brief as possible. Consider only mandatory requirements as valid reasons for
exposure. Decontaminate at every stop.
The times given above are conservative. If forced to move after the first or second day, you may do so, Make sure that the
exposure is no longer than absolutely necessary.
Water Procurement
In a fallout-contaminated area, available water sources may be contaminated. If you wait at least 48 hours before drinking any
water to allow for radioactive decay to take place and select the safest possible water source, you will greatly reduce the
danger of ingesting harmful amounts of radioactivity.
Although many factors (wind direction, rainfall, sediment) will influence your choice in selecting water sources, consider the
following guidelines.
Safest Water Sources
Water from springs, wells, or other underground sources that undergo natural filtration will be your safest source. Any water
found in the pipes or containers of abandoned houses or stores will also be free from radioactive particles. This water will be
safe to drink, although you will have to take precautions against bacteria in the water.
Snow taken from 15 or more centimeters below the surface during the fallout is also a safe source of water.
Streams and Rivers
Water from streams and rivers will be relatively free from fallout within several days after the last nuclear explosion because of
dilution. If at all possible, filter such water before drinking to get rid of radioactive particles. The best filtration method is to dig
sediment holes or seepage basins along the side of a water source. The water will seep laterally into the hole through the
intervening soil that acts as a filtering agent and removes the contaminated fallout particles that settled on the original body of
water. This method can remove up to 99 percent of the radioactivity in water. You must cover the hole in some way in order to
prevent further contamination. See Figure 6-9 for an example of a water filter.
Standing Water
Water from lakes, pools, ponds, and other standing sources is likely to be heavily contaminated, though most of the heavier,
long-lived radioactive isotopes will settle to the bottom. Use the settling technique to purify this water. First, fill a bucket or
other deep container three-fourths full with contaminated water. Then take dirt from a depth of 10 or more centimeters below
the ground surface and stir it into the water. Use about 2.5 centimeters of dirt for every 10 centimeters of water. Stir the water
until you see most dirt particles suspended in the water. Let the mixture settle for at least 6 hours. The settling dirt particles will
carry most of the suspended fallout particles to the bottom and cover them. You can then dip out the clear water. Purify this
water using a filtration device.
Additional Precautions
As an additional precaution against disease, treat all water with water purification tablets from your survival kit or boil it.
Food Procurement
Although it is a serious problem to obtain edible food in a radiation-contaminated area, it is not impossible to solve. You need
to follow a few special procedures in selecting and preparing rations and local foods for use. Since secure packaging protects
your combat rations, they will be perfectly safe for use. Supplement your rations with any food you can find on trips outside
your shelter. Most processed foods you may find in abandoned buildings are safe for use after decontaminating them. These
include canned and packaged foods after removing the containers or wrappers or washing them free of fallout particles. These
processed foods also include food stored in any closed container and food stored in protected areas (such as cellars), if you
wash them before eating. Wash all food containers or wrappers before handling them to prevent further contamination.
If little or no processed food is available in your area, you may have to supplement your diet with local food sources. Local
food sources are animals and plants.
Animals as a Food Source
Assume that all animals, regardless of their habitat or living conditions, were exposed to radiation. The effects of radiation on
animals are similar to those on humans. Thus, most of the wild animals living in a fallout area are likely to become sick or die
from radiation during the first month after the nuclear explosion. Even though animals may not be free from harmful radioactive
materials, you can and must use them in survival conditions as a food source if other foods are not available. With careful
preparation and by following several important principles, animals can be safe food sources.
First, do not eat an animal that appears to be sick. It may have developed a bacterial infection as a result of radiation poisoning.
Contaminated meat, even if thoroughly cooked, could cause severe illness or death if eaten.
Carefully skin all animals to prevent any radioactive particles on the skin or fur from entering the body. Do not eat meat close to
the bones and joints as an animal's skeleton contains over 90 percent of the radioactivity. The remaining animal muscle tissue,
however, will be safe to eat. Before cooking it, cut the meat away from the bone, leaving at least a 3-millimeter thickness of
meat on the bone. Discard all internal organs (heart, liver, and kidneys) since they tend to concentrate beta and gamma
radioactivity.
Cook all meat until it is very well done. To be sure the meat is well done, cut it into less than 13-millimeter-thick pieces before
cooking. Such cuts will also reduce cooking time and save fuel.
The extent of contamination in fish and aquatic animals will be much greater than that of land animals. This is also true for water
plants, especially in coastal areas. Use aquatic food sources only in conditions of extreme emergency.
All eggs, even if laid during the period of fallout, will be safe to eat. Completely avoid milk from any animals in a fallout area
because animals absorb large amounts of radioactivity from the plants they eat.
Plants as a Food Source
Plant contamination occurs by the accumulation of fallout on their outer surfaces or by absorption of radioactive elements
through their roots. Your first choice of plant food should be vegetables such as potatoes, turnips, carrots, and other plants
whose edible portion grows underground. These are the safest to eat once you scrub them and remove their skins.
Second in order of preference are those plants with edible parts that you can decontaminate by washing and peeling their outer
surfaces. Examples are bananas, apples, tomatoes, prickly pears, and other such fruits and vegetables.
Any smooth-skinned vegetable, fruit, or plant that you cannot easily peel or effectively decontaminate by washing will be your
third choice of emergency food.
The effectiveness of decontamination by scrubbing is inversely proportional to the roughness of the fruit's surface.
Smooth-surfaced fruits have lost 90 percent of their contamination after washing, while washing rough-surfaced plants removes
only about 50 percent of the contamination.
You eat rough-surfaced plants (such as lettuce) only as a last resort because you cannot effectively decontaminate them by
peeling or washing. Other difficult foods to decontaminate by washing with water include dried fruits (figs, prunes, peaches,
apricots, pears) and soya beans.
In general, you can use any plant food that is ready for harvest if you can effectively decontaminate it. Growing plants, however,
can absorb some radioactive materials through their leaves as well as from the soil, especially if rains have occurred during or
after the fallout period. Avoid using these plants for food except in an emergency.
BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENTS
The use of biological agents is real. Prepare yourself for survival by being proficient in the tasks identified in your Soldier's
Manuals of Common Tasks (SMCTs). Know what to do to protect yourself against these agents.
Biological Agents and Effects
Biological agents are microorganisms that can cause disease among personnel, animals, or plants. They can also cause the
deterioration of material. These agents fall into two broad categories-pathogens (usually called germs) and toxins. Pathogens
are living microorganisms that cause lethal or incapacitating diseases. Bacteria, rickettsiae, fungi, and viruses are included in the
pathogens. Toxins are poisons that plants, animals, or microorganisms produce naturally. Possible biological war-fare toxins
include a variety of neurotoxic (affecting the central nervous system) and cytotoxic (causing cell death) compounds.
Germs
Germs are living organisms. Some nations have used them in the past as weapons. Only a few germs can start an infection,
especially if inhaled into the lungs. Because germs are so small and weigh so little, the wind can spread them over great
distances; they can also enter unfiltered or nonairtight places. Buildings and bunkers can trap them thus causing a higher
concentration. Germs do not affect the body immediately. They must multiply inside the body and overcome the body's
defenses--a process called the incubation period. Incubation periods vary from several hours to several months, depending on
the germ. Most germs must live within another living organism (host), such as your body, to survive and grow. Weather
conditions such as wind, rain, cold, and sunlight rapidly kill germs.
Some germs can form protective shells, or spores, to allow survival outside the host. Spore-producing agents are a long-term
hazard you must neutralize by decontaminating infected areas or personnel. Fortunately, most live agents are not
spore-producing. These agents must find a host within roughly a day of their delivery or they die. Germs have three basic routes
of entry into your body: through the respiratory tract, through a break in the skin, and through the digestive tract. Symptoms of
infection vary according to the disease.
Toxins
Toxins are substances that plants, animals, or germs produce naturally. These toxins are what actually harm man, not bacteria.
Botulin, which produces botulism, is an example. Modern science has allowed large-scale production of these toxins without
the use of the germ that produces the toxin. Toxins may produce effects similar to those of chemical agents. Toxic victims may
not, however, respond to first aid measures used against chemical agents. Toxins enter the body in the same manner as germs.
However, some toxins, unlike germs, can penetrate unbroken skin. Symptoms appear almost immediately, since there is no
incubation period. Many toxins are extremely lethal, even in very small doses. Symptoms may include any of the following:
Dizziness.
Mental confusion.
Blurred or double vision.
Numbness or tingling of skin.
Paralysis.
Convulsions.
Rashes or blisters.
Coughing.
Fever.
Aching muscles.
Tiredness.
Nausea, vomiting, and/or diarrhea.
Bleeding from body openings.
Blood in urine, stool, or saliva.
Shock.
Death.
Detection of Biological Agents
Biological agents are, by nature, difficult to detect. You cannot detect them by any of the five physical senses. Often, the first
sign of a biological agent will be symptoms of the victims exposed to the agent. Your best chance of detecting biological agents
before they can affect you is to recognize their means of delivery. The three main means of delivery are--
Bursting-type munitions. These may be bombs or projectiles whose burst causes very little damage. The burst will
produce a small cloud of liquid or powder in the immediate impact area. This cloud will disperse eventually; the rate of
dispersion depends on terrain and weather conditions.
Spray tanks or generators. Aircraft or vehicle spray tanks or ground-level aerosol generators produce an aerosol cloud
of biological agents.
Vectors. Insects such as mosquitoes, fleas, lice, and ticks deliver pathogens. Large infestations of these insects may
indicate the use of biological agents.
Another sign of a possible biological attack is the presence of unusual substances on the ground or on vegetation, or
sick-looking plants, crops, or animals.
Influence of Weather and Terrain
Your knowledge of how weather and terrain affect the agents can help you avoid contamination by biological agents. Major
weather factors that affect biological agents are sunlight, wind, and precipitation. Aerosol sprays will tend to concentrate in low
areas of terrain, similar to early morning mist.
Sunlight contains visible and ultraviolet solar radiation that rapidly kills most germs used as biological agents. However, natural
or man-made cover may protect some agents from sunlight. Other man-made mutant strains of germs may be resistant to
sunlight.
High wind speeds increase the dispersion of biological agents, dilute their concentration, and dehydrate them. The further
downwind the agent travels, the less effective it becomes due to dilution and death of the pathogens. However, the downwind
hazard area of the biological agent is significant and you cannot ignore it.
Precipitation in the form of moderate to heavy rain tends to wash biological agents out of the air, reducing downwind hazard
areas. However, the agents may still be very effective where they were deposited on the ground.
Protection Against Biological Agents
While you must maintain a healthy respect for biological agents, there is no reason for you to panic. You can reduce your
susceptibility to biological agents by maintaining current immunizations, avoiding contaminated areas, and controlling rodents
and pests. You must also use proper first aid measures in the treatment of wounds and only safe or properly decontaminated
sources of food and water. You must ensure that you get enough sleep to prevent a run-down condition. You must always use
proper field sanitation procedures.
Assuming you do not have a protective mask, always try to keep your face covered with some type of cloth to protect yourself
against biological agent aerosols. Dust may contain biological agents; wear some type of mask when dust is in the air.
Your uniform and gloves will protect you against bites from vectors (mosquitoes and ticks) that carry diseases. Completely
button your clothing and tuck your trousers tightly into your boots. Wear a chemical protective overgarment, if available, as it
provides better protection than normal clothing. Covering your skin will also reduce the chance of the agent entering your body
through cuts or scratches. Always practice high standards of personal hygiene and sanitation to help prevent the spread of
vectors.
Bathe with soap and water whenever possible. Use germicidal soap, if available. Wash your hair and body thoroughly, and
clean under your fingernails. Clean teeth, gums, tongue, and the roof of your mouth frequently. Wash your clothing in hot, soapy
water if you can. If you cannot wash your clothing, lay it out in an area of bright sunlight and allow the light to kill the
microorganisms. After a toxin attack, decontaminate yourself as if for a chemical attack using the M258A2 kit (if available) or
by washing with soap and water.
Shelter
You can build expedient shelters under biological contamination conditions using the same techniques described in Chapter 5.
However, you must make slight changes to reduce the chance of biological contamination. Do not build your shelter in
depressions in the ground. Aerosol sprays tend to concentrate in these depressions. Avoid building your shelter in areas of
vegetation, as vegetation provides shade and some degree of protection to biological agents. Avoid using vegetation in
constructing your shelter. Place your shelter's entrance at a 90-degree angle to the prevailing winds. Such placement will limit
the entry of airborne agents and prevent air stagnation in your shelter. Always keep your shelter clean.
Water Procurement
Water procurement under biological conditions is difficult but not impossible. Whenever possible, try to use water that has been
in a sealed container. You can assume that the water inside the sealed container is not contaminated. Wash the water container
thoroughly with soap and water or boil it for at least 10 minutes before breaking the seal.
If water in sealed containers is not available, your next choice, only under emergency conditions, is water from springs.
Again, boil the water for at least 10 minutes before drinking. Keep the water covered while boiling to prevent contamination by
airborne pathogens. Your last choice, only in an extreme emergency, is to use standing water. Vectors and germs can
survive easily in stagnant water. Boil this water as long as practical to kill all organisms. Filter this water through a cloth to
remove the dead vectors. Use water purification tablets in all cases.
Food Procurement
Food procurement, like water procurement, is not impossible, but you must take special precautions. Your combat rations are
sealed, and you can assume they are not contaminated. You can also assume that sealed containers or packages of processed
food are safe. To ensure safety, decontaminate all food containers by washing with soap and water or by boiling the container
in water for 10 minutes.
You consider supplementing your rations with local plants or animals only in extreme emergencies. No matter what you
do to prepare the food, there is no guarantee that cooking will kill all the biological agents. Use local food only in life or death
situations. Remember, you can survive for a long time without food, especially if the food you eat may kill you!
If you must use local food, select only healthy-looking plants and animals. Do not select known carriers of vectors such as rats
or other vermin. Select and prepare plants as you would in radioactive areas. Prepare animals as you do plants. Always use
gloves and protective clothing when handling animals or plants. Cook all plant and animal food by boiling only. Boil all food for
at least 10 minutes to kill all pathogens. Do not try to fry, bake, or roast local food. There is no guarantee that all infected
portions have reached the required temperature to kill all pathogens. Do not eat raw food.
CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENTS
Chemical agent warfare is real. It can create extreme problems in a survival situation, but you can overcome the problems with
the proper equipment, knowledge, and training. As a survivor, your first line of defense against chemical agents is your
proficiency in individual nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) training, to include donning and wearing the protective mask
and overgarment, personal decontamination, recognition of chemical agent symptoms, and individual first aid for chemical agent
contamination. The SMCTs cover these subjects. If you are not proficient in these skills, you will have little chance of surviving
a chemical environment.
The subject matter covered below is not a substitute for any of the individual tasks in which you must be proficient. The
SMCTs address the various chemical agents, their effects, and first aid for these agents. The following information is provided
under the assumption that you are proficient in the use of chemical protective equipment and know the symptoms of various
chemical agents.
Detection of Chemical Agents
The best method for detecting chemical agents is the use of a chemical agent detector. If you have one, use it. However, in a
survival situation, you will most likely have to rely solely on the use of all of your physical senses. You must be alert and able to
detect any clues indicating the use of chemical warfare. General indicators of the presence of chemical agents are tears, difficult
breathing, choking, itching, coughing, and dizziness. With agents that are very hard to detect, you must watch for symptoms in
fellow survivors. Your surroundings will provide valuable clues to the presence of chemical agents; for example, dead animals,
sick people, or people and animals displaying abnormal behavior.
Your sense of smell may alert you to some chemical agents, but most will be odorless. The odor of newly cut grass or hay may
indicate the presence of choking agents. A smell of almonds may indicate blood agents.
Sight will help you detect chemical agents. Most chemical agents in the solid or liquid state have some color. In the vapor state,
you can see some chemical agents as a mist or thin fog immediately after the bomb or shell bursts. By observing for symptoms
in others and by observing delivery means, you may be able to have some warning of chemical agents. Mustard gas in the liquid
state will appear as oily patches on leaves or on buildings.
The sound of enemy munitions will give some clue to the presence of chemical weapons. Muffled shell or bomb detonations are
a good indicator.
Irritation in the nose or eyes or on the skin is an urgent warning to protect your body from chemical agents. Additionally, a
strange taste in food, water, or cigarettes may serve as a warning that they have been contaminated.
Protection Against Chemical Agents
As a survivor, always use the following general steps, in the order listed, to protect yourself from a chemical attack:
Use protective equipment.
Give quick and correct self-aid when contaminated.
Avoid areas where chemical agents exist.
Decontaminate your equipment and body as soon as possible.
Your protective mask and overgarment are the key to your survival. Without these, you stand very little chance of survival. You
must take care of these items and protect them from damage. You must practice and know correct self-aid procedures before
exposure to chemical agents. The detection of chemical agents and the avoidance of contaminated areas is extremely important
to your survival. Use whatever detection kits may be available to help in detection. Since you are in a survival situation, avoid
contaminated areas at all costs. You can expect no help should you become contaminated. If you do become contaminated,
decontaminate yourself as soon as possible using proper procedures.
Shelter
If you find yourself in a contaminated area, try to move out of the area as fast as possible. Travel crosswind or upwind to
reduce the time spent in the downwind hazard area. If you cannot leave the area immediately and have to build a shelter, use
normal shelter construction techniques, with a few changes. Build the shelter in a clearing, away from all vegetation. Remove all
topsoil in the area of the shelter to decontaminate the area. Keep the shelter's entrance closed and oriented at a 90-degree
angle to the prevailing wind. Do not build a fire using contaminated wood--the smoke will be toxic. Use extreme caution when
entering your shelter so that you will not bring contamination inside.
Water Procurement
As with biological and nuclear environments, getting water in a chemical environment is difficult. Obviously, water in sealed
containers is your best and safest source. You must protect this water as much as possible. Be sure to decontaminate the
containers before opening.
If you cannot get water in sealed containers, try to get it from a closed source such as underground water pipes. You may use
rainwater or snow if there is no evidence of contamination. Use water from slow-moving streams, if necessary, but always
check first for signs of contamination, and always filter the water as described under nuclear conditions. Signs of water source
contamination are foreign odors such as garlic, mustard, geranium, or bitter almonds; oily spots on the surface of the water or
nearby; and the presence of dead fish or animals. If these signs are present, do not use the water. Always boil or purify the
water to prevent bacteriological infection.
Food Procurement
It is extremely difficult to eat while in a contaminated area. You will have to break the seal on your protective mask to eat. If
you eat, find an area in which you can safely unmask. The safest source of food is your sealed combat rations. Food in sealed
cans or bottles will also be safe. Decontaminate all sealed food containers before opening, otherwise you will contaminate the
food.
If you must supplement your combat rations with local plants or animals, do not use plants from contaminated areas or animals
that appear to be sick. When handling plants or animals, always use protective gloves and clothing.
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APPENDIX A
SURVIVAL KITS
The Army has several basic survival kits, primarily for issue to aviators. There are kits for cold climates,
hot climates, and overwater. There is also an individual survival kit with general packet and medical
packet. The cold climate, hot climate, and overwater kits are in canvas carrying bags. These kits are
normally stowed in the helicopter's cargo/passenger area.
An aviator's survival vest (SRU-21P), worn by helicopter crews, also contains survival items.
U.S. Army aviators flying fixed-wing aircraft equipped with ejection seats use the SRFU-31/P survival
vest. The individual survival kits are stowed in the seat pan. Like all other kits, the rigid seat survival kit
(RSSK) used depends on the environment.
Items contained in the kits may be ordered separately through supply channels. All survival kits and vests
are CTA 50-900 items and can be ordered by authorized units.
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APPENDIX B
EDIBLE AND MEDICINAL PLANTS
In a survival situation, plants can provide food and medicine. Their safe usage requires absolutely positive
identification, knowing how to prepare them for eating, and knowing any dangerous properties they might
have. Familiarity with botanical structures of plants and information on where they grow will make them
easier to locate and identify.
Abal
Calligonum comosum
Description: The abal is one of the few shrubby plants that exists in the shady deserts. This plant grows to about 1.2 meters,
and its branches look like wisps from a broom. The stiff, green branches produce an abundance of flowers in the early spring
months (March, April).
Habitat and Distribution: This plant is found in desert scrub and waste in any climatic zone. It inhabits much of the North
African desert. It may also be found on the desert sands of the Middle East and as far eastward as the Rajputana desert of
western India.
Edible Parts: This plant's general appearance would not indicate its usefulness to the survivor, but while this plant is flowering
in the spring, its fresh flowers can be eaten. This plant is common in the areas where it is found. An analysis of the food value of
this plant has shown it to be high in sugar and nitrogenous components.
Acacia
Acacia farnesiana
Description: Acacia is a spreading, usually short tree with spines and alternate compound leaves. Its individual leaflets are
small. Its flowers are ball-shaped, bright yellow, and very fragrant. Its bark is a whitish-gray color. Its fruits are dark brown and
podlike.
Habitat and Distribution: Acacia grows in open, sunny areas. It is found throughout all tropical regions.
Note: There are about 500 species of acacia. These plants are especially prevalent in Africa, southern
Asia, and Australia, but many species are found in the warmer and drier parts of America.
Edible Parts: Its young leaves, flowers, and pods are edible raw or cooked.
Agave
Agave species
Description: These plants have large clusters of thick, fleshy leaves borne close to the ground and surrounding a central stalk.
The plants flower only once, then die. They produce a massive flower stalk.
Habitat and Distribution: Agaves prefer dry, open areas. They are found throughout Central America, the Caribbean, and
parts of the western deserts of the United States and Mexico.
Edible Parts: Its flowers and flower buds are edible. Boil them before eating.
CAUTION
The juice of some species causes dermatitis in some individuals.
Other Uses: Cut the huge flower stalk and collect the juice for drinking. Some species have very fibrous leaves. Pound the
leaves and remove the fibers for weaving and making ropes. Most species have thick, sharp needles at the tips of the leaves.
Use them for sewing or making hacks. The sap of some species contains a chemical that makes the sap suitable for use as a
soap.
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APPENDIX C
POISONOUS PLANTS
Plants basically poison on contact, ingestion, or by absorption or inhalation. They cause painful skin
irritations upon contact, they cause internal poisoning when eaten, and they poison through skin
absorption or inhalation in respiratory system. Many edible plants have deadly relatives and look-alikes.
Preparation for military missions includes learning to identify those harmful plants in the target area.
Positive identification of edible plants will eliminate the danger of accidental poisoning. There is no room
for experimentation where plants are concerned, especially in unfamiliar territory.
Castor bean, castor-oil plant, palma Christi
Ricinus communis
Spurge (Euphorbiaceae) Family
Description: The castor bean is a semiwoody plant with large, alternate, starlike leaves that grows as a tree in tropical regions
and as an annual in temperate regions. Its flowers are very small and inconspicuous. Its fruits grow in clusters at the tops of the
plants.
CAUTION
All parts of the plant are very poisonous to eat. The seeds are large and may be mistaken for a beanlike food.
Habitat and Distribution: This plant is found in all tropical regions and has been introduced to temperate regions.
Chinaberry
Melia azedarach
Mahogany (Meliaceae) Family
Description: This tree has a spreading crown and grows up to 14 meters tall. It has alternate, compound leaves with toothed
leaflets. Its flowers are light purple with a dark center and grow in ball-like masses. It has marble-sized fruits that are light
orange when first formed but turn lighter as they become older.
CAUTION
All parts of the tree should be considered dangerous if eaten. Its leaves are a natural insecticide and will repel insects from
stored fruits and grains. Take care not to eat leaves mixed with the stored food.
Habitat and Distribution: Chinaberry is native to the Himalayas and eastern Asia but is now planted as an ornamental tree
throughout the tropical and subtropical regions. It has been introduced to the southern United States and has escaped to
thickets, old fields, and disturbed areas.
Cowhage, cowage, cowitch
Mucuna pruritum
Leguminosae (Fabaceae) Family
Description: A vinelike plant that has oval leaflets in groups of three and hairy spikes with dull purplish flowers. The seeds are
brown, hairy pods.
CAUTION
Contact with the pods and flowers causes irritation and blindness if in the eyes.
Habitat and Distribution: Tropical areas and the United States.
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APPENDIX D
DANGEROUS INSECTS AND ARACHNIDS
Insects are often overlooked as a danger to the survivor. More people in the United States die each year
from bee stings, and resulting anaphylactic shock, than from snake bites. A few other insects are
venomous enough to kill, but often the greatest danger is the transmission of disease.
Scorpion
Scorpionidae order
Description: Dull brown, yellow, or black. Have 7.5- to 20-centimeter long lobsterlike pincers andjointed tail usually held
over the back. There are 800 species of scorpions.
Habitat: Decaying matter, under debris, logs, and rocks. Feeds at night. Sometimes hides in boots.
Distribution: Worldwide in temperate, arid, and tropical regions.
CAUTION
Scorpions sting with their tails, causing local pain, swelling, possible incapacitation, and death.
Brown house spider or brown recluse spider
Laxosceles reclusa
Description: Brown to black with obvious "fiddle" on back of head and thorax. Chunky body with long, slim legs 2.5 to 4
centimeters long.
Habitat: Under debris, rocks, and logs. In caves and dark places.
Distribution: North America.
Funnelweb spider
Atrax species (A. robustus, A. formidablis)
Description: Large, brown, bulky spiders. Aggressive when disturbed.
Habitat: Woods, jungles, and brushy areas. Web has a funnellike opening.
Distribution: Australia. (Other nonvenemous species worldwide.)
Tarantula
Theraphosidae and Lycosa species
Description: Very large, brown, black, reddish, hairy spiders. Large fangs inflict painful bite.
Habitat: Desert areas, tropics.
Distribution: Americas, southern Europe.
Widow spider
Latrodectus species
Description: Dark spiders with light red or orange markings on female's abdomen.
Habitat: Under logs, rocks, and debris. In shaded places.
Distribution: Varied species worldwide. Black widow in United States, red widow in Middle East, and brown widow in
Australia.
Note: Females are the poisonous gender. Red Widow in the Middle East is the only spider known to be deadly to man.
Centipede
Description: Multijoined body to 30 centimeters long. Dull orange to brown, with black point eyes at the base of the antenna.
There are 2,800 species worldwide.
Habitat: Under bark and stones by day. Active at night.
Distribution: Worldwide.
Bee
Description: Insect with brown or black, hairy bodies. Generally found in colonies. Many buil wax combs.
Habitat: Hollow trees, caves, dwellings. Near water in desert areas.
Distribution: Worldwide.
Note: Bees have barbed stingers and die after stinging because their venom sac and internal organs are pulled out
during the attack.
Wasps and hornets
Description: Generally smooth bodied, slender stinging insects. Many nest individually in mud nests or in paper nest colonies.
Smooth stinger permits multiple attacks. There are several hundred species worldwide.
Habitat: May be found anywhere in various species.
Distribution: Worldwide.
Note: An exception to general appearance is the velvet ant of the southern United States. It is a flightless wasp with
red and black alternating velvety bands.
Tick
Description: Round body from size of pinhead to 2.5 centimeters. Has 8 legs and sucking mouth parts. There are 850 species
worldwide.
Habitat: Mainly in forests and grasslands. Also in urban areas and farmlands.
Distribution: Worldwide.
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APPENDIX E
POISONOUS SNAKES AND LIZARDS
If you fear snakes, it is probably because you are unfamiliar with them or you have wrong information
about them. There is no need for you to fear snakes if you know--
Their habits.
How to identify the dangerous kinds.
Precautions to take to prevent snakebite.
What actions to take in case of snakebite (Chapter 3).
For a man wearing shoes and trousers and living in a camp, the danger of being bitten by a poisonous
snake is small compared to the hazards of malaria, cholera, dysentery, or other diseases.
Nearly all snakes avoid man if possible. Reportedly, however, a few--the king cobra of Southeast Asia, the
bushmaster and tropical rattlesnake of South America, and the mamba of Africa--sometimes aggressively
attack man, but even these snakes do so only occasionally. Most snakes get out of the way and are seldom
seen.
WAYS TO AVOID SNAKEBITE
Snakes are widely distributed. They are found in all tropical, subtropical, and most temperate regions. Some species of snakes
have specialized glands that contain a toxic venom and long hollow fangs to inject their venom.
Although venomous snakes use their venom to secure food, they also use it for self-defense. Human accidents occur when you
don't see or hear the snake, when you step on them, or when you walk too close to them.
Follow these simple rules to reduce the chance of accidental snakebite:
Don't sleep next to brush, tall grass, large boulders, or trees. They provide hiding places for snakes. Place your sleeping
bag in a clearing. Use mosquito netting tucked well under the bag. This netting should provide a good barrier.
Don't put your hands into dark places, such as rock crevices, heavy brush, or hollow logs, without first investigating.
Don't step over a fallen tree. Step on the log and look to see if there is a snake resting on the other side.
Don't walk through heavy brush or tall grass without looking down. Look where you are walking.
Don't pick up any snake unless you are absolutely positive it is not venomous.
Don't pick up freshly killed snakes without first severing the head. The nervous system may still be active and a dead
snake can deliver a bite.
SNAKE GROUPS
Snakes dangerous to man usually fall into two groups: proteroglypha and solenoglypha. Their fangs and their venom best
describe these two groups (Figure E-1).
Fangs
The proteroglypha have, in front of the upper jaw and preceding the ordinary teeth, permanently erect fangs. These fangs are
called fixed fangs.
The solenoglypha have erectile fangs; that is, fangs they can raise to an erect position. These fangs are called folded fangs.
Venom
The fixed-fang snakes (proteroglypha) usually have neurotoxic venoms. These venoms affect the nervous system, making the
victim unable to breathe.
The folded-fang snakes (solenoglypha) usually have hemotoxic venoms. These venoms affect the circulatory system, destroying
blood cells, damaging skin tissues, and causing internal hemorrhaging.
Remember, however, that most poisonous snakes have both neurotoxic and hemotoxic venom. Usually one type of venom in
the snake is dominant and the other is weak.
Poisonous Versus Nonpoisonous Snakes
No single characteristic distinguishes a poisonous snake from a harmless one except the presence of poison fangs and glands.
Only in dead specimens can you determine the presence of these fangs and glands without danger.
DESCRIPTIONS OF POISONOUS SNAKES
There are many different poisonous snakes throughout the world. It is unlikely you will see many except in a zoo. This manual
describes only a few poisonous snakes. You should, however, be able to spot a poisonous snake if you--
Learn about the two groups of snakes and the families in which they fall (Figure E-2).
Examine the pictures and read the descriptions of snakes in this appendix.
Viperidae
The viperidae or true vipers usually have thick bodies and heads that are much wider than their necks (Figure E-3). However,
there are many different sizes, markings, and colorations.
This snake group has developed a highly sophisticated means for delivering venom. They have long, hollow fangs that perform
like hypodermic needles. They deliver their venom deep into the wound.
The fangs of this group of snakes are movable. These snakes fold their fangs into the roof of their mouths. When they strike,
their fangs come forward, stabbing the victim. The snake controls the movement of its fangs; fang movement is not automatic.
The venom is usually hemotoxic. There are, however, several species that have large quantities of neurotoxic elements, thus
making them even more dangerous. The vipers are responsible for many human fatalities around the world.
Crotalidae
The crotalids, or pit vipers (Figure E-4), may be either slender or thick-bodied. Their heads are usually much wider than their
necks. These snakes take their name from the deep pit located between the eye and the nostril. They are commonly brown with
dark blotches, though some kinds are green.
Rattlesnakes, copperheads, cottonmouths, and several species of dangerous snakes from Central and South America, Asia,
China, and India fall into the pit viper group. The pit is a highly sensitive organ capable of picking up the slightest temperature
variance. Most pit vipers are nocturnal. They hunt for food at night with the aid of these specialized pits that let them locate prey
in total darkness. Rattlesnakes are the only pit vipers that possess a rattle at the tip of the tail.
India has about 12 species of these snakes. You find them in trees or on the ground in all types of terrain. The tree snakes are
slender; the ground snakes are heavy-bodied. All are dangerous.
China has a pit viper similar to the cottonmouth found in North America. You find it in the rocky areas of the remote mountains
of South China. It reaches a length of 1.4 meters but is not vicious unless irritated. You can also find a small pit viper, about 45
centimeters long, on the plains of eastern China. It is too small to be dangerous to a man wearing shoes.
There are about 27 species of rattlesnakes in the United States and Mexico. They vary in color and may or may not have spots
or blotches. Some are small while others, such as the diamondbacks, may grow to 2.5 meters long.
There are five kinds of rattlesnakes in Central and South America, but only the tropical rattlesnake is widely distributed. The
rattle on the tip of the tail is sufficient identification for a rattlesnake.
Most will try to escape without a fight when approached, but there is always a chance one will strike at a passerby. They do
not always give a warning; they may strike first and rattle afterwards or not at all.
The genus Trimeresurus is a subgroup of the crotalidae. These are Asian pit vipers. These pit vipers are normally tree-loving
snakes with a few species living on the ground. They basically have the same characteristics of the crotalidae--slender build and
very dangerous. Their bites usually are on the upper extremities--head, neck, and shoulders. Their venom is largely hemotoxic.
Elapidae
A group of highly dangerous snakes with powerful neurotoxic venom that affects the nervous system, causing respiratory
paralysis. Included in this family are coral snakes, cobras, mambas, and all the Australian venomous snakes. The coral snake is
small and has caused human fatalities. The Australian death adder, tiger, taipan, and king brown snakes are among the most
venomous in the world, causing many human fatalities.
Only by examining a dead snake can you positively determine if it is a cobra or a near relative (Figure E-5). On cobras, kraits,
and coral snakes, the third scale on the upper lip touches both the nostril scale and the eye. The krait also has a row of enlarged
scales down its ridged back.
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APPENDIX F
DANGEROUS FISH AND MOLLUSKS
Since fish and mollusks may be one of your major sources of food, it is wise to know which ones are
dangerous to you should you catch them. Know which ones are dangerous, what the dangers of the
various fish are, what precautions to take, and what to do if you are injured by one of these fish.
Fish and mollusks will present a danger in one of three ways: by attacking and biting you, by injecting
toxic venom into you through its venomous spines or tentacles, and through eating fish or mollusks whose
flesh is toxic.
The danger of actually encountering one of these dangerous fish is relatively small, but it is still
significant. Any one of these fish can kill you. Avoid them if at all possible.
FISH THAT ATTACK MAN
The shark is usually the first fish that comes to mind when considering fish that attack man. Other fish also fall in this category,
such as the barracuda, the moray eel, and the piranha.
Sharks
Sharks are potentially the most dangerous fish that attack people. The obvious danger of sharks is that they are capable of
seriously maiming or killing you with their bite. Of the many shark species, only a relative few are dangerous. Of these, four
species are responsible for most cases of shark attacks on humans. These are the white, tiger, hammerhead, and blue sharks.
There are also records of attacks by ground, gray nurse, and mako sharks. See Figure F-1 for illustrations of sharks.
Avoid sharks if at all possible. Follow the procedures discussed in Chapter 16 to defend yourself against a shark attack.
Sharks vary in size, but there is no relationship between the size of the shark and likelihood of attack. Even the smaller sharks
can be dangerous, especially when they are traveling in schools.
If bitten by a shark, the most important measure for you to take is to stop the bleeding quickly. Blood in the water attracts
sharks. Get yourself or the victim into a raft or to shore as soon as possible. If in the water, form a circle around the victim (if
not alone), and stop the bleeding with a tourniquet.
Other Ferocious Fish
In salt water, other ferocious fish include the barracuda, sea bass, and moray eel (Figure F-2). The sea bass is usually an open
water fish. It is dangerous due to its large size. It can remove large pieces of flesh from a human. Barracudas and moray eels
have been known to attack man and inflict vicious bites. Be careful of these two species when near reefs and in shallow water.
Moray eels are very aggressive when disturbed.
In fresh water, piranha are the only significantly dangerous fish. They are inhabitants of the tropics and are restricted to northern
South America. These fish are fairly small, about 5 to 7.5 centimeters, but they have very large teeth and travel in large schools.
They can devour a 135-kilogram hog in minutes.
VENOMOUS FISH AND INVERTEBRATES
There are several species of venomous fish and invertebrates, all of which live in salt water. All of these are capable of injecting
poisonous venom through spines located in their fins, tentacles, or bites. Their venoms cause intense pain and are potentially
fatal. If injured by one of these fish or invertebrates, treat the injury as for snakebite.
Stingrays
Dasyatidae species
Stingrays inhabit shallow water, especially in the tropics and in temperate regions as well. All have a distinctive ray shape but
coloration may make them hard to spot unless they are swimming. The venomous, barbed spines in their tails can cause severe
or fatal injury.
Rabbitfish
Siganidae species
Rabbitfish are found predominantly on the reefs in the Pacific and Indian oceans. They average about 30 centimeters long and
have very sharp spines in their fins. The spines are venomous and can inflict intense pain.
Scorpion fish or zebra fish
Scorpaenidae species
Scorpion fish live mainly in the reefs in the Pacific and Indian oceans. They vary from 30 to 90 centimeters long, are usually
reddish in coloration, and have long wavy fins and spines. They inflict an intensely painful sting.
Siganus fish
The siganus fish is small, about 10 to 15 centimeters long, and looks much like a small tuna. It has venemous spines in its dorsal
and ventral fins. These spines can inflict painful stings.
Stonefish
Synanceja species
Stonefish are found in the tropical waters of the Pacific and Indian oceans. Averaging about 30 centimeters in length, their
subdued colors and lumpy shape provide them with exceptional camoflauge. When stepped on, the fins in the dorsal spine
inflict an extremely painful and sometimes fatal wound.
Tang or surgeonfish
Acanthuridae species
Tang or surgeonfish average 20 to 25 centimeters in length, with a deep body, small mouth, and bright coloration. They have
needlelike spines on the side of the tail that cause extremely painful wounds. This fish is found in all tropical waters.
Toadfish
Batrachoididae species
Toadfish are found in the tropical waters off the coasts of South and Central America. They are between 17.5 and 25
centimeters long and have a dull color and large mouths. They bury themselves in the sand and may be easily stepped on. They
have very sharp, extremely poisonous spines on the dorsal fin (back).
Weever fish
Trachinidae species
The weever fish is a tropical fish that is fairly slim and about 30 centimeters long. All its fins have venomous spines that cause a
painful wound.
Blue-ringed octopus
Hapalochlaena species
This small octopus is usually found on the Great Barrier Reef off eastern Australia. It is grayish-white with iridescent blue
ringlike markings. This octopus usually will not bite unless stepped on or handled. Its bite s extremely poisonous and frequently
lethal.
Portuguese man-of-war
Physalis species
Although it resembles a jellyfish, the Portuguese man-of-war is actually a colony of sea animals. Mainly found in tropical
regions, the Gulf stream current can carry it as far as Europe. It is also found as far south as Australia. The floating portion of
the man-of-war may be as small as 15 centimeters, but the tentacles can reach 12 meters in length. These tentacles inflict a
painful and incapacitating sting, but the sting is rarely fatal.
Cone shells
Conidae species
These cone-shaped shells have smooth, colorful mottling and long, narrow openings in the base of the shell. They live under
rocks, in crevices and coral reefs, and along rocky shores and protected bays in tropical areas. All have tiny teeth that are
similar to hypodermic needles. They can inject an extremely poisonous venom that acts very swiftly, causing acute pain,
swelling, paralysis, blindness, and possible death within hours. Avoid handling all cone shells.
Terebra shells
Terebridae species
These shells are found in both temperate and tropical waters. They are similar to cone shells but much thinner and longer. They
poison in the same way as cone shells, but their venom is not as poisonous.
FISH WITH TOXIC FLESH
There are no simple rules to tell edible fish from those with poisonous flesh. The most common toxic fish are shown in Figure
8-2. All of these fish contain various types of poisonous substances or toxins in their flesh and are dangerous to eat. They have
the following common characteristics:
Most live in shallow water around reefs or lagoons.
Many have boxy or round bodies with hard shell-like skins covered with bony plates or spines. They have small
parrotlike mouths, small gills, and small or absent belly fins. Their names suggest their shape.
In addition to the above fish and their characteristics, barracuda and red snapper fish may carry ciguatera, a toxin that
accumulates in the systems of fish that feed on tropical marine reefs.
Without specific local information, take the following precautions:
Be very careful with fish taken from normally shallow lagoons with sandy or broken coral bottoms. Reef-feeding species
predominate and some may be poisonous.
Avoid poisonous fish on the leeward side of an island. This area of shallow water consists of patches of living corals
mixed with open spaces and may extend seaward for some distance. Many different types of fish inhabit these shallow
waters, some of which are poisonous.
Do not eat fish caught in any area where the water is unnaturally discolored. This may be indicative of plankton that
cause various types of toxicity in plankton-feeding fish.
Try fishing on the windward side or in deep passages leading from the open sea to the lagoon, but be careful of currents
and waves. Live coral reefs drop off sharply into deep water and form a dividing line between the suspected fish of the
shallows and the desirable deep-water species. Deepwater fish are usually not poisonous. You can catch the various
toxic fish even in deep water. Discard all suspected reef fish, whether caught on the ocean or the reef side.
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APPENDIX G
CLOUDS: FORETELLERS OF WEATHER
About 200 years ago an Englishman classified clouds ac cording to what they looked like to a person
seeing them from the ground. He grouped them into three classes and gave them Latin names: cirrus,
cumulus, and stratus. These three names, alone and combined with other Latin words, are still used to
identify different cloud formations.
By being familiar with the different cloud formation and what weather they portend, you can take
appropriate action for your protection.
Cirrus clouds
Cirrus clouds are the very high clouds that look like thin streaks or curls. They are usually 6 kilometers or more above the earth
and are usually a sign of fair weather. In cold climates, however, cirrus clouds that begin to multiply and are accompanied by
increasing winds blowing steadily from a northerly direction indicate an oncoming blizzard.
Cumulus clouds
Cumulus clouds are fluffy, white, heaped-up clouds. These clouds, which are much lower than cirrus clouds, are often fair
weather clouds. They are apt to appear around midday on a sunny day, looking like large cotton balls with flat bottoms. As the
day advances, they may become bigger and push higher into the atmosphere. Piling up to appear like a mountain of clouds.
These can turn into storm clouds.
Stratus clouds
Stratus clouds are very low, gray clouds, often making an even gray layer over the whole sky. These clouds generally mean
rain.
Nimbus clouds
Nimbus clouds are ram clouds of uniform grayness that extend over the entire sky
Cumulonimbus clouds
Cumulonimbus is the cloud formation resulting from a cumulus cloud building up, extending to great heights, and forming in the
shape of an anvil. You can expect a thunderstorm if this cloud is moving in your direction.
Cirrostratus clouds
Cirrostratus is a fairly uniform layer of high stratus clouds that are darker than cirrus clouds. Cirrostratus clouds indicate good
weather.
Cirrocumulus clouds
Cirrocumulus is a small, white, round cloud at a high altitude. Cirrocumulus clouds indicate good weather.
Scuds
A loose, vapory cloud (scud) driven before the wind is a sign of continuing bad weather.
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APPENDIX H
CONTINGENCY PLAN OF ACTION FORMAT
Properly planning for the possible contingencies that may occur during a mission is a positive step toward
being able to cope successfully with the changes in situation. The contingency plan of action is a critical
document to an individual soldier, or to a unit, faced with evading enemy forces. First, it is a plan that will
provide evaders a starting point to begin operating effectively once evasion has begun. Second, it gives
recovery forces the ability to know what the evaders are planning to do, thus making recovery, operations
easier. A well-thought-out contingency plan of action that everyone can understand is an important
document to the evader.
Note: Upon deployment, you may carry with you the information compiled in A through E of the
SITUATION paragraph only.
I. SITUATION
A. Country Climatic Zones
1. Tropical Rainy Climate
2. Dry Climate
3. Temperate Climate
4. Cold Climate (wet/dry)
5. Polar
B. Climatic Land Zones (whatever is applicable)
1. Coasts - Seasons
a. Temperature
b. Precipitation
c. General wind direction
d. Cloud cover
2. Plains (refer to coasts)
3. Deserts (refer to coasts)
4. Plateaus (refer to coasts)
5. Mountains (refer to coasts)
6. Swamps (refer to coasts)
C. Light Data (BMNT, EENT, Moonrise, Moonset, Percent of Illumination)
D. Terrain
1. Neighboring Borders
2. General Terrain Zones
a. Coasts
(1) General description and size
(2) Vegetation
(a) Natural
1. Tundra
2. Coniferous forest
3. Deciduous forest
4. Temperate grassland
5. Marshland swamp
6. Desert
7. Pastoral and arable land
8. Tropical forest
9. Savanna
(b) Cultivated
(c) Concealment (density)
(d) Growing seasons
(e) Edible
1. Food value
2. Procurement (young or mature)
3. Preparation
4. Cooking
(f) Poisonous
(g) Medical use
(h) Other uses
(3)Animals and fish
(a) Domestic
1. Food values
2. Procurement
3. Preparation
4. Cooking
5. Medical use
6. Dangerous
7. Poisonous
8. Other uses
(b) Wildlife (animals, fish, insects, and reptiles) (see domestic)
(4)Water sources
(a) Procurement
(b) Potability
(c) Preparation
b. Plains (refer to coasts)
c. Deserts (refer to coasts)
d. Plateaus (refer to coasts)
e. Mountains (refer to coasts)
f. Swamps (refer to coasts)
g. Rivers and lakes (refer to coasts)
3. Natural Land Barriers
a. Mountain ranges
b. Large rivers
E. Civilian Population
1. Numbers of Population
a. Totals and density (by areas)
b. Divisions of urban, suburban, rural, and nomads
2. Dress and Customs
3. Internal Security Forces
4. Controls and Restrictions (explain)
5. Border Area Security
F. Friendly Forces
1. FEBA/FLOT
2. Closest Units
3. Location of Friendly or Neutral Embassies, Liaisons, Consulates, etc.
4. Recovery Sites (explain), LZs En Route.
G. Enemy Forces
1. Doctrine
2. Tactics
3. Intelligence Reports
a. Identification
b. Location
c. Activity
d. Strength
e. Night sighting devices
II. MISSION--Conduct Avoidance of Capture on Order From-To
III. EXECUTION
A. Overall Plan
1. When Do You Initiate Movement?
2. Location of Initial Movement Point
3. Actions at Initial Movement Point
4. Location of Hide Areas
5. Movement to Hide Areas
6. Actions Around the Hide Sites
7. Movement to Hide Sites
8. Actions at Hide Sites
a. Construction
b. Occupation
c. Movement out of hide site
9. Location of Hole-up Areas
10. Actions at Hole-up Areas
11. Location of Recovery Site(s)
B. Other Missions
1. Movement
a. Formation
b. Individual positions
c. Navigation
d. Stealth/listening
e. Security
(1) Noise
(2) Light
(3) All around security
f. Cover, concealment, and camouflage
g. Actions at breaks
(1) Listening (5-10 minutes)
(2) Long
h. Actions at danger areas (enemy observation or fire)
i. Actions for enemy sighting/contact
j. Rally points/rendezvous points
(1) Locations
(2) Actions
2. Actions in the Care of Sick or Injured
a. Initial movement point
b. Along the movement route
3. Actions for Crossing Borders
4. Actions at Recovery Site(s)
5. Other Actions
6. Training and Rehearsals
7. Inspections before starting movement
IV. SERVICE AND SUPPORT
A. Survival Aids
1. Health
a. First aid
b. Disease
2. Water
a. Procurement
b. Purification
c. Carrying
3. Food
a. Procurement
b. Preparation
c. Cooking
d. Carrying
4. Shelter and Comfort/Warmth
5. Fire Starting
6. Recovery
7. Travel
B. Survival Kit(s)
C. Special Equipment
D. Inspections
1. Responsibilities
2. Equipment, Survival Items, and Kit(s)
V. COMMAND AND SIGNAL
A. Chain of Command
1. Senior Person
2. Team Leader
B. Signals To Be Used by Movement Teams
1. Along the Route
2. Rally/Rendezvous Points
C. Communications to Higher Headquarters (radio)
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GLOSSARY
C Celsius
cgy centigray
cm centimeter
CNS central nervous system
CPA contingency plan of action
CPR cardiopulmonary resuscitation
F Fahrenheit
FEBA forward edge of the battle area
FLOT forward line of own troops
HELP heat escaping lessening posture
IV intravenous
kg kilogram
kph kilometers per hour
m meter
mg milligram
MRE meal, ready-to-eat
NBC nuclear, biological, and chemical
RDF radio direction finding
SERE survival, evasion, resistance, and escape
SMCT Soldier's Manual of Common Tasks
SOP standing operating procedure
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REFERENCES
RELATED PUBLICATIONS
The publications listed below are sources of additional information. They are not required in order to understand this
publication.
U.S. Army Publications
AR 70-38 Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation of Materiel for Extreme Climatic Conditions, August 1979
FM 1-400 Aviator's Handbook, May 1983
FM 21-11 First Aid for Soldiers, October 1988
FM 31-70 Basic Cold Weather Manual, April 1968
FM 31-71 Northern Operations, June 1971
FM 90-3 Desert Operations, August 1977
FM 90-5 (HTF) Jungle Operations (How to Fight), August 1982
FM 90-6 Mountain Operations, June 1980
TC 21-3 Soldier's Handbook for Individual Operations and Survival in Cold Weather Areas, March 1986
GTA 21-7-1 Study Card Set, Survival Plants, Southeast Asia
Man and Materiel in the Cold Regions (Part I). US Army Cold Regions Test Center, Fort Greely, AK.
U.S. Air Force Publications
Air Force Manual 64-4 Survival Training, July 1985
Air Force Manual 64-5 Aircrew Survival, September 1985
Afoot in the Desert. Environmental Information Div, Air Training Command, Air University Library, Maxwell AFB, AL: Oct
80.
Arctic Survival Principles, Procedures, and Techniques. 3636th Combat Crew Training Wing (ATC), Fairchild AFB, WA:
Sep 78.
Basic Survival Medicine. Environmental Information Div, Air Training Command Air University Library, Maxwell AFB, AL:
Jan 81.
Cold Sea Survival. DTIC Technical Report AD 716389, AMRL-TR-70-72, Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory,
Wright Patterson AFB, OH: Oct 70.
Sharks. Information Bulletin No. 1, 3636th Combat Crew Training Wing, ATC, Fairchild AFB, WA.
The Physiology of Cold Weather Survival. DTIC Technical Report AD 784268, Advisory Group for Aerospace Research
and Development Report No. 620, Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, Wright Patterson AFG, OH: Apr 73.
Toxic Fish and Mollusks. Information Bulletin No. 12, Environmental Information Division, Air Training Command Air
University Library, Maxwell AFB, AL: Apr 75.
U.S. Navy Publications
"Cold Water Survival, Hypothermia and Cold Water Immersion, Cold Weather Survival," SERE Newsletter, Vol. 1, NO. 7,
FASOTRAGRUPAC, Jan 83.
"Deep Water Survival," SERE Newsletter, Vol. 7, No. 8, FASOTRAGRUPAC, Jan 83.
SERE Guide Soviet Far East, Fleet Intelligence Center Pacific, Box 500, FPO San Francisco, CA 96610, Mar 77.
Following are the stock numbers for decks of recognition cards, which were prepared by the Naval Training
Equipment Center, Orlando, FL.
National Stock No.
20-6910-00-820-6702 Device 9H5, Survival Plants, Pacific
20-6910-00-004-9435 Device 9H18 Study Card Set, Northeast Africa/Mideast (Deck 1, Recognition Wildlife; Deck 2,
Recognition Plantlife)
6910-00-106-4337/1 Device 9H15/1, Aviation Survival Equipment
6919-00-106-4338/2 Device 9H15/2, Aviation Land Survival Techniques
6910-00-106-4352/3 Device 9H15/3, Aviation Sea Survival Techniques
6910-00-820-6702 Device 9H9A Study Cards, Survival Plant Recognition
OTHER PUBLICATIONS
Angier, Bradford. Feasting Free on Wild Edibles. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Co., 1972.
Angier, Bradford. Field Guide to Edible Wild Plants. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Co., 1974.
Angier, Bradford. How to Stay Alive in the Woods. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Co., 1983.
Arnold, Harry L. Poisonous Plants of Hawaii. Rutland, VT: Tuttle & Co., 1968.
Buchman, Dian. Herbal Medicine: The Natural Way to Get Well & Stay Well. New York: David McKay Co., 1979.
Craighead, Frank C. Jr. and John J. Craghead. How to Survive on Land and Sea. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press,
1984.
Ditmars, Raymond L. Snakes of the World. New York: Macmillan Co., 1960.
Embertson, Jame. Pods: Wildflowers and Weeds in Their Final Beauty. New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1979.
Cloudsley-Thompson, John. Spiders, Scorpions, Centipedes, and Mites. Oxford, Eng: Pergamon Press, 1958.
Gibbons, Euell. Stalking the Wild Asparagus. New York: David McKay Co., 1970.
Grimm, William C. Recognizing Flowering Plants. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Co.
Grimm, William C. Recognizing Native Shrubs. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Co.
Grimm, William C. The Illustrated Book of Trees. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Co., 1983.
Hall, Alan. The Wild Food Trail Guide. New York: Hole, Tinehard & Winston.
Medsger, Oliver P. Edible Wild Plants. New York: Macmillan Co., 1972.
Merlin, Mark D. Hawaiian Forest Plants. Honolulu: Orientala Publishing Co., 1978.
Minton, Sherman A. and Madge R. Minton. Venomous Reptiles. New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1980.
Moore, Michael. Medicinal Plants of the Mountain West. Museum of New Mexico Press, 1979.
Parrish, Henry M. Poisonous Snakebite in the United States. New York: Vantage Press.
Russell, Findlay E. Snake Venom Poisoning. Philadelphia: J.P. Lippincott Company, 1983.
Squier, Thomas L. Living Off The Land. Rutland, VT: Academy Press, 1989.
Tomikel, John. Edible Wild Plants of Pennsylvania and New York. Pittsburgh, PA: Allegheny Press, 1973.
The Encyclopedia of Organic Gardening. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press, 1978.
Wild Edible and Poisonous Plants of Alaska. Cooperative Extension Service, University of Alaska and U.S.D.A.
Cooperating, Publication No. 28, 1981.
DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
Nuclear War Survival Skills: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, reprinted online at http://www.oism.org/nwss/s73p904.htm
Online version of the book Nuclear War Survival Skills , originally published by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, a Facility of the U.S. Department of Energy. Updated by Cresson H. Kearny with a forward from H-Bomb inventor Dr. Edward Teller .
Nuclear War Survival Skills
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Edition Notes
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Updated and Expanded 1987 Edition
The purpose of this book is to provide Americans and other unprepared people with information and
self-help instructions that will significantly increase their chances of surviving a nuclear attack. It brings
together field- tested instructions that, if followed by a large fraction of Americans during a crisis that
precedes an attack, could save millions of lives. The author is convinced that the vulnerability especially
of Americans to nuclear threat or attack must be reduced and that the wide dissemination of the
information contained in this book will help preserve peace with freedom.
Underlying the advocacy of Americans learning these down-to-earth survival skills is the belief that if
one prepares for the worst, the worst is less likely to happen. Effective American civil defense
preparations would reduce the probability of nuclear blackmail and war. Yet in our world of increasing
dangers, it is significant that the United States spends much less per capita on civil defense than many
other countries. The United States' annual funding is about 50 cents per capita, and only a few cents of
this is spent on war-related civil defense. Unless U.S. civil defense policies are improved, you are
unlikely to receive from official sources much of the survival information given in this book.
Over 400,000 copies of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory original 1979 edition of Nuclear War
Survival Skills have been sold by various private publishers. A few additions and modifications, some
helpful and others harmful, were made in several of these private printings. This updated and expanded
edition is needed because of changes in nuclear weapons and strategies between 1979 and 1987, and
because of improvements in self-help survival equipment and instructions.
The 1987 edition provides current information on how the Soviet Union's continuing deployment of
smaller, more accurate, more numerous warheads should affect your shelter- building and evacuation plans.
In the first chapter the myths and facts about the consequences of a massive nuclear attack are discussed. Two post-1979
myths have been added: the myth of blinding post-attack increased ultra-violet sunlight, and the myth of unsurvivable "nuclear
winter" - along with refuting facts.
A new chapter, "Permanent Family Fallout Shelters for Dual Use", has been added, because the author has received many
requests for instructions for building permanent small shelters better and less expensive than those described in official civil
defense hand-outs. Another new chapter, "Trans-Pacific Fallout" tells how to reduce radiation dangers that you will face if one
or more nations use nuclear weapons, but none are exploded on America.
Improved instructions are given for making and using a KFM, based on the findings of numerous builders since 1979. (The
KFM still is the only accurate and dependable fallout radiation meter that millions of average people can make for themselves in
a few hours, using only common household materials - if they have these improved instructions with patterns.) Field-tested
instructions for easily made Directional Fans, the simplest means for pumping air, have been added to the "Ventilation and
Cooling of Shelters" chapter. Also included in this book are scores of other new facts and updatings likely to help save lives if
nuclear war strikes.
A new appendix gives instructions for a home makeable Plywood Double-Action Piston Pump, inspired by a wooden air pump
the author saw being used in China in 1982.
This first-of-its-kind book is primarily a compilation and summary of civil defense measures developed at Oak Ridge National
Laboratory and elsewhere over the past 24 years, and field tested by typical untrained Americans in many states, from Florida
to Washington. The reader is urged to make at least some of these low-cost preparations before a crisis arises. The main
emphasis, however, is on survival preparations that could be made in the last few days of a worsening crisis.
The author wrote the original, uncopyrighted Nuclear War Survival Skills while working as a research engineer at
Oak Ridge National Laboratory. As a result, he has no proprietary rights and has gotten nothing but satisfaction
from past sales. Nor will he gain materially from future sales, as can be judged by reading his copyright notice
covering this edition. Civil defense professionals and others concerned with providing better self-help survival
information can reproduce parts or all of this 1987 edition without getting permission from anyone, provided they
comply with the terms of the copyright notice.
Book Page: 1
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Nuclear War
Survival
Skills
Updated and Expanded
1987 Edition
Cresson H. Kearny
With Foreword by Dr. Edward Teller
Original Edition Published September, 1979,
by Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
a Facility of the
U.S. Department of Energy
Published by the
Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine
Cave Junction, Oregon
Copyright (c) 1986 by Cresson H. Kearny
Cresson H. Kearny's additions to the Oak Ridge National Laboratory original 1979 edition are the only parts covered by this
copyright, and are printed in this type print to distinguish these additions from the original uncopyrighted parts. The
uncopyrighted parts are printed in a different type of print (like this).
No part of the added copyrighted parts (except brief passages that a reviewer may quote in a review) may be reproduced in
any form unless the reproduced material includes the following two sentences: Copyright (c) 1986 by Cresson H. Kearny. The
copyrighted material may be reproduced without obtaining permission from anyone, provided: (1) all copyrighted material is
reproduced full-scale (except for microfiche reproductions), and (2) the part of this copyright notice within quotation marks is
printed along with the copyrighted material."
First printing May 1987
Second printing November 1988
Third printing September 1990
ISBN 0-942487-01-X
Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number 87-60790
Book Page: 0
Electronic Edition
The Electronic Edition of Nuclear War Survival Skills was prepared and published by Arnold Jagt.
The book was scanned using an HP ScanJet IIc, OCR (optical character recognition) using Xerox' TextBridge, and cleaned up
using AmiPro for the text and a variety of graphic packages for the illustrations and photographs. The purpose of this file is to
provide for "on demand publishing" of the contents first, and as an online document second.
Please Note: Due to the limitations of this online version the KFM Templates and other illustrations are not entirely reliable and
should be obtained from the printed version. Send $19.50 to: Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine, P.O. Box 1279 ,
Cave Junction, Oregon 97523.
For Surviving Global Warming Enviros see: www.oism.org/pproject an Anti-Global Warming Petition Project.
See the newsletter Access to Energy by Art Robinson at www.accesstoenergy.com for more information.
Introduction to: Nuclear War Survival Skills
by Edward Teller
January 14, 1994
With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the unimaginable catastrophe of all out nuclear war has become truly im- probable. At
the same time this unexpected event taught a lesson: being prepared for trouble may help to eliminate the source of trouble.
Perhaps, after all, the atomic age might become a happy age.
Possible but not yet probable. Proliferation of nuclear weapons is more of a danger than ever before. But the danger is now
different. What may happen is still horrible but it is no longer a catastrophe beyond our power of de- scribing it or preventing it.
As long as the superpowers faced each other with tens of thousands of megaton-class weapons, any defense seemed
insufficient. It was a palliative of unclear war. It played more of a role as part of the deterrent. To many of us it seemed to be a
necessity. But in efforts to convince the general public we made little progress. The question could not be resolved by reason
alone.
The problem of ideological conflict is disappearing. The problem of a violent dictator is still with us. With weap- ons of mass
destruction he could do enormous damage. Furthermore, the proliferation of ballistic missiles is not a pos- sibility but a
frightening and growing reality. But we are now no longer facing tens of thousands of weapons. We need to worry about at
most hundreds. Defense, therefore, has become a rational possibility.
But if defense is possible, it is also most important for four connected but, at the same time, distinct reasons. One is that in the
case of war defense may save many thousands, maybe even millions of lives. I do not disagree with those who say that the main
problem is to prevent war itself. I do disagree when prevention of war is considered the only problem.
The second reason is that defense helps to prevent proliferation of weapons of aggression. If defense is ne- glected these
weapons of attack become effective. They become available and desirable in the eyes of an imperialist dictator, even if his
means are limited. Weapons of mass destruction could become equalizers between nations big and small, highly developed and
primitive, if defense is neglected. If defense is developed and if it is made available for general prevention of war, weapons of
aggression will become less desirable. Thus defense makes war itself less probable. The third reason is of a most general
character. One psychological defense mechanism against danger is to forget about it. This attitude is as common as it is
disastrous. It may turn a limited danger into a fatal difficulty.
The last and most important reason is that the world has become thoroughly interdependent and the time has come for the
positive use of this interdependence. International cooperation is obviously difficult. It lacks any tradi- tion. It is best started by
modest activities that are obviously in everyone's interest. War-prevention by defense seems to be a good candidate for such
cooperation. This would be particularly true if the effort would be both modest and effective. This book is an excellent example
of an international initiative that with a minimal effort could have a maximal beneficial effect. It describes simple procedures of
individual defensive measures which should be used in many areas of danger including those where it is wrongly believed that
defense is impossible. It can be used in advanced countries and in countries at an early stage of development. Electronics
makes the book available throughout the world.
This book will not satisfy the demands of those who are interested only in final solutions. Indeed, I do not believe that final
solutions exist. The more important and difficult a problem is the more it becomes evident that the answer lies in a careful
development consisting of small steps. This book prepares us, throughout the world, for one of the small steps that must be
taken if the twenty-first century is to escape the curse of war.
Copyright 2000 Nuclear War Survival Skills
Table of Contents
Foreword by Dr. Edward Teller
6
About the Author by Dr. Eugene P. Wigner
10
Acknowledgements
12
Introduction
14
Chapter 1 The Dangers from Nuclear Weapons: Myths and Facts
21
Chapter 2 Psychological Preparations
31
Chapter 3 Warnings and Communications
33
Chapter 4 Evacuation
40
Chapter 5 Shelter, the Greatest Need
49
Chapter 6 Ventilation and Cooling of Shelters
65
Chapter 7 Protection Against Fires and Carbon Monoxide
81
Chapter 8 Water
85
Chapter 9 Food
95
Chapter 10 Fallout Radiation Meters
119
Chapter 11 Light
127
Chapter 12 Shelter Sanitation and Preventive Medicine
130
Chapter 13 Surviving Without Doctors
136
Chapter 14 Expedient Shelter Furnishings
149
Chapter 15 Improvised Clothing and Protective Items
156
Chapter 16 Minimum Pre-Crisis Preparations
164
Chapter 17 Permanent Family Fallout Shelters for Dual Use
167
Chapter 18 Trans-Pacific Fallout
188
Appendices
A Instructions for Six Expedient Fallout Shelters
193
A.1 Door-Covered Trench Shelter
198
A.2 Pole-Covered Trench Shelter
203
A.3 Small-Pole Shelter
208
A.4 Aboveground, Door-Covered Shelter
215
A.5 Aboveground, Ridgepole Shelter
221
A.6 Above ground, Crib-Walled Shelter
228
B How to Make and Use a HomemadeShelter-Ventilating Pump, the
KAP
234
C A HOMEMADE FALLOUT METER, THE K.F.M. - HOW TO
MAKE AND USE IT
253
D Expedient Blast Shelters
284
E How to Make and Use a Homemade Plywood Double Action
Piston Pump and Filter
300
F Means for Providing Improved Natural Ventilation and Daylight
to a Shelter with an Emergency Exit
319
Selected References
323
Selected Index
326
Nuclear War Survival Skills
This book should be in every American home and place of business. It
should be a part of all civilian and military defense preparations. In this nuclear age, prior preparation
and knowledge are the primary elements of survival during nuclear war, biological and chemical attack,
and other man-made or natural disasters. This book provides that essential knowledge.
It is published on a non-profit, non-royalty basis by the Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine (a
501 [c] [3] public foundation). These low prices also are made possible by continuing donations to the
Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine given specifically to help meet the cost of publication and
wide distribution of this updated and enlarged edition.
Nuclear War Survival Skills is available postage paid within the United States at the following prices:
1 copy $19.75
5 copies $85.00
10 copies $150.00
100 copies $1250.00
larger quantities - quoted on request
I understand I will receive, as a bonus, the two latest issues of Access to Energy. Books are sent book rate (allow 4-6 weeks
for delivery). Include an extra $35 for express delivery on a single copy.
Foreword
There are two diametrically opposite views on civil defense. Russian official policy holds that civil
defense is feasible even in a nuclear war. American official policy, or at any rate the implementation of
that policy, is based on the assumption that civil defense is useless.
The Russians, having learned a bitter lesson in the second world war, have bent every effort to defend
their people under all circumstances. They are spending several billion dollars per year on this activity.
They have effective plans to evacuate their cities before they let loose a nuclear strike. They have
strong shelters for the people who must remain in the cities. They are building up protected food
reserves to tide them over a critical period.
All this may mean that in a nuclear exchange, which we must try to avoid or to deter, the Russian
deaths would probably not exceed ten million. Tragic as such a figure is, the Russian nation would
survive. If they succeed in eliminating the United States they can commandeer food, machinery and
manpower from the rest of the world. They could recover rapidly. They would have attained their goal:
world domination.
In the American view the Russian plan is unfeasible. Those who argue on this side point out the great
power of nuclear weapons. In this they are right. Their argument is particularly impressive in its
psychological effect.
But this argument has never been backed up by a careful quantitative analysis which takes into account
the planned dispersal and sheltering of the Russian population and the other measures which the
Russians have taken and those to which they are committed.
That evacuation of our own citizens can be extremely useful if we see that the Russians are evacuating
is simple common sense. With the use of American automobiles an evacuation could be faster and
more effective than is possible in Russia. To carry it out we need not resort to the totalitarian methods of the iron curtain
countries. It will suffice to warn our people and advise them where to go, how to protect themselves. The Federal Emergency
Management Administration contains the beginnings on which such a policy might be built.
The present book does not, and indeed cannot, make the assumption that such minimal yet extremely useful government
guidance will be available. Instead it outlines the skills that individuals or groups of individuals can learn and apply in order to
improve their chances of survival.
This book is not a description of civil defense. It is a guide to "Stop-gap" civil defense which individuals could carry out for
themselves, if need be, with no expenditures by our government. It fills the gap between the ineffective civil defense that we
have today and the highly effective survival preparations that we could and should have a few years from now. However, if we
go no further than what we can do on the basis of this book, then the United States cannot survive a major nuclear war.
Yet this book, besides being realistic and objectively correct, serves two extremely important purposes. One is: it will help to
save lives. The second purpose is to show that with relatively inexpensive governmental guidance and supplies, an educated
American public could, indeed, defend itself. We could survive a nuclear war and remain a nation.
This is an all-important goal. Its most practical aspect lies in the fact that the men in the Kremlin are cautious. If they cannot
count on destroying us they probably will never launch their nuclear arsenal against us. Civil defense is at once the most
peaceful and the most effective deterrent of nuclear war.
Some may argue that the Russians could evacuate again and again and thus, by forcing us into similar moves, exhaust us. I
believe that in reality they would anger us sufficiently so that we would rearm in earnest. That is not what the Russians want to
accomplish.
Others may say that the Russians could strike without previous evacuation. This could result in heavy losses on their part which,
I hope, they will not risk.
Civil defense as here described will not eliminate the danger of nuclear war. It will considerably diminish its probability.
This book takes a long overdue step in educating the American people. It does not suggest that survival is easy. It does not
prove that national survival is possible. But it can save lives and it will stimulate thought and action which will be crucial in our
two main purposes: to preserve freedom and to avoid war.
Edward Teller
Book Page: 2
About the Author
When the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission authorized me in 1964 to initiate the Civil Defense Project
at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, one of the first researchers I recruited was Cresson H. Kearny.
Most of his life has been preparation, unplanned and planned, for writing this guide to help people
unfamiliar with the effects of nuclear weapons improve their chances of surviving a nuclear attack.
During the past 15 years he has done an unequaled amount of practical field work on basic survival
problems, without always conforming to the changing civil defense doctrine.
After I returned to my professional duties at Princeton in 1966, the civil defense effort at Oak Ridge
National Laboratory was first headed by James C. Bresee, and is now headed by Conrad V. Chester.
Both have wholeheartedly supported Kearny's down-to- earth research, and Chester was not only a
codeveloper of several of the survival items described in this book, but also participated in the planning
of the experiments testing them.
Kearny's concern with nuclear war dangers began while he was studying for his degree in civil
engineering at Princeton he graduated summa cum laude in 1937. His Princeton studies had already
acquainted him with the magnitude of an explosion in which nuclear energy is liberated, then only a
theoretical possibility. After winning a Rhodes Scholarship, Kearny earned two degrees in geology at
Oxford. Still before the outbreak of World War II, he observed the effective preparations made in
England to reduce the effects of aerial attacks. He had a deep aversion to dictatorships, whether from
the right or left, and during the Munich crisis he acted as a courier for an underground group helping
anti-Nazis escape from Czechoslovakia.
Following graduation from Oxford, Kearny did geological exploration work in the Andes of Peru and
in the jungles of Venezuela. He has traveled also in Mexico, China, and the Philippines.
A year before Pearl Harbor, realizing that the United States would soon be at war and that our jungle
troops should have at least as good personal equipment, food, and individual medical supplies as do exploration geologists, he
quit his job with the Standard Oil Company of Venezuela, returned to the United States, and went on active duty as an infantry
reserve lieutenant. Kearny was soon assigned to Panama as the Jungle Experiment Officer of the Panama Mobile Force. In that
capacity he was able to improve or invent, and then thoroughly jungle-test, much of the specialized equipment and rations used
by our jungle infantrymen in World War II. For this work he was promoted to major and awarded the Legion of Merit.
To take his chances in combat, in 1944 the author volunteered for duty with the Office of Strategic Services. As a demolition
specialist helping to limit the Japanese invasion then driving into the wintry mountains of southern China, he saw mass starvation
and death first hand. The experiences gained in this capacity also resulted in an increased understanding of both the physical
and emotional problems of people whose country is under attack.
Worry about the increasing dangers of nuclear war and America's lack of civil defense caused the author in 1961 to consult
Herman Kahn, a leading nuclear strategist. Kahn, who was at that time forming a nonprofit war-research organization, the
Hudson Institute, offered him work as a research analyst. Two years of civil defense research in this "think tank" made the
author much more knowledgeable of survival problems.
In 1964 he joined the Oak Ridge civil defense project and since then Oak Ridge has been Kearny's base of operations, except
for two years during the height of the Vietnam war. For his Vietnam work on combat equipment, and also for his contributions
to preparations for improving survivability in the event of a nuclear war, he received the Army's Decoration for Distinguished
Civilian Service in 1972.
This book draws extensively on Kearny's understanding of the problems of civil defense acquired as a result of his own field
testing of shelters and other survival needs, and also from an intensive study of the serious civil defense preparations undertaken
by other countries, including Switzerland, Sweden, the USSR, and China. He initiated and edited the Oak Ridge National
Laboratory translations of Soviet civil defense handbooks and of a Chinese manual, and gained additional knowledge from
these new sources. Trips to England, Europe, and Israel also expanded his information on survival measures, which contributed
to the Nuclear War Survival Skills. However, the book advocates principally those do-it-yourself instructions that field tests
have proved to be practical.
(Signature)
Eugene P. Wigner. Physicist, Nobel Laureate, and the only surviving initiator of the Nuclear Age.
May, 1979
Book Page: 4
Acknowledgments
The author takes this opportunity to thank the following persons for their special contributions, without
many of which it would have been impossible to have written this book:
L. Joe Deal, James L. Liverman, and W. W. Schroebel for the essential support they made possible
over the years, first by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, next by the Energy Research and
Development Administration, and then by the Department of Energy. This support was the basis of the
laboratory work and field testing that produced most of the survival instructions developed between
1964 and 1979, given in this book. Mr. Schroebel also reviewed early and final drafts and made a
number of improvements.
John A. Auxier, Ph.D., health physicist, who for years was Director of the Industrial Safety and
Applied Health Physics Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL)-for manuscript review and
especially for checking statements regarding the effects of radiation on people.
Conrad V. Chester, Ph.D., chemical engineer, civil defense researcher, developer of improved
defenses against exotic weapons and unconventional attacks, nuclear strategist, and currently Group
Leader, Emergency Planning Group, ORNL-for advice and many contributions, starting with the initial
organization of material and continuing through all the drafts of the original and this edition.
William K. Chipman, LLD, Office of Civil Preparedness, Federal Emergency Management Agency-for
review in 1979 of the final draft of the original ORNL edition.
George A. Cristy, M.S., who for many years was a chemical engineer and civil defense researcher at
ORNL-for contributions to the planning of the original edition and editing of early drafts.
Kay B. Franz, Ph.D., nutritionist, Associate Professor, Food Science and Nutrition Department,
Brigham Young University- for information and advice used extensively in the Food chapter.
Samuel Glasstone, Ph.D., physical chemist and the leading authority on the effects of nuclear weapons-for overall review and
constructive recommendations, especially regarding simplified explanations of the effects of nuclear weapons.
Carsten M. Haaland, M.S., physicist and civil defense researcher at ORNL-for scientific advice and mathematical
computations of complex nuclear phenomena.
Robert H. Kupperman, Ph.D., physicist, in 1979 the Chief Scientist, U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency,
Department of State-for review of the final draft of the 1979
David B. Nelson, Ph.D., electrical engineer and mathematician, for years a civil defense and thermonuclear energy researcher at
ORNL, an authority on electromagnetic pulse (EMP) problems-for manuscript review and contributions to sections on
electromagnetic pulse phenomena, fallout monitoring instruments, and communications.
Lewis V. Spencer, Ph.D., for many years a physicist with the Radiation Physics Division, Center for Radiation Research,
National Bureau of Standards-for his calculations and advice regarding needed improvements in the design of blast shelters to
assure adequate protection of occupants against excessive exposure to initial nuclear radiation.
Edward Teller, Ph.D., nuclear physicist, leading inventor of offensive and defensive weapons, a strong supporter of' civil
defense at Oak Ridge National Laboratory and worldwide-for contributing the Foreword, originally written for the American
Security Council 1980 edition, and for his urging which motivated the author to work on this 1987 edition.
Eugene P. Wigner, Ph.D., physicist and mathematician, Nobel laureate, Professor Emeritus of Theoretical Physics, Princeton
University, a principal initiator of the Nuclear Age and a prominent leader of the civil defense movement-for encouraging the
writing of the original edition of this book, contributing the About the Author section, and improving drafts, especially of the
appendix on expedient blast shelters.
Edwin N. York, M.S., nuclear physicist, Senior Research Engineer, Boeing Aerospace Company, designer of blast-protective
structures-for overall review and recommendations, particularly those based on his extensive participation in nuclear and
conventional blast tests, and for improving both the original and this edition.
Civil defense officials in Washington and several states for information concerning strengths and weaknesses of official civil
defense preparations.
Helen C. Jernigan for editing the 1979 manuscript, and especially for helping to clarify technical details for non-technical
readers.
May E. Kearny for her continuing help in editing, and for improving the index.
Ruby N. Thurmer for advice and assistance with editing the original edition.
Marjorie E. Fish for her work on the photographs and drawings.
Janet Sprouse for typing and typesetting the additions in the 1987 edition.
Book Page: 5
Copyright 2000 Nuclear War Survival Skills
Introduction
SELF-HELP CIVIL DEFENSE
Your best hope of surviving a nuclear war in this century is self-help civil defense - knowing the basic
facts about nuclear weapon effects and what you, your family, and small groups can do to protect
yourselves. Our Government continues to downgrade war-related survival preparations and spends
only a few cents a year to protect each American against possible war dangers. During the 10 years or
more before the Strategic Defense Initiative (Star Wars) weapons can be invented, developed and
deployed, self-help civil defense will continue to be your main hope of surviving if we suffer a nuclear
attack.
Most Americans hope that Star Wars will lead to the deployment of new weapons capable of
destroying attacking missiles and warheads in flight. However, no defensive system can be made
leak-proof. If Star Wars, presently only a research project, leads to a deployed defensive system, then
self-help civil defense will be a vital part of our hoped for, truly defensive system to prevent aggressions
and to reduce losses if deterrence fails.
PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF THIS BOOK
This book is written for the majority of Americans who want to improve their chances of surviving a
nuclear war, it brings together field-tested instructions that have enabled untrained Americans to make
expedient fallout shelters, air pumps to ventilate and cool shelters, fallout meters, and other expedient
life- support equipment. ('"Expedient" as used in civil defense work, describes equipment that can be
made by untrained citizens in 48 hours or less, while guided solely by field-tested, written instructions
and using only widely available materials and tools.) Also described are expedient ways to remove
even dissolved radioiodine from water, and to process and cook whole grains and soybeans, our main
food reserves. Successive versions of these instructions have been used successfully by families
working under simulated crisis conditions, and have been improved repeatedly by Oak Ridge National Laboratory civil defense
researchers and others over a period of 14 years. These improved instructions are the heart of this updated 1987 edition of the
original Oak Ridge National Laboratory survival book first published in 1979.
The average American has far too little information that would help him and his family and our country survive a nuclear attack,
and many of his beliefs about nuclear war are both false and dangerous. Since the A-bomb blasted Hiroshima and hurled
mankind into the Nuclear Age, only during a recognized crisis threatening nuclear war have most Americans been seriously
interested in improving their chances of surviving a nuclear attack. Both during and following the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962,
millions of Americans built fallout shelters or tried to obtain survival information. At that time most of the available survival
information was inadequate, and dangerously faulty in some respects as it still is in 1987. Widespread recognition of these civil
defense shortcomings has contributed to the acceptance by most Americans of one or both of two false beliefs:
One of these false beliefs is that nuclear war would be such a terrible catastrophe that it is an unthinkable impossibility. If this
were true, there would be no logical reason to worry about nuclear war or to make preparations to survive a nuclear attack.
The second false belief is that, if a nuclear war were to break out, it would be the end of mankind. If this were true, a rational
person would not try to improve his chances of surviving the unsurvivable.
This book gives facts that show these beliefs are false. History shows that once a weapon is invented it remains ready for use in
the arsenals of some nations and in time will be used. Researchers who have spent much time and effort learning the facts about
effects of nuclear weapons now know that all-out nuclear war would not be the end of mankind or of civilization. Even if our
country remained unprepared and were to be subjected to an all-out nuclear attack, many millions of Americans would survive
and could live through the difficult post-attack years.
Book Page: 6
WHY YOU AND YOUR FAMILY AND ALMOST ALL OTHER AMERICANS ARE LEFT UNPROTECTED
HOSTAGES TO THE SOVIET UNION
Unknown to most Americans, our Government lacks the defense capabilities that would enable the United States to stop being
dependent on a uniquely American strategic policy called Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD). MAD maintains that if both the
United States and Russia do not or can not adequately protect their people and essential industries, then neither will attack the
other.
An influential minority of Americans still believe that protecting our citizens and our vital industries would accelerate the arms
race and increase the risk of war. No wonder that President Reagan's advocacy of the Strategic Defense Initiative, derisively
called Star Wars, is subjected to impassioned opposition by those who believe that peace is threatened even by research to
develop new weapons designed to destroy weapons launched against us or our allies! No wonder that even a proposed small
increase in funding for civil defense to save lives if deterrence fails arouses stronger opposition from MAD supporters than do
most much larger expenditures for weapons to kill people!
RUSSIAN, SWISS, AND AMERICAN CIVIL DEFENSE
No nation other than the United States has advocated or adopted a strategy that purposely leaves its citizens unprotected
hostages to its enemies. The rulers of the Soviet Union never have adopted a MAD strategy and continue to prepare the
Russians to fight, survive, and win all types of wars. Almost all Russians have compulsory instruction to teach them about the
effects of nuclear and other mass-destruction weapons, and what they can do to improve their chances of surviving.
Comprehensive preparations have been made for the crisis evacuation of urban Russians to rural areas, where they and rural
Russians would make high-protection- factor expedient fallout shelters. Blast shelters to protect millions have been built in the
cities and near factories where essential workers would continue production during a crisis. Wheat reserves and other foods for
war survivors have been stored outside target areas. About 100,000 civil defense troops are maintained for control, rescue,
and post-attack recovery duties, The annual per capita cost of Russian civil defense preparations, if made at costs equivalent to
those in the United States, is variously estimated to be between $8 and $20.
Switzerland has the best civil defense system, one that already includes blast shelters for over 85 percent of all its citizens.
Swiss investment in this most effective kind of war-risk insurance has continued steadily for decades. According to Dr. Fritz
Sager, the Vice Director of Switzerland's civil defense, in 1984 the cost was the equivalent of $12.60 per capita.
In contrast, our Federal Emergency Management Agency, that includes nuclear attack preparedness among its many
responsibilities, will receive only about $126 million in fiscal 1987. This will amount to about 55 cents for each American. And
only a small fraction of this pittance will be available for nuclear attack preparedness! Getting out better self-help survival
instructions is about all that FEMA could afford to do to improve Americans' chances of surviving a nuclear war, unless
FEMA's funding for war-related civil defense is greatly increased.
PRACTICALITY OF MAKING SURVIVAL PREPARATIONS DURING A CRISIS
The emphasis in this book is on survival preparations that can be made in the last few days of a worsening crisis. However, the
measures put into effect during such a crisis can be very much more effective if plans and some preparations are completed well
in advance. It is hoped that persons who read this book will be motivated at least to make the preparations outlined in Chapter
16, Minimum Pre-Crisis Preparations.
Well-informed persons realize that a nuclear attack by the Soviet Union is unlikely to be a Pearl-Harbor-type of attack,
launched without warning. Strategists agree that a nuclear war most likely would begin after a period of days to- months of
worsening crisis. The most realistic of the extensive Russian plans and preparations to survive a nuclear war are based on using
at least several days during an escalating crisis to get most urban dwellers out of the cities and other high risk areas, to build or
improve shelters in all parts of the Soviet Union, and to protect essential machinery and the like. The Russians know that if they
are able to complete evacuation and sheltering plans before the outbreak of nuclear war, the number of their people killed
would be a small fraction of those who otherwise would die. Our satellites and other sources of intelligence would reveal such
massive movements within a day; therefore, under the most likely circumstances Americans would have several days in which
to make life-saving preparations.
Book Page: 7
The Russians have learned from the devastating wars they have survived that people are the most important asset to be saved.
Russian civil defense publications emphasize Lenin's justly famous statement: 'The primary productive factor of all humanity is
the laboring man, the worker. If he survives, we can save everything and restore everything. . . but we shall perish if we are not
able to save him." Strategists conclude that those in power in the Soviet Union are very unlikely to launch a nuclear attack until
they have protected most of their people.
The reassurance of having at least a few days of pre-attack warning, however, is lessening. The increasing numbers of Soviet
blast shelters and of first-strike offensive weapons capable of destroying our undefended retaliatory weapons will reduce the
importance of pre-attack city evacuation as a means of saving Russian lives. These ongoing developments will make it less
likely that Americans will have a few days' warning before a Soviet attack, and therefore should motivate our Government both
to deploy truly defensive Star Wars weapons and to build blast shelters to protect urban Americans.
Nuclear weapons that could strike the United States continue to increase in accuracy as well as numbers; the most modern
warheads usually can hit within a few hundred feet of their precise targets. The Soviet Union already has enough warheads to
target all militarily important fixed site objectives. These include our fixed-site weapons, command and control centers, military
installations, oil refineries and other industrial plants that produce war essentials, long runways, and major electric generating
plants. Many of these are either in or near cities. Because most Americans live in cities that contain strategically important
targets, urban Americans' best chance of surviving a heavy nuclear attack is to get out of cities during a worsening crisis and
into fallout shelters away from probable targets.
Most American civil defense advocates believe that it would be desirable for our Government to build and stock permanent
blast shelters. However, such permanent shelters would cost many tens of billions of dollars and are not likely to be undertaken
as a national objective. Therefore, field-tested instructions and plans are needed to enable both urban evacuees and rural
Americans to build expedient shelters and life-support equipment during a crisis.
SMALLER NUCLEAR ATTACKS ON AMERICA
Many strategists believe that the United States is more likely to suffer a relatively small nuclear attack than an all-out Soviet
onslaught. These possible smaller nuclear attacks include:
° A limited Soviet attack that might result if Russia's rulers were to conclude that an American President would be
likely to capitulate rather than retaliate if a partially disarming first strike knocked out most of our fixed-site and
retaliatory weapons, but spared the great majority of our cities. Then tens of millions of people living away from
missile silos and Strategic Air Force bases would need only fallout protection. Even Americans who live in large
metropolitan areas and doubt that they could successfully evacuate during a nuclear crisis should realize that in the
event of such a limited attack they would have great need for nuclear war survival skills.
° An accidental or unauthorized launching of one or several nuclear weapons that would explode on America.
Complex computerized weapon systems and/or their human operators are capable of making lethal errors.
° A small attack on the United States by the fanatical ruler of an unstable country that may acquire small nuclear
weapons and a primitive delivery system.
° A terrorist attack, that will be a more likely possibility once nuclear weapons become available in unstable
nations. Fallout dangers could extend clear across America. For example, a single small nuclear weapon exploded
in a West Coast city would cause lethal fallout hazards to unsheltered persons for several miles downwind from
the part of the city devastated by blast and fire. It also would result in deposition of fallout in downwind localities
up to hundreds of miles away, with radiation dose rates hundreds of times higher than the normal background.
Fallout would be especially heavy in areas of rain- out; pregnant women and small children in those areas,
following peacetime standards for radiation protection, might need to stay sheltered for weeks. Furthermore, in
localities spotted across the United States, milk would be contaminated by radioiodine.
Surely in future years nuclear survival know-how will become an increasingly important part of every prudent person's
education.
Book Page: 8
WHY THIS 1987 EDITION?
This updated and augmented edition is needed to give you:
° Information on how changes since 1979 in the Soviet nuclear arsenal - especially the great reductions in the sizes
of Russian warheads and increases in their accuracy and number - both decrease and increase the dangers we all
face. You need this information to make logical decisions regarding essentials of your survival planning, including
whether you should evacuate during a worsening crisis or build or improvise shelter at or near your home.
° Instructions for making and using self-help survival items that have been rediscovered, invented or improved
since 1979. These do-it- yourself items include: (1) Directional Fanning, the simplest way to ventilate shelters
through large openings; (2) the Plywood Double-Action Piston Pump, to ventilate shelters through pipes; and (3)
the improved KFM, the best homemakeable fallout meter.
° Facts that refute two demoralizing anti- defense myths that have been conceived and propagandized since 1979:
the myth of blinding post-attack ultra-violet radiation and the myth of unsurvivable "nuclear winter"
° Current information on advantages and disadvantages, prices, and sources of some manufactured survival items
for which there is greatest need.
° Updated facts on low cost survival foods and on expedient means for processing and cooking whole-kernel
grains, soybeans, and other over- produced basic foods. Our Government stores no food as a war reserve and
has not given even civil defense workers the instructions needed to enable survivors to make good use of
America's unplanned, poorly distributed, large stocks of unprocessed foods.
° Updated information on how to obtain and use prophylactic potassium iodide to protect your thyroid against
injury both from war fallout, and also from peacetime fallout if the United States suffers its first commercial nuclear
power reactor accident releasing life endangering radiation.
° Instructions for building, furnishing, and stocking economical, permanent home fallout shelters designed for dual
use-in a new chapter.
° Information on what you can do to prevent sickness if fallout from an overseas nuclear war in which the United
States is not a belligerent is blown across the Pacific and deposited on America - in a new chapter.
EXOTIC WEAPONS
Chemical and biological weapons and neutron warheads are called "exotic weapons". Protective measures against these
weapons are not emphasized in this book, because its purpose is to help Americans improve their chances of surviving what is
by far the most likely type of attack on the United States: a nuclear attack directed against war-related strategic targets.
Chemical Weapons are inefficient killing agents compared to typical nuclear warheads and bombs. Even if exterminating the
unprepared population of a specified large area were an enemy's objective, this would require a delivered payload of deadly
chemical weapons many hundreds of times heavier than if large nuclear weapons were employed.
Biological Weapons are more effective but less reliable than chemical weapons. They are more dependent on favorable
meteorological conditions, and could destroy neither our retaliatory weapons nor our war-supporting installations. They could
not kill or incapacitate well protected military personnel manning our retaliatory weapons. And a biological attack could not
prevent, but would invite, U.S. nuclear retaliatory strikes.
Neutron Warheads are small, yet extremely expensive. A 1-kiloton neutron warhead costs about as much as a I-megaton
ordinary warhead, but the ordinary warhead not only has 1000 times the explosive power but also can be surface-burst to
cover a very large area with deadly fallout.
REWARDS
My greatest reward for writing Nuclear War Survival Skills is the realization that the hundreds of thousands of copies of the
original edition which have been sold since 1979 already have provided many thousands of people with survival information that
may save their lives. Especially rewarding have been the thanks of readers - particularly mothers with small children - for having
given them hope of surviving a nuclear war. Rekindled, realistic hope has caused some readers to work to improve their and
their families' chances of surviving, ranging from making preparations to evacuate high risk areas during an all too possible
worsening crisis, to building and stocking permanent shelters.
Because I wrote the original Nuclear War Survival Skills while working at Oak Ridge National Laboratory at the American
taxpayers
Book Page: 9
expense, I have no proprietary interest either in the original 1979 Government edition or in any of the privately printed
reproductions. I have gotten nothing but satisfaction from the reported sales of over 400,000 copies privately printed and sold
between 1979 and 1987. Nor will I receive any monetary reward in the future from my efforts to give better survival
instructions to people who want to improve their chances of surviving a nuclear attack.
AVAILABILITY
None of the material that appeared in the original Oak Ridge National Laboratory un- copyrighted 1979 edition can be
covered by a legitimate copyright; it can be reproduced by anyone, without receiving permission. Much new material, which I
have written since my retirement in 1979 from Oak Ridge National Laboratory, has been added, and is printed in a different
type. To assure that this new material also can be made widely available to the public at low cost, without getting permission
from or paying anyone, I have copyrighted my new material in the unusual way specified by this 1987 edition's copyright notice.
RECOMMENDED ACTIONS
Work to persuade the President, your Congressmen, your Senators, and other leaders to support improved nuclear war
survival preparations, starting with increased funding for war- related civil defense. Urge them to approve and fund the early
deployment of truly defensive weapons that tests already have proven capable of destroying some warheads in flight. (Attempts
to develop perfect defenses postpone or prevent the attainment of improved defenses.)
Obtain and study the best survival instructions available long before a crisis occurs. Better yet, also make preparations, such
as the ones described in this book, to increase your and your family's chances of surviving.
During a crisis threatening nuclear attack, present uncertainties regarding the distribution of reliable survival information seem
likely to continue. Thoroughly field-tested survival instructions are not likely to be available to most Americans. Furthermore,
even a highly intelligent citizen, if given excellent instructions during a crisis, would not have time to learn basic facts about
nuclear dangers and the reasons for various survival preparations. Without this understanding, no one can do his best at
following any type of survival instructions.
By following the instructions in this book, you and your family can increase the odds favoring your survival. If such instructions
were made widely available from official sources, and if our Government urged all Americans to follow them during a worsening
crisis lasting at least several days, additional millions would survive an attack. And the danger of an attack, even the threat of an
attack, could be decreased if an enemy nation knew that we had significantly improved our defenses in this way.
Book Page: 11
Nuclear War Survival Skills
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Ch. 1: The Dangers from Nuclear Weapons: Myths
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An all-out nuclear war between Russia and the United States would be the
worst catastrophe in history, a tragedy so huge it is difficult to comprehend.
Even so, it would be far from the end of human life on earth. The dangers
from nuclear weapons have been distorted and exaggerated, for varied reasons. These exaggerations
have become demoralizing myths, believed by millions of Americans.
While working with hundreds of Americans building expedient shelters and life-support equipment, I
have found that many people at first see no sense in talking about details of survival skills. Those who
hold exaggerated beliefs about the dangers from nuclear weapons must first be convinced that nuclear
war would not inevitably be the end of them and everything worthwhile. Only after they have begun to
question the truth of these myths do they become interested, under normal peacetime conditions, in
acquiring nuclear war survival skills. Therefore, before giving detailed instructions for making and using
survival equipment, we will examine the most harmful of the myths about nuclear war dangers, along
with some of the grim facts.
° Myth: Fallout radiation from a nuclear war would poison the air and all parts of the environment. It
would kill everyone. (This is the demoralizing message of On the Beach and many similar
pseudoscientific books and articles.)
° Facts: When a nuclear weapon explodes near enough to the ground for its fireball to touch the
ground, it forms a crater. (See Fig. 1.1.)
Fig. 1.1. A surface burst. In a surface or near-surface burst, the fireball touches the ground
and blasts a crater. ORNL-DWG 786264
Book Page: 12
Many thousands of tons of earth from the crater of a large explosion are pulverized into trillions of particles. These particles are
contaminated by radioactive atoms produced by the nuclear explosion. Thousands of tons of the particles are carried up into a
mushroom-shaped cloud, miles above the earth. These radioactive particles then fall out of the mushroom cloud, or out of the
dispersing cloud of particles blown by the winds thus becoming fallout.
Each contaminated particle continuously gives off invisible radiation, much like a tiny X-ray machine while in the mushroom
cloud, while descending, and after having fallen to earth. The descending radioactive particles are carried by the winds like the
sand and dust particles of a miles-thick sandstorm cloud except that they usually are blown at lower speeds and in many areas
the particles are so far apart that no cloud is seen. The largest, heaviest fallout particles reach the ground first, in locations close
to the explosion. Many smaller particles are carried by the winds for tens to thousands of miles before falling to earth. At any
one place where fallout from a single explosion is being deposited on the ground in concentrations high enough to require the
use of shelters, deposition will be completed within a few hours.
The smallest fallout particles those tiny enough to be inhaled into a person's lungs are invisible to the naked eye. These tiny
particles would fall so slowly from the four-mile or greater heights to which they would be injected by currently deployed Soviet
warheads that most would remain airborne for weeks to years before reaching the ground. By that time their extremely wide
dispersal and radioactive decay would make them much less dangerous. Only where such tiny particles are promptly brought to
earth by rain- outs or snow-outs in scattered "hot spots," and later dried and blown about by the winds, would these invisible
particles constitute a long-term and relatively minor post-attack danger.
The air in properly designed fallout shelters, even those without air filters, is free of radioactive particles and safe to breathe
except in a few' rare environments as will be explained later.
Fortunately for all living things, the danger from fallout radiation lessens with time. The radioactive decay, as this lessening is
called, is rapid at first, then gets slower and slower. The dose rate (the amount of radiation received per hour) decreases
accordingly. Figure 1.2 illustrates the rapidity of the decay of radiation from fallout during the first two days after the nuclear
explosion that produced it. R stands for roentgen, a measurement unit often used to measure exposure to gamma rays and X
rays. Fallout meters called dosimeters measure the dose received by recording the number of R. Fallout meters called survey
meters, or dose-rate meters, measure the dose rate by recording the number of R being received per hour at the time of
measurement. Notice that it takes about seven times as long for the dose rate to decay from 1000 roentgens per hour (1000
R/hr) to 10 R/hr (48 hours) as to decay from 1000 R/hr to 100 R/hr (7 hours). (Only in high-fallout areas would the dose rate
1 hour after the explosion be as high as 1000 roentgens per hour.)
Fig. 1.2. Decay of the dose rate of radiation from fallout, from the time of the explosion, not from the time of fallout
deposition. ORNL.DWG 78-265
Book Page: 13
If the dose rate 1 hour after an explosion is 1000 R/hr, it would take about 2 weeks for the dose rate to be reduced to 1 R/hr
solely as a result of radioactive decay. Weathering effects will reduce the dose rate further,' for example, rain can wash fallout
particles from plants and houses to lower positions on or closer to the ground. Surrounding objects would reduce the radiation
dose from these low-lying particles.
Figure 1.2 also illustrates the fact that at a typical location where a given amount of fallout from an explosion is deposited later
than 1 hour after the explosion, the highest dose rate and the total dose received at that location are less than at a location
where the same amount of fallout is deposited 1 hour after the explosion. The longer fallout particles have been airborne before
reaching the ground, the less dangerous is their radiation.
Within two weeks after an attack the occupants of most shelters could safely stop using them, or could work outside the
shelters for an increasing number of hours each day. Exceptions would be in areas of extremely heavy fallout such as might
occur downwind from important targets attacked with many weapons, especially missile sites and very large cities. To know
when to come out safely, occupants either would need a reliable fallout meter to measure the changing radiation dangers, or
must receive information based on measurements made nearby with a reliable instrument.
The radiation dose that will kill a person varies considerably with different people. A dose of 450 R resulting from exposure of
the whole body to fallout radiation is often said to be the dose that will kill about half the persons receiving it, although most
studies indicate that it would take somewhat less.1 (Note: A number written after a statement refers the reader to a source
listed in the Selected References that follow Appendix D.) Almost all persons confined to expedient shelters after a nuclear
attack would be under stress and without clean surroundings or antibiotics to fight infections. Many also would lack adequate
water and food. Under these unprecedented conditions, perhaps half the persons who received a whole-body dose of 350 R
within a few days would die.2
Fortunately, the human body can repair most radiation damage if the daily radiation doses are not too large. As will be
explained in Appendix B, a person who is healthy and has not been exposed in the past two weeks to a total radiation dose of
more than 100 R can receive a dose of 6 R each day for at least two months without being incapacitated.
Only a very small fraction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki citizens who survived radiation doses some of which were nearly fatal
have suffered serious delayed effects. The reader should realize that to do essential work after a massive nuclear attack, many
survivors must be willing to receive much larger radiation doses than are normally permissible. Otherwise, too many workers
would stay inside shelter too much of the time, and work that would be vital to national recovery could not be done. For
example, if the great majority of truckers were so fearful of receiving even non-incapacitating radiation doses that they would
refuse to transport food, additional millions would die from starvation alone.
° Myth: Fallout radiation penetrates everything; there is no escaping its deadly effects.
° Facts: Some gamma radiation from fallout will penetrate the shielding materials of even an excellent shelter and reach its
occupants. However, the radiation dose that the occupants of an excellent shelter would receive while inside this shelter can be
reduced to a dose smaller than the average American receives during his lifetime from X rays and other radiation exposures
normal in America today. The design features of such a shelter include the use of a sufficient thickness of earth or other heavy
shielding material. Gamma rays are like X rays, but more penetrating. Figure 1.3 shows how rapidly gamma rays are reduced in
number (but not in their ability to penetrate) by layers of packed earth. Each of the layers shown is one halving-thickness of
packed earth- about 3.6 inches (9 centimeters).3 A halving- thickness is the thickness of a material which reduces by half the
dose of radiation that passes through it.
The actual paths of gamma rays passing through shielding materials are much more complicated, due to scattering, etc., than are
the straight-line paths shown in Fig. 1.3. But when averaged out, the effectiveness of a halving-thickness of any material is
approximately as shown. The denser a substance, the better it serves for shielding material. Thus, a halving-thickness of
concrete is only about 2.4 inches (6.1 cm).
Book Page: 14
Fig. 1.3. Illustration of shielding against fallout radiation. Note the increasingly large improvements in the
attenuation (reduction) factors that are attained as each additional halving-thickness of packed earth is added.
ORNL-DWG 78-18834
If additional halving-thicknesses of packed earth shielding are successively added to the five thicknesses shown in Fig. 1.3, the
protection factor (PF) is successively increased from 32 to 64, to 128, to 256, to 512, to 1024, and so on.
° Myth: A heavy nuclear attack would set practically everything on fire, causing "firestorms" in cities that would exhaust the
oxygen in the air. All shelter occupants would be killed by the intense heat.
° Facts: On aclear day, thermal pulses (heat radiation that travels at the speed of light) from an air burst can set fire to easily
ignitable materials (such as window curtains, upholstery, dry newspaper, and dry grass) over about as large an area as is
damaged by the blast. It can cause second-degree skin burns to exposed people who are as far as ten miles from a
one-megaton (1 MT) explosion. (See Fig. 1.4.) (A 1-MT nuclear explosion is one that produces the same amount of energy
as does one million tons of TNT.) If the weather is very clear and dry, the area of fire danger could be considerably larger. On
a cloudy or smoggy day, however, particles in the air would absorb and scatter much of the heat radiation, and the area
endangered by heat radiation from the fireball would be less than the area of severe blast damage.
Book Page: 15
Fig. 1.4. An air burst. Thefireball does not touch the ground. No crater. An air burst produces only extremely small
radioactive particles-so small that they are airborne for days to years unless brought to earth by rain or snow. Wet
deposition of fallout from both surface and air bursts can result in '"hot spots" at, close to, or far from ground zero.
However, such '"hot spots" from air bursts are much less dangerous than the fallout produced by the surface or
near-surface bursting of the same weapons.
The main dangers from an air burst are the blast effects, the thermal pulses of intense light and heat radiation, and the
very penetrating initial nuclear radiation from the fireball. ORNL.DWG 78.6267
"Firestorms" could occur only when the concentration of combustible structures is very high, as in the very dense centers of a
few old American cities. At rural and suburban building densities, most people in earth- covered fallout shelters would not have
their lives endangered by fires.
° Myth: In theworst-hit parts of Hiroshima and Nagasaki where all buildings were demolished, everyone was killed by blast,
radiation, or fire.
° Facts: InNagasaki, some people survived uninjured who were far inside tunnel shelters built for conventional air raids and
located as close as one-third mile from ground zero (the point directly below the explosion). This was true even though these
long, large shelters lacked blast doors and were deep inside the zone within which all buildings were destroyed. (People far
inside long, large, open shelters are better protected than are those inside small, open shelters.)
Fig. 1.5. Undamaged earth-covered family shelter in Nagasaki.
Many earth-covered family shelters were essentially undamaged in areas where blast and fire destroyed all buildings. Figure 1.5
shows a typical earth covered, backyard family shelter with a crude wooden frame. This shelter was essentially undamaged,
although less than 100 yards from ground zero at Nagasaki.4 The calculated maximum overpressure (pressure above the
normal air pressure) was about 65 pounds per square inch (65 psi). Persons inside so small a shelter without a blast doorwould
have been killed by blast pressure at this distance from the explosion. However, in a recent blast test,5 an earth-covered,
expedient Small-Pole Shelter equipped with blast doors was undamaged at 53 psi. The pressure rise inside was slight not even
enough to have damaged occupants' eardrums. If poles are available, field tests have indicated that many families can build such
shelters in a few days.
The great life-saving potential of blast-protective shelters has been proven in war and confirmed by blast tests and calculations.
For example, the area in which the air bursting of a 1-megaton weapon would wreck a 50-psi shelter with blast doors in about
2.7 square miles. Within this roughly circular area, practically all them occupants of wrecked shelters would be killed by blast,
carbon monoxide from fires, or radiation. The same blast effects would kill most people who were using basements affording 5
psi protection, over an area of about 58 square miles.6
° Myth: Because some modern H-bombs are over 1000 times as powerful as the A-bomb that destroyed most of Hiroshima,
these H-bombs are 1000 times as deadly and destructive.
° Facts: A nuclear weapon 1000 times as powerful as the one that blasted Hiroshima, if exploded under comparable
conditions, produces equally serious blast damage to wood-frame houses over an area up to about 130 times as large, not
1000 times as large.
Book Page: 16
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For example, air bursting a 20-kiloton weapon at the optimum height to destroy most buildings will destroy or severely damage
houses out to about 1.42 miles from ground zero.6 The circular area of at least severe blast damage will be about 6.33 square
miles. (The explosion of a 20 kiloton weapon releases the same amount of energy as 20 thousand tons of TNT.) One thousand
20-kiloton weapons thus air burst, well separated to avoid overlap of their blast areas, would destroy or severely damage
houses over areas totaling approximately 6,330 square miles. In contrast, similar air bursting of one 20- megaton weapon
(equivalent in explosive power to 20 million tons of TNT) would destroy or severely damage the great majority of houses out to
a distance of 16 miles from ground zero.6 The area of destruction would be about 800 square miles - not 6,330 square miles.
Today few if any of Russia's huge intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) are armed with a 20-megaton warhead. Now a
huge Russian ICBM, the SS-18, typically carries 10 warheads, each having a yield of 500 kilotons, each programmed to hit a
separate target. See Jane's Weapon Systems, 1987-88.
° Myth: A Russian nuclear attack on the United States would completely destroy all American cities.
° Facts: As long as Soviet leaders are rational they will continue to give first priority to knocking out our weapons and other
military assets that can damage Russia and kill Russians. To explode enough nuclear weapons of any size to completely destroy
American cities would be an irrational waste of warheads. The Soviets can make much better use of most of the warheads that
would be required to completely destroy American cities; the majority of those warheads probably already are targeted to
knock out our retaliatory missiles by being surface burst or near-surface burst on their hardened silos, located far from most
cities and densely populated areas.
Unfortunately, many militarily significant targets - including naval vessels in port and port facilities, bombers and fighters on the
ground, air base and airport facilities that can be used by bombers, Army installations, and key defense factories - are in or
close to American cities. In the event of an all-out Soviet attack, most of these '"soft" targets would be destroyed by air bursts.
Air bursting (see Fig. 1.4) a given weapon subjects about twice as large an area to blast effects severe enough to destroy "soft"
targets as does surface bursting (see Fig. 1.1) the same weapon. Fortunately for Americans living outside blast and fire areas,
air bursts produce only very tiny particles. Most of these extremely small radioactive particles remain airborne for so long that
their radioactive decay and wide dispersal before reaching the ground make them much less life- endangering than the promptly
deposited larger fallout particles from surface and near-surface bursts. However, if you are a survival minded American you
should prepare to survive heavy fallout wherever you are. Unpredictable winds may bring fallout from unexpected directions.
Or your area may be in a "hot spot" of life-endangering fallout caused by a rain-out or snow-out of both small and tiny particles
from distant explosions. Or the enemy may use surface or near-surface bursts in your part of the country to crater long runways
or otherwise disrupt U.S. retaliatory actions by producing heavy local fallout.
Today few if any of Russia's largest intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) are armed with a 20-megaton warhead. A huge
Russian ICBM, the SS-18, typically carries 10 warheads each having a yield of 500 kilotons, each programmed to hit a
separate target. See "Jane's Weapon Systems. 1987-1988." However, in March 1990 CIA Director William Webster told
the U.S. Senate Armed Services Committee that ".... The USSR's strategic modernization program continues unabated," and
that the SS-18 Mod 5 can carry 14 to 20 nuclear warheads. The warheads are generally assumed to be smaller than those of
the older SS-18s.
° Myth: So much food and water will be poisoned by fallout that people will starve and die even in fallout areas where there is
enough food and water.
° Facts: If the falloutparticles do not become mixed with the parts of food that are eaten, no harm is done. Food and water in
dust-tight containers are not contaminated by fallout radiation. Peeling fruits and vegetables removes essentially all fallout, as
does removing the uppermost several inches of stored grain onto which fallout particles have fallen. Water from many sources
-- such as deep wells and covered reservoirs, tanks, and containers -- would not be contaminated. Even water containing
dissolved radioactive elements and compounds can be made safe for drinking by simply filtering it through earth, as described
later in this book.
° Myth: Most of the unborn children and grandchildren of people who have been exposed to radiation from nuclear explosions
will be genetically damaged will be malformed, delayed victims of nuclear war.
° Facts: The authoritative study by the National Academy of Sciences, A Thirty Year Study of the Survivors qf Hiroshima
and Nagasaki, was published in 1977. It concludes that the incidence of abnormalities is no higher among children later
conceived by parents who were exposed to radiation during the attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki than is the incidence of
abnormalities among Japanese children born to un-exposed parents.
This is not to say that there would be no genetic damage, nor that some fetuses subjected to large radiation doses would not be
damaged. But the overwhelming evidence does show that the exaggerated fears of radiation damage to future generations are
not supported by scientific findings.
° Myth: Overkill would result if all the U.S. and U.S.S.R, nuclear weapons were used meaning not only that the two
superpowers have more than enough weapons to kill all of each other's people, but also that they have enough weapons to
exterminate the human race.
Book Page: 17
° Facts: Statements that the U.S. and the Soviet Union have the power to kill the world's population several times over are
based on misleading calculations. One such calculation is to multiply the deaths produced per kiloton exploded over Hiroshima
or Nagasaki by an estimate of the number of kilotons in either side's arsenal. (A kiloton explosion is one that produces the same
amount of energy as does 1000 tons of TNT.) The unstated assumption is that somehow the world's population could be
gathered into circular crowds, each a few miles in diameter with a population density equal to downtown Hiroshima or
Nagasaki, and then a small (Hiroshima-sized) weapon would be exploded over the center of each crowd. Other misleading
calculations are based on exaggerations of the dangers from long-lasting radiation and other harmful effects of a nuclear war.
° Myth: Blindness and a disastrous increase of cancers would be the fate of survivors of a nuclear war, because the nuclear
explosions would destroy so much of the protective ozone in the stratosphere that far too much ultraviolet light would reach the
earth's surface. Even birds and insects would be blinded. People could not work outdoors in daytime for years without dark
glasses, and would have to wear protective clothing to prevent incapacitating sunburn. Plants would be badly injured and food
production greatly reduced.
° Facts: Large nuclear explosions do inject huge amounts of nitrogen oxides (gasses that destroy ozone) into the stratosphere.
However, the percent of the stratospheric ozone destroyed by a given amount of nitrogen oxides has been greatly
overestimated in almost all theoretical calculations and models. For example, the Soviet and U.S. atmospheric nuclear test
explosions of large weapons in 1952-1962 were calculated by Foley and Ruderman to result in a reduction of more than 10
percent in total ozone. (See M. H. Foley and M. A. Ruderman, 'Stratospheric NO from Past Nuclear Explosions", Journal of
Geophysics, Res. 78, 4441-4450.) Yet observations that they cited showed no reductions in ozone. Nor did ultraviolet
increase. Other theoreticians calculated sizable reductions in total ozone, but interpreted the observational data to indicate either
no reduction, or much smaller reductions than their calculated ones.
A realistic simplified estimate of the increased ultraviolet light dangers to American survivors of a large nuclear war equates
these hazards to moving from San Francisco to sea level at the equator, where the sea level incidence of skin cancers (seldom
fatal) is highest- about 10 times higher than the incidence at San Francisco. Many additional thousands of American survivors
might get skin cancer, but little or no increase in skin cancers might result if in the post-attack world deliberate sun tanning and
going around hatless went out of fashion. Furthermore, almost all of today's warheads are smaller than those exploded in the
large- weapons tests mentioned above; most would inject much smaller amounts of ozone-destroying gasses, or no gasses, into
the stratosphere, where ozone deficiencies may persist for years. And nuclear weapons smaller than 500 kilotons result in
increases (due to smog reactions) in upper tropospheric ozone. In a nuclear war, these increases would partially compensate
for the upper-level tropospheric decreases-as explained by Julius S. Chang and Donald J. Wuebbles of Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory.
° Myth: Unsurvivable "nuclear winter" surely will follow a nuclear war. The world will be frozen if only 100 megatons (less than
one percent of all nuclear weapons) are used to ignite cities. World-enveloping smoke from fires and the dust from surface
bursts will prevent almost all sunlight and solar heat from reaching the earth's surface. Universal darkness for weeks! Sub-zero
temperatures, even in summertime! Frozen crops, even in the jungles of South America! Worldwide famine! Whole species of
animals and plants exterminated! The survival of mankind in doubt!
° Facts: Unsurvivable "nuclear winter" is a discredited theory that, since its conception in 1982, has been used to frighten
additional millions into believing that trying to survive a nuclear war is a waste of effort and resources, and that only by ridding
the world of almost all nuclear weapons do we have a chance of surviving.
Non-propagandizing scientists recently havecalculated that the climatic and other environmental effects of even an all-out
nuclear war would be much less severe than the catastrophic effects repeatedly publicized by popular astronomer Carl Sagan
and his fellow activist scientists, and by all the involved Soviet scientists. Conclusions reached from these recent, realistic
calculations are summarized in an article, "Nuclear Winter Reappraised", featured in the 1986 summer issue of Foreign Affairs,
the prestigious quarterly of the Council on Foreign Relations. The authors, Starley L. Thompson and Stephen H. Schneider, are
atmospheric scientists with the National Center for Atmospheric Research. They showed " that on scientific grounds the global
apocalyptic conclusions of the initial nuclear winter hypothesis can now be relegated to a vanishing low level of probability."
Book Page: 18
Their models indicate that in July (when the greatest temperature reductions would result) the average temperature in the United
States would be reduced for a few days from about 70 degrees Fahrenheit to approximately 50 degrees. (In contrast, under
the same conditions Carl Sagan, his associates, and the Russian scientists predicted a resulting average temperature of about 10
degrees below zero Fahrenheit, lasting for many weeks!)
Persons who want to learn more about possible post-attack climatic effects also should read the Fall 1986 issue of Foreign
Affairs. This issue contains a long letter from Thompson and Schneider which further demolishes the theory of catastrophic
"nuclear winter." Continuing studies indicate there will be even smaller reductions in temperature than those calculated by
Thompson and Schneider.
Soviet propagandists promptly exploited belief in unsurvivable "nuclear winter" to increase fear of nuclear weapons and war,
and to demoralize their enemies. Because raging city firestorms are needed to inject huge amounts of smoke into the
stratosphere and thus, according to one discredited theory, prevent almost all solar heat from reaching the ground, the Soviets
changed their descriptions of how a modern city will burn if blasted by a nuclear explosion.
Figure 1.6 pictures how Russian scientists and civil defense officials realistically described - before the invention of "nuclear
winter" - the burning of a city hit by a nuclear weapon. Buildings in the blasted area for miles around ground zero will be
reduced to scattered rubble - mostly of concrete, steel, and other nonflammable materials - that will not burn in blazing fires.
Thus in the Oak Ridge National Laboratory translation (ORNL-TR-2793) of Civil Defense. Second Edition (500,000 copies),
Moscow, 1970, by Egorov, Shlyakhov, and Alabin, we read: "Fires do not occur in zones of complete destruction . . . that are
characterized by an overpressure exceeding 0.5 kg/cm2 [- 7 psi]., because rubble is scattered and covers the burning
structures. As a result the rubble only smolders, and fires as such do not occur."
Fig. 1.6. Drawing with Caption in a Russian Civil Defense Training Film Strip. The blazing fires ignited by a surface burst
are shown in standing buildings outside the miles-wide "zone of complete destruction," where the blast-hurled "rubble
only smolders."
Translation: [Radioactive] contamination occurs in the area of the explosion and also along the trajectory of the cloud
which forms a radioactive track.
Book Page: 19
Firestorms destroyed the centers of Hamburg, Dresden, and Tokyo. The old-fashioned buildings of those cities contained large
amounts of flammable materials, were ignited by many thousands of small incendiaries, and burned quickly as standing
structures well supplied with air. No firestorm has ever injected smoke into the stratosphere, or caused appreciable cooling
below its smoke cloud.
The theory that smoke from burning cities and forests and dust from nuclear explosions would cause worldwide freezing
temperatures was conceived in 1982 by the German atmospheric chemist and environmentalist Paul Crutzen, and continues to
be promoted by a worldwide propaganda campaign. This well funded campaign began in 1983 with televised scientific-political
meetings in Cambridge and Washington featuring American and Russian scientists. A barrage of newspaper and magazine
articles followed, including a scaremongering article by Carl Sagan in the October 30, 1983 issue of Parade, the Sunday tabloid
read by millions. The most influential article was featured in the December 23,1983 issue of Science (the weekly magazine of
the American Association for the Advancement of Science): "Nuclear winter, global consequences of multiple nuclear
explosions," by five scientists, R. P. Turco, O. B. Toon, T. P. Ackerman, J. B. Pollack, and C. Sagan. Significantly, these
activists listed their names to spell TTAPS, pronounced "taps," the bugle call proclaiming "lights out" or the end of a military
funeral.
Until 1985, non-propagandizing scientists did not begin to effectively refute the numerous errors, unrealistic assumptions, and
computer modeling weakness' of the TTAPS and related "nuclear winter" hypotheses. A principal reason is that government
organizations, private corporations, and most scientists generally avoid getting involved in political controversies, or making
statements likely to enable antinuclear activists to accuse them of minimizing nuclear war dangers, thus undermining hopes for
peace. Stephen Schneider has been called a fascist by some disarmament supporters for having written "Nuclear Winter
Reappraised," according to the Rocky Mountain News of July 6, 1986. Three days later, this paper, that until recently featured
accounts of unsurvivable "nuclear winter," criticized Carl Sagan and defended Thompson and Schneider in its lead editorial, "In
Study of Nuclear Winter, Let Scientists Be Scientists." In a free country, truth will out - although sometimes too late to
effectively counter fast-hittingpropaganda.
Effective refutation of "nuclear winter" also was delayed by the prestige of politicians and of politically motivated scientists and
scientific organizations endorsing the TTAPS forecast of worldwide doom. Furthermore, the weakness' in the TTAPS
hypothesis could not be effectively explored until adequate Government funding was made available to cover costs of lengthy,
expensive studies, including improved computer modeling of interrelated, poorly understood meteorological phenomena.
Serious climatic effects from a Soviet-U.S. nuclear war cannot be completely ruled out. However, possible deaths from
uncertain climatic effects are a small danger compared to the incalculable millions in many countries likely to die from starvation
caused by disastrous shortages of essentials of modern agriculture sure to result from a Soviet-American nuclear war, and by
the cessation of most international food shipments.
Book Page: 20
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Nuclear War Survival Skills
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Ch. 2: Warnings and Communications
IMPORTANCE OF ADEQUATE WARNING
When Hiroshima and Nagasaki were blasted by the first nuclear weapons ever to be used in war, very
few of the tens of thousands of Japanese killed or injured were inside their numerous air raid shelters.
The single-plane attacks caught them by surprise. People are not saved by having shelters nearby
unless they receive warning in time to reach their shelters and unless they heed that warning.
TYPES OF WARNINGS
Warnings are of two types, strategic and tactical.
° Strategic warning is based on observed enemy actions that are believed to be preparations for an
attack. For example, we would have strategic warning if powerful Russian armies were advancing into
western Europe and Soviet leaders were threatening massive nuclear destruction if the resisting nations
should begin to use tactical nuclear weapons. With strategic warning being given by news broadcasts
and newspapers over a period of days, Americans in areas that are probably targeted would have time
to evacuate. Given a day or more of warning, tens of millions of us could build or improve shelters and
in other ways improve our chances of surviving the feared attack. By doing so, we also would help
decrease the risk of attack.
° Tactical warning ofa nuclear attack on the United States 'would be received by our highest officials
a few minutes after missiles or other nuclear weapons had been launched against our country. Radar,
satellites and other sophisticated means of detection would begin to feed information into our military
warning systems almost at once. This raw information would have to be evaluated, and top- level
decisions would have to be made. Then attack warnings would have to be transmitted down to
communities all over America.
Tactical warning (attack warning) of an out-of- the-blue, Pearl-Harbor-type attack would be less likely to be received by the
average American than would an attack warning given after recognized strategic warning. However, the short time (only 15 to
40 minutes) that would elapse between missile launchings and the resultant first explosions on targets in the United States would
make it difficult for even an excellent warning system to alert the majority of Americans in time for them to reach the best
available nearby shelter.
Strengths and weaknesses of the present official warning system are summarized in the following two sections. Then the
life-saving warnings that the first nuclear explosions would give, especially to informed people, are described.
OFFICIAL WARNING SYSTEM
The U.S. official warning system is designed to give civilians timely warning by means of siren signals and radio and television
announcements. The National Warning System (NAWAS) is a wire-line network which is to provide attack information to
official warning points nationwide. NAWAS is not protected against electromagnetic pulse (EMP) effects from nuclear
explosions. When the information is received at warning points by the officials who are responsible, they will sound local sirens
and initiate radio and TV emergency broadcasts - if power has not failed. Officials at NAWAS warning points include many
local civil defense directors. NAWAS receives information from ourconstantly improving military warning and communications
systems.
Book Page: 23
SIREN WARNINGS
The Attack Warning Signal is a wavering, wailing sound on the sirens lasting three to five minutes, or a series of short blasts on
whistles or horns. After a brief pause, it is repeated. This signal means only one thing: take protective action- go promptly to the
best available shelter. Do not try to telephone for information; get information from a radio broadcast after you reach shelter. It
is Federal policy that the Attack Warning Signal will not be sounded unless an enemy attack on the United States has been
detected. However, since local authorities may not follow this policy, the reader is advised to check the plans in his community
before a crisis arises.
The following limitations of attack warnings given by sirens and broadcasting stations should be recognized:
° Only a relatively small fraction of urban Americans could hear the sirens in the present city systems, especially if most urban
citizens had evacuated during a crisis.
° Except in a crisis threatening the outbreak of nuclear war at any moment, most people who would hear the attack warning
signal either would not recognize it or would not believe it was a warning of actual attack.
° A coordinated enemy attack may include the detonation of a few' submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) at high
altitudes over the United States within a few minutes of the launching of hundreds of SLBMs and intercontinental ballistic
missiles (ICBMs). Such high-altitude bursts would produce electromagnetic pulse (EMP) effects primarily intended to knock
out or disrupt U.S. military communications. These EMP effects also could knock out the public power necessary to sound
sirens and could put most unprotected broadcasting stations off the air.
Radio warnings and emergency communications to the general public will be broadcast by the Emergency Broadcast System
(EBS). This system uses AM broadcasting stations as the primary means to reach the public; selected FM and TV stations are
included for backup. All stations during a crisis plan to use their normal broadcast frequencies.
EBS stations that are not put off the air by EMP or other effects of early explosions will attempt to confirm the siren warnings of
a nuclear attack. They will try to give information to listeners in the extensive areas where sirens and whistles cannot be heard.
However, EMP effects on telephones are likely to limit the information available to the stations. The functioning EBS stations
should be able to warn listeners to seek the best available nearby shelter in time for most of these listeners to reach such shelter
before ICBMs begin to explode. Limitations of the Emergency Broadcasting System in February 1986 included the fact that
EMP protection had been completed for only 125 of the approximately 2,771 radio stations in the Emergency Broadcast
System. One hundred and ten of 3,000 existing Emergency Operating Centers also had been protected against EMP effects.
Many of the protected stations would be knocked out by blast; most do not afford their operating personnel fallout protection
that is adequate for continuing broadcasts for long in areas subjected to heavy fallout.
WARNINGS GIVEN BY THE ATTACK ITSELF
The great majority of Americans would not be injured by the first explosions of a nuclear attack. In an all-out attack, the early
explosions would give sufficient warning for most people to reach nearby shelter in time. Fifteen minutes or more before big
intercontinental ballistic missiles (lCBMs) blasted our cities, missile sites, and other extensive areas, most citizens would see the
sky lit up to an astounding brightness, would hear the thunderous sounds of distant explosions, or would note the sudden outage
of electric power and most communications. These reliable attack warnings would result from the explosion of
submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs). These are smaller than many ICBMs. The SLBM warheads would explode on
Strategic Air Command bases and on many civilian airport runways that are long enough to be used by our big bombers. Some
naval bases and high-priority military command and communication centers would also be targeted.
The vast majority of Americans do not know how to use these warnings from explosions to help them save their lives. Neither
are they informed about the probable strategies of an enemy nuclear attack.
One of the first objectives of a coordinated enemy attack would be to destroy our long-range bombers, because each surviving
U.S. bomber would be one of our most deadly retaliatory weapons. Once bombers are airborne and well away from their
runways, they arc difficult to destroy.
Book Page: 24
To destroy our bombers before they could get away, the first SLBMs would be launched at the same time that ICBMs would
be fired from their silos in Europe and Asia. U.S. surveillance systems would detect launchings and transmit warnings within a
very few minutes. Since some enemy submarines would be only a few hundred miles from their targets, some SLBMs would
explode on American targets about 15 or 20 minutes before the first lCBMs would hit.
Some SLBMs would strike civilian airport runways that are at least 7000 Ft long. This is the minimum length required by
B-52s; there were 210 such runways in the U.S. in 1977. During a crisis, big bombers would be dispersed to many of these
long runways, and enemy SLBMs would be likely to target and hit these runways in an effort to destroy the maximum number
of bombers.
Today most Soviet SLBMs have warheadsbetween 100 kilotons and one megaton.See Jane's Weapon Systems, 1987-88.
Within 10 to 15 minutes of the beginning of an attack, runways 7000 feet or longer are likely to be hit by airbursts, to destroy
U.S. aircraft and airport facilities. Later cratering explosions may be used to destroy surviving long runways, or at least to
produce local fallout so heavy that they could not be used for several days for rearming and refueling our bombers. Therefore,
homes within about 4 miles of a runway at least 7000 ft long are likely to be destroyed before residents receive warning or have
time to reach blast shelters away from their homes. Homes six miles away could be lightly damaged by such a warhead, with
the blast wave from a 1-megaton explosion arriving about 22 seconds after the warning light. Some windows would be broken
40 miles away. But the large majority of citizens would not be injured by these early SLBM attacks. These explosions would
be life-saving "take cover warnings to most Americans, if they have been properly informed.
Sudden power and communications failures caused by the electromagnetic pulse (EM P) effects of nuclear explosions also
could serve as attack warnings in extensive areas. An EMP is an intense burst of radio- frequency radiation generated by a
nuclear explosion. The strong, quick-rising surges of electric current induced by EMP in power transmission lines and long
antennas could burn out most unprotected electrical and electronic equipment. Also likely to be damaged or destroyed would
be unprotected computers. The solid state electrical components of some aircraft and of some motors of modern autos, trucks,
and tractors may be put out of commission. Metal bodies give some protection, whereas plastic bodies give little.
The usual means of protecting electrical equipment against surges of current produced by lightning are generally ineffective
against EMP. The protective measures are known, but to date all too few civilian installations have been protected against EMP
effects. Three or four nuclear weapons skillfully spaced and detonated at high altitudes over the United States would produce
EMP effects that might knock out most public power, most radio and TV broadcasting stations lacking special protection
against these effects, and most radios connected to long antennas. Nuclear explosions on or near the ground may produce
damaging EMP effects over areas somewhat larger than those in which such equipment and buildings would be damaged by the
blast effects.
HOW TO RESPOND TO UNEXPECTED ATTACK WARNINGS
Although a Pearl-Harbor-type of attack is unlikely, citizens should be prepared to respond effectively to unexpected warnings.
These warnings include:
° Extremely bright lights -more light than has been seen before. The dazzling, bright lights of the first SLBM explosions on
targets in many parts of the United States would be seen by most Americans. One should not look to determine the source of
light and heat, because there is danger of the viewer's eyes being damaged by the heat and light from a large explosion at
distances as far as a hundred miles away, in clear weather. Look down and away from the probable source, and quickly get
behind anything that will shield you from most of the thermal pulse's burning heat and intense light. A thermal pulse delivers its
heat and light for several seconds- for more than 11 seconds if it is from a 1 -megaton surface burst and for approximately 44
seconds if from a 20- megaton surface burst.
If you are at home when you see the amazingly bright light, run out of rooms with windows. Hurry to a windowless hallway or
down into the basement. If you have a shelter close to your house, but separate from it, do not leave the best cover in your
home to run outdoors to reach the shelter; wait until about two minutes after first seeing the light.
If outdoors when you see the bright light, get behind the best available cover.
It would be impossible to estimate the distance to an explosion from its light or appearance, so you should stay under cover for
about two minutes. A blast wave initially travels much faster than the normal speed of sound (about 1 mile in 5 seconds). But by
the time its overpressure has decreased to 1 pound per square inch (psi), a blast wave and its thunderous sound have slowed
down and are moving only about 3% faster than the normal speed of sound.
Book Page: 25
If no blast or sound reaches you in two minutes, you would know that the explosion was over 25 miles away and you would
not be hurt by blast effects, unlesscut by shattered window glass. After two minutes you can safely leave the best cover in your
home and get a radio. Turn the dial to the stations to which you normally listen and try to find information. Meanwhile, quickly
make preparations to go to the best shelter you and your family can reach within IS minutes the probable time interval before
the first lCBMs start to explode.
At no time after an attack begins should you look out of a window or stay near a window. Under certain atmospheric
conditions, window's can be shattered by a multi-megaton explosion a hundred miles away.
° The sound of explosions. The thunderous booms of the initial SLBM explosions would be heard over almost all parts of the
United States. Persons one hundred miles away from a nuclear explosion may receive their first warning by hearing it about
7-1/2 minutes later. Most would have time to reach nearby shelter before the lCBMs begin to explode.
° Loss of electric power and communications. If the lights go out and you find that many radio and TV stations are suddenly off
the air, continue to dial if you have a battery-powered radio, and try to find a station that is still broadcasting.
HOW TO RESPOND TO ATTACK WARNINGS DURING A WORSENING CRISIS
If an attack takes place during a worsening crisis, the effectiveness of warnings would be greater. Even if our government did
not order an evacuation of high-risk areas, millions of Americans would already have moved to safer areas if they had learned
that the enemy's urban civilians were evacuating or that tactical nuclear weapons were being employed overseas. Many prudent
citizens would sleep inside the best available shelter and stay in or near shelter most of their waking hours. Many people would
have made or improved family car small-group shelters and would have supplied them with most essentials. The official warning
systems would have been fully alerted and improved.
During such a tense crisis period, neighbors or people sheltered near each other should have someone listen to radio stations at
all times of the day and night. If the situation worsened or an attack warning were broadcast, the listener could alert the others.
One disadvantage of waiting to build expedient shelters until there isa crisis is that many of the builders are likely to be outdoors
improving their shelters when the first SLBMs are launched. The SLBM warheads may arrive so soon that the civilian warning
systems cannot respond in time. To reduce the risk of being burned, persons working outdoors when expecting an attack
should wear shirts, hats, and gloves. They should jump into a shelter or behind a nearby shielding object at the first warning,
which may be the sudden cut-off of some radio broadcasts.
REMAINING INSIDE SHELTER
Curiosity and ignorance probably will cause many people to come out of shelters a few hours after an attack warning, if no
blast or obvious fallout has endangered their area. This is dangerous, because several hours after almost all missiles have been
launched the first enemy bombers may strike. Cities and other targets that have been spared because missiles malfunctioned or
missed are likely to be destroyed by nuclear bombs dropped during the first several days after the first attack.
Most people should stay inside their shelters for at least two or three days, even if they are in a locality far from a probable
target and even if fallout meter readings prove there is no dangerous fallout. Exceptions would include some of the people who
would need to improve shelters or move to better shelters. Such persons could do so at relatively small risk during the interval
between the ICBM explosions and the arrival of enemy bombers and; or the start of fallout deposition a few hours, later.
Fallout would cover most of the United States within 12 hours after a massive attack. People could rarely depend on
information received from distant radio stations regarding changing fallout dangers and advising when and for how long they
could go outside their shelters. Weather conditions such as wind speed would cause fallout dangers to vary with distance. If not
forced by thirst or hunger to leave shelter, they should depend on their own fallout meter readings or on radiation measurements
made by neighbors or local civil defense workers.
Book Page: 26
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Ch. 3: Psychological Preparations
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LEARNING WHAT TO EXPECT
The more one knows about the strange and fearful dangers from nuclear
weapons and about the strengths and weakness' of human beings when
confronted with the dangers of war, the better chance one has of surviving.
Terror, a self-destructive emotion, is almost always the result of unexpected
danger. Some people would think the end of the world was upon them if
they happened to be in an area downwind from surface bursts of nuclear
weapons that sucked millions of tons of pulverized earth into the air. They
might give up all hope if they did not understand what they saw. People are more likely to endure and
survive if they learn in advance that such huge dust clouds, particularly if combined with smoke from
great fires, may turn day into night as have some volcanic eruptions and the largest forest fires.
People also should expect thunder to crash in strange clouds, and the earth to shake. The sky may be
lit with the flickering purples and greens of "artificial auroras" caused by nuclear explosions, especially
those that are miles above the earth.
FEAR
Fear often is a life-saving emotion. When we believe death is close at hand, fear can increase our ability
to work harder and longer. Driven by fear, we can accomplish, feats that would be impossible
otherwise. Trembling hands, weak legs, and cold sweat do not mean that a person has become
ineffective. Doing hard, necessary work is one of the best ways to keep one's fears under control.
Brave men and women who are self-confident admit their fears, even when the threat of death is
remote. Then they plan and work to lessen the causes of their fears. (When the author helped Charles A. Lindbergh design a
reinforced-concrete blast shelter for his family and neighbors, Lindbergh frankly admitted that he feared both nuclear attack and
being trapped. He was able to lessen both of these fears by building an excellent blast shelter with two escape openings.)
TERROR
If the danger is unexpected enough or great enough, normal persons sometimes experience terror as well as fear. Terror
prevents the mind from evaluating dangers and thinking logically. It develops in two stages, which have been described by Dr.
Walo von Gregerz, a physician with much war experience, in his bookPsychology of Survival. The first stage is apathy:
people become indifferent to their own safety and are unable even to try to save themselves or their families. The second stage
is a compulsion to flee.
Anxiety, fear, and terror can result in symptoms very similar to those caused by radiation injury: nausea, vomiting, extreme
trembling, diarrhea. Dr. von Gregerz has described terror as being "explosively contagious." However, persons who learn to
understand the nature of our inherent human traits and behavior and symptoms are less likely to become terrorized and
ineffective in the event of a nuclear attack.
EMOTIONAL PARALYSIS
The most common reaction to great danger is not terror, but a kind of numbing of the emotions which actually may be helpful.
Dr. von Gregerz calls this "emotional paralysis. "This reaction allows many persons, when in the grip of great danger, to avoid
being overwhelmed by compassionate emotions and horrible sights. It permits them to think clearly and act effectively.
Book Page: 21
HELP FROM FELLOW AMERICANS
The atomic explosions that destroyed most of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were air bursts and therefore produced no deadly local
fallout. So we cannot be sure how people would behave in areas subjected to both blast and fallout from surface bursts.
However, the reactions of the Japanese survivors are encouraging, especially in view of the fact that among them the relative
number of horribly burned people was greater than is likely to be found among a population that expects a nuclear attack and
takes any sort of shelter. Dr. von Gregerz summarizes: "In most cases the victims were, of course, apathetic and often incapable
of rational action, but open panic or extremely disorganized behavior occurred only in exceptional cases among the hundreds of
thousands of survivors of the two atomic bombing attacks." Also encouraging: ". . . serious permanent psychological
derangements were rare after the atomic bomb attacks, just as they were after the large-scale conventional bombings."
ATOM BOMB SURVIVORS
Some maintain that after an atomic attack America would degenerate into anarchy an every- man-for-himself struggle for
existence. They forget the history of great human catastrophes and the self- sacrificing strengths most human beings are capable
of displaying. After a massive nuclear attack starvation would afflict some areas, but America's grain-producing regions still
would have an abundance of uncontaminated food. History indicates that Americans in the food-rich areas would help the
starving. Like the heroic Russians who drove food trucks to starving Leningrad through bursting Nazi bombs and shells.7 many
Americans would risk radiation and other dangers to bring truckloads of grain and other necessities to their starving
countrymen. Surely, an essential part of psychological preparations for surviving a modern war is a well- founded assurance
that many citizens of a strong society will struggle to help each other and will work together with little regard for danger and
loss.
Book Page: 22
Top
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Next
HOW TO KEEP RADIOS OPERATING
Having a radio to receive emergency broadcasts would be a great advantage. The stations that would still be on the air after an
attack would probably be too distant from most survivors to give them reliable information concerning local, constantly
changing fallout dangers. However, both morale and the prospects of long-range survival would be improved in shelters with a
radio bringing word of the large- area fallout situation, food-relief measures, practical survival skills, and what the government
and other organizations were doing to help. Radio contact with the outside world probably can be maintained after an attack if
you remember to:
° Bring all of your family's battery-powered, portable radios with you to shelter along with all fresh batteries on hand.
° Protect AM radios by using only their built-in short loop antennas. The built-in antennas of small portable radios are too
shortfor EMP to induce damaging surges of current in them.
° Keep antennas of FM, CB, and amateur radios as short as practical, preferably less than 10 inches. When threatened by
EMP, a danger that may continue forweeks after the initial attack because of repeated, high-altitude explosions, do not add a
wire antenna or connect a short radio antenna to a pipe. Remember that a surge of current resulting from EMP especially can
damage diodes and transistors, thus ending a radio's usefulness or reducing its range of reception.
° Keep all unshielded radios at least six feet away from any long piece of metal, such as pipes, metal ducts, or wires found in
many basements and other shelters. Long metal conductors can pick up and carry large EMP surges, causing induced current
to surge in nearby radios and damage them.
° Shield each radio against EMP when not in use by completely surrounding it with conducting metal if it is kept within six feet
of a long conductor through which powerful currents produced by EMP might surge. A radio may be shielded against EMP by
placing it inside a metal cake box or metal storage can, or by completely surrounding it with aluminum foil or metallic window
screen.
° Disconnect the antenna cable of your car radio at the receiver or at least ground the antennawhen not in use by connecting it
with a wire to the car frame. Use tape or clothespins to assure good metal-to-metal contact. The metal of an outside mirror is a
convenient grounding-point. Park your car as near to your shelter as practical, so that after fallout has decayed sufficiently you
may be able to use the car radio to get distant stations that are still broadcasting.
° Prevent possible damage to a radio from extreme dampness (which may result from long occupancy of some below ground
shelters) by keeping it sealed in a clear plastic bag large enough so the radio can be operated while inside. An additional
precaution is to keep a plastic-covered radio in an air-tight container with some anhydrite made from wallboard gypsum, as
described in Appendix C.
° Conserve batteries, because after an attack you may not be able to get replacements for months. Listen only periodically, to
the stations you find give the most useful information. The batteries of transistor radios will last up to twice as long if the radios
are played at reduced volume.
Book Page: 27
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Ch. 4: Evacuation
CHANGED EVACUATION REQUIREMENTS
The most threatening Soviet nuclear warheads in the mid-1970s were multi-megaton, such as single
warheads of approximately 20 megatons carried by each of over 250 SS-18s. About half of these
huge Russian warheads would have hit within a quarter of a mile or less of their intended targets - close
enough to destroy a missile in its hardened silo. Today's improved Russian warheads have a 50-50
probability of hitting within a few hundred feet of their aiming points. With such accuracy, multi-
megaton warheads are not needed to destroy very hard targets, especially missiles in their
blast-protective silos.
Soviet strategy continues to stress the destruction of military targets, in order to minimize Russian losses
from retaliatory strikes. This logical, long-established Soviet strategy is emphasized in numerous
authoritative Russian books, including the three editions of Soviet Military Strategy by Marshall of the
Soviet Union V. D. Sokolovskiy.
One result of this logical strategy has been the replacement of huge Soviet warheads by numerous,
much smaller, much more accurate warheads. In 1990 almost all large missiles have several Multiple
Independently-targetted Reentry Vehicles (MIRVed) warheads. Soviet warheads - especially the 10
warheads of 500 kilotons each carried by most SS-18s - could destroy almost all important U.S. fixed
military installations, and also almost all U.S. command and control facilities, airport runways longer
than 7,000 feet, major seaports, and the factories and refineries that are the basis of our military power.
(Although an all-out Soviet attack could destroy almost all missile silos and missiles in them, a
first-strike attack is deterred in part by the possibility that most U.S. missiles in silos would be launched
on warning and would be in space, on their trajectories toward Russian targets, before Soviet
warheads could reach their silos.)
How should your plans either to evacuate during a worsening crisis, or to remain in your home area, be influenced by the
dramatic changes in the Soviet nuclear arsenal? Some of these changes are indicated by Fig. 4.1, that incorporates information
on the dimensions of the stabilized clouds of one megaton and 200 kiloton explosions, from reference 6, The Effects of
Nuclear Weapons, 1977, and similar information on a 20-megaton cloud derived from a graph on page 20 of The Effects on
the Atmosphere qf a Major Nuclear Exchange, by the Committee on the Atmospheric Effects of Nuclear Explosions,
National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 1985. (This NRC graph is based on Ballistic Missile
Organization 83-5 Part 1, dated 29 September 1983, a report that is not generally available.)
The air bursting of one of the probably few 20-megaton warheads carried by Soviet ICBMs would destroy typical American
homes up to about 16 miles from ground zero. In contrast, the air bursting of an approximately 1-megaton warhead - one of the
large warheads in today's Soviet arsenal - would destroy most homes within a roughly circular area having a radius of"only"
about 5 miles. So, if you take into consideration the advantages to Soviets of arming their largest ICBMs with several very
accurate smaller warheads, each capable of destroying a militarily important target, you may logically conclude that unless your
home is closer than 10 miles from the nearest probable target, you need not evacuate to avoid blast and fire dangers.
Your planning to avoid incapacitating or fatal exposure to fallout radiation will involve more uncertainties than will your plans to
avoid blast and fire dangers. The high altitude winds that carry fallout farthest before deposition usually blow from west to east.
Therefore, in most areas your chances of avoiding extremely dangerous radiation dangers are improved if
Book Page: 28
Fig. 4.1. Stabilized radioactive fallout clouds shown a few minutes after air-burst explosions, with distances from Ground
Zeros at which the wood frames of typical homes are almost completely collapsed. The clouds from surface or
near-surface bursts are almost as large, but the distances of blast damage are reduced by around 38 percent.
you evacuate westward to an area away from likely nearby targets. However, since no one can foretell with certainty in what
directions future winds will blow, your plans to remain where you live, or your crisis evacuation plans should include building,
improving, or utilizing high-protection-factor shelter, as explained in following chapters.
If you live near a target the destruction of which has high priority in Soviet war-winning strategy, then a decade or so ago it
quite likely was targeted by a 20-MT warhead. Fig. 4.1 shows the awesome size of the stabilized radioactive cloud from a
20-MT air burst. This cloud would expand in minutes to this huge size in the thin air of the stratosphere, would contain only
extremely small particles almost all of which would remain airborne for weeks to years, and would result in no fallout deposition
that would promptly incapacitate exposed people.
A 20-MT surface burst or near-surface burst would produce a stabilized radioactive cloud extending almost as far in all
directions from GZ as would a 20-MT air burst. Its tremendous fireball would "suck up" millions of tons of pulverized rock and
would contaminate those particles with its radioactive material. Fallout particles as big as marbles6 would fall from the stabilized
cloud to the ground in minutes. Very heavy fallout could be deposited as far as 18 miles upwind from such a 20-MT explosion,
with heavy fallout, capable of causing fatalities within days to weeks, extending downwind for several hundred miles.
A 1-MT surface burst,Fig. 4.1. would produce a stabilized fallout cloud unlikely to result in fallout being deposited in the
upwind or crosswind directions from GZ beyond the range of the explosion's home-destroying blast effects. Clearly, the risk of
your being endangered by very heavy fallout if you remain 6 miles from GZ of a 1-MT surface burst, and happen to be upwind
or crosswind from GZ, is less than the risk you would have run a decade ago if you had stayed 18 miles upwind or crosswind
from the same target, which had been destroyed by a 20- MT surface or near-surface burst.
Book Page: 29
HIGHEST-RISK AND HIGH-RISK AREAS
Highest-risk areas are those in which buildings are likely to be destroyed by blast and/or fire, and/or where a person in the
open for the first two weeks after fallout deposition would receive a total radiation dose of 10,000 R or more. The largest
highest-risk areas would be those within our five Minuteman missile fields, within a few miles all around them, and for up to
about 150 miles downwind. These huge highest- risk areas are indicated by five of the largest black fallout patterns on Fig. 4.2.
Fig. 4.2 is an outdated, computer-drawn fallout map based on a multi-megaton attack considered credible 10 years ago. (An
updated, unclassified fallout map of the United States, showing radiation doses to persons in the open, is not available.) This
outdated attack included 113 surface bursts of 20 megatons each on urban and industrial targets, an unlikely assumption similar
to those used in making some official civil defense risk-area maps that assumed surface bursts on all targets nationwide.
Employing all surface bursts makes little sense to the military, because air bursting the same weapons would destroy most
military installations, as well as factories and other urban and industrial assets, over approximately twice as large an area.
As will be explained later, to survive in such areas people would have to stay inside very good shelters for several weeks, or,
after two weeks or more, leave very good shelters and drive in a few hours to an area relatively free of fallout dangers. A "very
good" fallout shelter is one that reduces the radiation dose received by its occupants to less than 1/200th of the dose they
would have received outdoors during the same period. If the two-week dose outdoors were 20,000 R, such a shelter with a
protection factor of 200 (PF 200) would prevent each occupant from receiving a dose greater than 100 R -- not enough to
incapacitate. Even a completely below ground home basement, unless greatly improved as described in Chapter 5, would give
entirely inadequate protection.
High-risk fallout areas are those where the two- week dose outdoors is between 5,000 and 10,000 R. In such areas, good
fallout shelters would be essential, supplied at least with adequate water and baby food for two weeks. Furthermore, survivors
would have to remain inside shelters for most of each day for several additional weeks.
The radiation dangers in the shaded areas of the map are shown decreasing as the distances from the explosions increase. This
generally is the case, although sometimes rain or snow' carries radioactive particles to the ground, producing "rainouts" of
exceptionally heavy fallout farther downwind. Furthermore, this computer-drawn map made at Oak Ridge National Laboratory
does not indicate the very dangerous fallout near the isolated surface bursts. Although the most dangerous fallout would be
carried by high- altitude winds that usually blow from west to east, such simplified fallout patterns as those shown should be
used only as rough guides to help improve chances of evacuating a probable blast area or very heavy fallout area and going to a
less dangerous area. Wind directions are undependable; an enemy's targeting can be unexpected; weapons can miss. A prudent
citizen, nomatter where he is, should try to build a shelter that gives excellent protection against fallout radiation.
A major disadvantage of all types of risk-area maps is the fact that poorly informed people often misinterpret them and
conclude that if they are outside a mapped risk area, they are relatively safe from blast, fire, and even deadly fallout dangers.
Another reason for not placing much reliance on risk-area maps like Fig. 4.2 is that such unclassified maps available in 1986
are based on the largest attacks considered possible a decade ago. In 1986 the sizes of Soviet warheads are much smaller,
their numbers are much larger, and their total megatonage and cap ability to produce fallout remain about the same as 10 years
ago.
The outdated attack scenario used in producing Fig. 4.2 also involved the surface bursting of multi-megaton warheads totaling
3,190 megatons on military targets, including over 2,000 megatons logically surface bursted on our five Minuteman missile
fields. Such an attackon our missile fields would produce about the same amount of fallout as is shown in Fig. 4.2. Today,
however, heavy fallout from our missile fields would extend somewhat shorter distances downwind, because of the lower
heights of the stabilized radioactive clouds from one-megaton and smaller surface and near-surface bursts, as compared to
those of multi-megaton warheads that would have been exploded 10 years ago, at a time when a 20-megaton warhead was
typical of the Soviet nuclear ICBM arsenal.
In 1986 hundreds of targets besides those indicated in Fig. 4.2 might be hit, but the total area of the United States subjected to
lethal falloutprobably would be less than is shown in Fig. 4.2. To maximize areas of destruction by blast and fire, most targets in
urban and/or industrial areas would be attacked with air bursts, which would produce little or no promptly lethal or
incapacitating fallout - except perhaps in scattered "hot spots" where rain-outs or snow-outs could bring huge numbers of tiny,
very radioactive particles to earth within hours after the air bursting of today's kiloton-range Soviet warheads. And since most
Americans live far away from "hard" targets - especially far from missile silos, downwind from which extremely heavy fallout is
likely - most of us living in or near high-risk areas probably would be endangered primarily by blast and fire, not fallout, in the
event of a Soviet attack.
Book Page: 30
Fig. 4.2 Simplified, outdated fallout patterns showing total radiation doses that would be received by persons on the
surface and in the open for the entire 14 days following the surface bursting of 5050 megatons on the targets indicated, if
the winds at all elevations blew continuously from the west at 25 mph.
Book Page: 31
WHETHER TO EVACUATE
Let's assume that Russian cities were being evacuated, or that tactical nuclear weapons were beginning to be used in what had
been an overseas conventional war involving the United States. In such a worsening crisis, most Americans could improve their
survival chances by getting out of the highest-risk and high-risk areas.
U.S. capabilities for war-crisis evacuation are poor and tending to worsen. Several years ago, out of the approximately 3,100
evacuation plans required nationwide, about 1,500 had been made, and these involved only about one third of Americans living
in risk areas. By 1986 some cities and states had abandoned their war-crisis evacuation plans; most still have plans that would
save millionsif ordered in time during a crisis lasting at least a few days and completed before the attack. Who would order an
evacuation under threat of attack, and under what circumstances, remain unanswered questions. Furthermore, compulsory
evacuation during a war crisis was not and is not part of any official American evacuation plan. So, if you believe that a nuclear
attack on the United States is possible and want to improve your chances of surviving, then well before a desperate crisis arises
you had better either make preparations to improve your and your family's survival chances at or near where you live, or plan
and prepare toevacuate.
Spontaneous evacuations, in which Americans would make their own decisions without the authorities having recommended
any movement, probably would occur during a worsening war crisis. Traffic jams and other complications are less likely to
occur if citizens start leaving high-risk areas on their own, over a period of several hours to a few days, rather than if almost
everyone, on receiving recommendations from officials, at once begins a poorly controlledevacuation. (Spontaneous evacuation
by Gulf Coast residents, begun under threat of an approaching hurricane, have lessened subsequent traffic problems in the
evacuations ordered or recommended by officials several hours later.)
Except in areas where the local civil defense war-crisis evacuation plans are well developed, most Americans living farther than
10 miles from the nearest probable separate target probably can best improve their chances of surviving a nuclear attack by
preparing to remain at or near their homes and there to make or improve good shelters. Exceptions include those living in the
vicinity of targets of great military importance to the Soviets - especially our missile fields, on which many warheads would be
surface or near-surface bursted, producing extremely heavy fallout for up to 150 miles downwind. Americans living in these
greatly endangered areas would do well to make their plans in keeping with the local official civil defense evacuation plans, at
least regarding directions and distances to localities not likely to be endangered by heavy fallout.
Nuclear submarine ports, Strategic Air Command bases, and Air Force installations with long runways also would be
destroyed by even a limited Soviet counterforce or disarming attack. These prime strategic assets are likely to be blasted by
Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs) in the first 15 or 20 minutes of the war. SLBM warheads are not as accurate
as ICBM warheads, and air bursts can destroy bombers and submarines in port over about twice as large areas as if these
same weapons are exploded at or near the surface. Therefore, SLBM warheads probably would be air bursted on these prime
"soft" targets, with little or no local fallout. (In an all-out Soviet attack, hours later long runways are likely to be cratered by
accurate ICBM warheads and by bombs, to make sure our returning bombers couldnot use them.)
On the following page are listed considerations, favorable and unfavorable, to evacuation. These comparative lists may help you
and your family make a more logical decision regardingevacuation:
Book Page: 32
Evacuation Factors Table:
Favorable to Evacuation:
Unfavorable to Evacuation:
You live in a highest-risk or high-risk area.
You live outside a highest-risk or high-risk area and
could build an expedient fallout shelter and make other
survival preparations where you live.
You have transportation (this means a car and enough
gasoline), and roads are open to a considerably
lower-risk area.
You have no means of transportation or you believe that
roads are likely to be blocked by the time you make your
decision.
You are in fairly good health or can evacuate with
someone capable of taking care of you.
You are sick, decrepit, or lack the will to try to survive if
things get tough.
Your work is not of the kind that your community
depends on (such as a policeman, fireman, or telephone
operator).
You cannot suddenly leave your home area for several
days without hurting others.
You have some tools with which to build or improve a
fallout shelter. You also have water containers, food,
clothing, etc., adequate for life in the area to which you
would go.
You lack the tools. etc., that would be helpful - but not
necessarily essential - to successful evacuation.
Instructions for building expedient fallout and blast shelters and for making expedient life-support equipment are given in
following chapters. The reader is advised to study all of this book carefully before making up his mind regarding basic survival
action.
THE NEED FOR AN EVACUATION CHECKLIST
A good flyer, no matter how many yearshe has flown, runs through a checklist covering his plane before taking off. Similarly, a
citizen preparing under crisis pressures to do something he has never done before evacuate should use a checklist to be sure
that he takes with him the most useful of his available possessions.
A family planning to use an expedient shelter or basement at or near home also should use the Evacuation Checklist on the
following page to make sure needed survival items are not overlooked.
The family of six pictured in Fig. 4.3 used the Evacuation Checklist given below to select the most useful things that could be
carried in and on their small car. They assembled categories of items in separate piles, then selected some items to take with
them from each pile. They were able to leave their home 76 minutes after receiving the Evacuation Checklist. (Following
chapters of this book include descriptions of this family's success in evacuating, building a Pole-Covered Trench Shelter, and
living in it continuously for 77 hours.)
Book Page: 33
EVACUATION CHECKLIST
(Includes items for building or improving shelters)
Loading Procedure: Make separate piles for each category (except categories 1 and 5). Then load the car with some items
from each category, taking as much as can be safely carried and being careful to leave room for all passengers.
A. THE MOST NEEDED ITEMS
Category 1. Survival Information: Shelter building and other nuclear survival instructions, maps, all available
small battery-powered radios and extra batteries, a fallout meter such as a homemade KFM (see Appendix C),
and writing materials.
Category 2. Tools: Shovel, pick, saw (a bow- saw is best), ax or hatchet, file, knife, pliers, and any other tools
specified in the building instructions for the shelter planned. Also take work gloves.
Category 3. Shelter-Building Materials: Rain- proofing materials (plastic, shower curtains, cloth, etc.) as
specified in the instructions for the type of shelter planned Also, unless the weather is very cold, a homemade
shelter-ventilating pump such as a KAP, or the materials to build one (see Appendix B).
Category 4. Water: Small, filled containers plus all available large polyethylene trash bags, smaller plastic bags
and pillow cases, water-purifying material such as Clorox, and a teaspoon for measuring.
Category 5. Peacetime valuables: Money, credit cards, negotiable securities, valuable jewelry, checkbooks,
and the most important documents kept at home. (Evacuation may be followed not by nuclear war, but by
continuing unstable nuclear peace.)
Category 6. Light: Flashlights, candles, materials to improvise cooking-oil lamps (2 clear glass jars of about
1-pint size, cooking oil, cotton string for wicks (see Chapter 11, Light), kitchen matches, and a moisture-proof jar
for storing matches.
Category 7. Clothing: Cold-weather boots, overshoes, and warm outdoor clothing (even in summer, since after
an attack these would be unobtainable), raincoats and ponchos. Wear work clothes and work shoes.
Category 8. Sleeping Gear: A compact sleeping bag or two blankets per person.
Category 9. Food: Food for babies (including milk powder, cooking oil, and sugar) has the highest priority.
Compact foods that require no cooking are preferred. Include at least one pound of salt, available vitamins, a can
and bottle opener, a knife, and 2 cooking pots with lids (4-qt size preferred). For each person: one cup, bowl,
and large spoon. Also, a bucket stove, or minimum materials for making a bucket stove: a metal bucket, 10 all-
wire coat hangers, a nail, and a cold chisel or screwdriver (see Chapter 9, Food).
Category 10. Sanitation Items: Plastic film or plastic bags in which to collect and contain excrement; a bucket
or plastic container for urine; toilet paper, tampons, diapers, and soap.
Category 11. Medical Items: Aspirin, a first-aid kit, all available antibiotics and disinfectants, special
prescription medicines (if essential to a member of the family), potassium iodide (for protection against radioactive
iodine, see Chapter 13), spare eyeglasses, and contact lenses.
Category 12. Miscellaneous: Two square yards of mosquito netting or insect screen with which to screen the
shelter openings if insects are a problem, insect repellents, a favorite book or two.
B. SOME USEFUL ITEMS (To take if car space is available):
1. Additional tools.
2. A tent, a small camp stove, and some additional kitchen utensils.
Book Page: 34
EVACUATING BY CAR
The small car shown in Fig. 4.3 was skillfully loaded for a safe evacuation trip. To make room for supplies, the back seat was
left at home. The load on top of the car included blankets, a small rug, and a small tent all made of springy materials which kept
the load from becoming compacted and working loose under the 1/4-inch nylon ropes tightened around it. The two loopended
ropes went over the load and around the top of the car, passing over the tops of the closed doors.
USING MUSCLE POWER
Hazards of evacuation would include highways blocked by wrecks and stalledvehicles. If leadership and know-how were
provided, the muscle power of people usually could quickly clear a highway. Duringa major Chinese evacuation before
advancing Japanese armies in World War II. I observed Chinese, using only muscle power, quickly clear a mountain road of
wrecks and other obstructions. Americans can do the same, if someone convinces them that they can do it, as proved by a
wintertime episode on Monarch Passover the Continental Divide in Colorado. At least 100 vehicles were held up after a large
wrecking truck overturned on the icy highway. The patrolmen were doing nothing until I told them how the Chinese
handledsuch a situation. The patrolmen then called forvolunteers from among the delayed motorists tolift the overturned truck
back onto its wheels. In less than 15 minutes, about50 people had combined their muscle power and opened Monarch Pass to
traffic.
Citizens should take direct action to keep traffic moving during a crisis evacuation.
MAKING AN EXPEDIENT OR PERMANENT SHELTER INSTEAD OF EVACUATING
Millions of Americans have homes within very large urban-industrial areas, probably not all of which would be subjected to
blast and fire dangers. Many, whose homes are in the suburbs or adjacent towns in these metropolitan areas, could logically
decide not to evacuate, but to build earth-covered shelters at or very near their homes and to supply them with life-support
essentials.
Fig. 4.3. Six members of a Utah family arriving at a rural shelter-building site 64 miles from their urban home
Book Page: 35
Likewise, people living even as close as 5 miles from an isolated probable target may decide to build a good shelter near their
supplies, rather than to evacuate. This is a good idea, provided that (1) their homes are far enough away from probable aiming
points to make such shelters practical, and (2) enough time, space, tools, materials, and supplies are available.
The photo (Fig. 4.4) shows a family with no adult male that built an expedient shelter that would give far better fallout, blast,
and fire protection than almost any home. They succeeded, despite the necessity of working on cold November days with
snow flurries. The top two inches of earth were frozen and the next two feet so dry that most of it had to be loosened with their
dull pick. No member of this family had done any serious digging before, yet they built a shelter that would have given about
100 times as much protection against fallout radiation as would a typical small frame house and at least 25 times as much as a
typical home basement.
(Fallout shelters are designed for protection against radiation from fallout particles. Although fallout shelters lack blast doors
and other means for keeping out blast, the better types would prevent their occupants from being killed by blast effects in
extensive areas where people in houses would have little chance of surviving. In this book, an "expedient shelter" generally
means an expedient fallout shelter.)
Even as simple an earth-covered fallout shelter as this Door-Covered Trench Shelter, if built well separated from flammable
buildings, usually would save its occupants' lives in extensive areas devastated by blast and/or fire. The area of probable
survival in a good earth covered fallout shelter would extend from where blast damage would be light but fires likely to be
numerous, inward toward GZ to where most homes would be collapsed by blast and/or destroyed by fire. This ring-shaped
area of probable survival from blast and/or fire effects of a 1-MT air burst would extend from about 8 miles from GZ inward to
approximately 5.5 miles. Its area would be about 105 square miles, more than the 95 square miles in the circular area with a
radius of 5.5 miles centered on GZ and within which this simple a shelter probably would be collapsed by the blast
overpressure of a 1-MT air burst. (Door-Covered Trench Shelters and most of the other types of earth-covered expedient
shelters described in this book have been proven dependable in test explosions conducted by the Defense Nuclear Agency.)
Fig. 4.4. This family completed their Protection Factor 200 (PF 200) fallout shelter, a Door-Covered Trench Shelter
with 2 feet of earth on its roof, 34 hours after receiving the building instructions at their home.
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Ch. 5: Shelter, the Greatest Need
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ADEQUATE SHELTER
To improve your chances of surviving a nuclear attack, your primary need
would be an adequate shelter equipped for many days of occupancy. A
shelter that affords good protection against fallout radiation and weather
would be adequate in more than 95% of the area of the United States.
However, even in almost all areas not endangered by blast and fire during a massive nuclear attack, the
fallout protection provided by most existing buildings would not be adequate if the winds blew from the
wrong direction during the time of fallout deposition.
To remain in or near cities or other probable target areas, one would need better protection against
blast, fire, and fallout than is provided by most shelters in buildings. Blast tests have proved that the
earth-covered expedient fallout shelters described in this book can survive blast effects severe enough
to demolish most homes.5
This chapter is concerned primarily with expedient shelters that give excellent protection against fallout
radiation. These earth-covered fallout shelters could be built in 48 hours or less by tens of millions of
Americans following field-tested, written instructions.8 Expedient blast shelters are discussed in
Appendix D. The special blast doors and other design features needed for effective blast protection
require more work, materials, and skill than are needed for expedient fallout shelters.
If average Americans are to do their best when building expedient shelters and life-support equipment
for themselves, they need detailed information about what to do and about why it is to their advantage
to do it. We are not a people accustomed to blindly following orders. Unfortunately, during a crisis
threatening nuclear war, it would take too long to read instructions explaining why each important
feature was designed as specified. Therefore, only a few reasons are included in the step-by-step, illustrated instructions given
in Appendix A for building 6 types of earth-covered expedient shelters during a crisis.
In this chapter, reasons will be given for designing a Pole-Covered Trench Shelter as specified in the Oak Ridge National
Laboratory instructions given in Appendix A.2. The two pages of drawings and plans given at the end of Appendix A.2 show
the parts of this shelter, -except for the essential shelter- ventilating pump installed in its entrance trench. The following account
of how an urban family, after evacuating, used these instructions to build such a shelter in less than 36 hours also includes
explanations of various radiation dangers and of simple means to build protection against these dangers.
This family, like scores of other families recruited to build shelters or life-support equipment, was offered a sum about
equivalent to laborers' wages if its members completed the experiment within a specified time. The test period began the
moment the family received the written, illustrated instructions preparatory to evacuating by car, as mentioned in the preceding
chapter. Like the other test families, this family was paid for all of its materials used. If a family worked hard and completed the
project in half the specified time, it was paid a cash bonus. Throughout such tests workers were guided only by the written
instructions, which were improved after each successive test.
Book Page: 37
The successful outcome of almost all the shelter building experiments indicates that tens of millions of Americans in a nuclear
war crisis would work hard and successfully to build earth-covered expedient shelters that would give them better protection
against fallout, blast, and fire than would all but a very small fraction of existing buildings. However, this belief is dependent on
two conditions: (1) that in a desperate, worsening crisis our country's highest officials would supply strong, motivating
leadership; and (2) that Americans would have received well in advance shelter-building and other practical, tested survival
instructions.
SHELTER AGAINST RADIATION
The family previously pictured evacuating by car (Fig. 4.3) drove 64 miles to build a shelter at the site shown in Fig. 5.1.
Although the August sun was very hot in this irrigated Utah valley, the family members did not build in the shade of nearby
trees. To avoid digging through roots, they carried the poles about 150 feet and dug their trench near the edge of the cornfield.
The father and the oldest son did most of the work of making the shelter. The mother and second son had health problems; the
two youngest children were not accustomed to work.
The family followed an earlier version of the plans and instructions given in Appendix A for building a Pole-Covered Trench
Shelter. Because the earth was firm and stable, the trenches were dug with vertical walls. If the earth had been less stable, it
would have been necessary to slope the walls increasing the width at the top of the main trench from 3-1/2 to 5 feet.
Before placing the roof poles, the workers assured themselves a more comfortable shelter by covering the trench walls. They
had brought a large number of the plastic garbage bags required in their home community and split some bags open to make
wall coverings. Bed sheets or other cloth could have been used.
The room of this 6-person shelter was 3-1/2 feet wide, 4-1/2 feet high, and 16-1/2 feet long. A small stand- up hole was dug
at one end, so each tall occupant could stand up and stretch several times a day.
The trenches for entry and emergency exit were dug only 22 inches wide, to minimize radiation entering the shelter through
these openings. One wall of these two narrow trenches was an extension of the room wall shown on the right in Fig. 5.1.
Fig. 5.1. Placing 9-foot poles for the roof of a Pole-Covered Trench Shelter.
Book Page: 38
The family sat and slept along the left wall, to be better shielded from radiation coming through the openings.
This shelter was designed so that its main trench could be enlarged to make a much more livable room without disturbing its
completed roof. For this reason, the 9-foot roofing poles were placed off- center, with the two extra feet resting on the ground
to the right of the main room.
Whenever practical, expedient shelters should be built so that they can be readily enlarged to make semi-permanent living
quarters. After it becomes safe to emerge for limited periods, occupants could sleep and spend much of their waking time in
such a rainproof dugout that affords excellent protection against continuing radiation. In cold weather, living in a dugout like this
is morecomfortable than living in a tent or shack. After the fallout radiation dose rate outdoors has decayed to less than about 2
R per hour, the small vertical entry could be enlarged and converted to a steeply inclined stairway.
The importance of giving inexperienced shelter builders detailed instructions is illustrated by the unnecessary work done by the
young women shown in Fig. 5.2. They had agreed to try to build a Pole- Covered Trench. Shelter, working unassisted and
using only hand -tools. Because the summer sun in Utah was hot, they selected a shady site under a large tree. The brief
instructions they received included no advice on the selection of a building site. Cutting and digging out the numerous roots was
very difficult for them and required several of the 22 hours they spent actually working.
Another disadvantage of making a shelter under trees is that more of the gamma rays from fallout particles on the leaves and
branches would reach and penetrate the shelter than if these same particles were on the ground. Many gamma rays from fallout
particles on the ground would be scattered or absorbed by striking rocks, clods of earth, tree trunks, or houses before reaching
a below ground shelter.
Fig. 5.2. Two non-athletic college girls who completed a 4-person Pole-Covered Trench Shelter in 35-1/2 hours,
despite tree roots.
Book Page: 39
TYPES OF SHIELDING
Shelters provide protection against radiation by utilizing two types of shielding: barrier shielding and geometry shielding.
° Barrier shielding is shown by Fig. 5.3, a simplified illustration. (In a real fallout area, a man in an open trench would have
fallout particles all over and around him.) The 3-foot thickness of earth shown (or a 2-foot thickness of concrete) will provide
an effective barrier, attenuating (absorbing) about 99.9%, of all gamma rays from fallout. (In the illustration, only a single fallout
particle 3 feet from the edge of the trench is considered.) Only one gamma ray out of 1000 could penetrate the 3 feet of earth
shown and strike the person in the trench. Rays from particles farther away than 3 feet would be negligible; rays from particles
closer than 3 feet would be attenuated according to the thickness of earth between the fallout particle and the man in the trench.
However, the man in the trench would not be protected from "skyshine," which is caused by gamma rays scattering after
striking the nitrogen,oxygen, and other atoms of the air. The man's exposed head, which is just below ground level, would be hit
by about one-tenth as many gamma rays as if it were 3 feet above ground (Fig. 5.3). Even if all fallout could be kept out of the
trench and off the man and every part of the ground within 3 feet of the edges of the trench, skyshine from heavy fallout on the
surrounding ground could deliver a fatal radiation dose to the man in the open trench.
Skyshine reaches the ground from all directions. If the man were sitting in a deeper trench, he would escape more of this
scattered radiation, but not all of it. For good protection he must be protected overhead and on all sides by barrier shielding.
The barrier shielding of the Pole-Covered Trench Shelter shown in Fig. 5.4 was increased by shoveling additional earth onto its
"buried roof." After father and son had mounded earth about 18 inches deep over the centerline of the roof poles, a large piece
of 4-mil-thick polyethylene was placed over the mound. This waterproof material served as a "buried roof" after it was covered
with more earth. Any rainwater trickling through the earth above the plastic would have run off the sloping sides of the "buried
roof" and away from the shelter.
° Geometry shielding reduces the radiation dose received by shelter occupants by increasing the distances between them and
fallout particles, and by
Fig. 5.3. Simplified illustration of barrier shielding and skyshine (scattered gamma radiation). An open trench provides
poor protection. ORNL.DWG 78.7205
Book Page: 40
Fig. 5.4. Increasing the barrier shieldingover a Pole-Covered Trench Shelter.
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Ch. 6: Ventilation and Cooling of Shelters
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CRITICAL IMPORTANCE
If high-protection-factor shelters or most other shelters that lack adequate
forced ventilation were fully occupied for several days in warm or hot
weather, they would become so hot and humid that the occupants would
collapse from the heat if they were to remain inside. It is important to
understand that the heat and water vapor given off by the bodies of people
in a crowded, long-occupied shelter could be deadly if fallout prevents
leaving the shelter.
When people enter an underground shelter or basement in the summertime, at first the air feels cool.
However, if most shelters are fully occupied for a few days without adequate ventilation, the floors,
walls, and ceilings, originally cool, will have absorbed about all the body heat of which they are
capable. Some shelters will become dangerously hot in a few hours. Unless most of the occupants
body heat and water vapor from sweat are removed by air circulated through a typical shelter, the
heat-humidity conditions will become increasingly dangerous in warm or hot weather. One of the most
important nuclear war survival skills people should learn is how to keep occupied shelters adequately
ventilated in all seasons and cool enough for many days of occupancy in warm or hot weather.
Methods for ventilating with homemade devices and for keeping ventilating air from carrying fallout
particles into shelters are described in Appendices A and B. Instructions for Directional Fanning, the
simplest means for forcing adequate volumes of air to flow through shelters, are given at the end of this
chapter.
MAKING AND USING AN EXPEDIENT AIR PUMP
The best expedient way to maintain livable conditions in a shelter, especially in hot weather, is to make and use a large-volume
shelter-ventilating pump. Field tests have proved that average Americans can build the expedient air pump described in
Appendix B in a few hours, with inexpensive materials found in most households.
This simple pump was invented in 1962 by the author. 1 called it a Punkah-Pump, because its hand- pulled operation is
somewhat like that of an ancient fan called a 'punkah", still used by some primitive peoples in hot countries. (Unlike the punkah,
however, this air pump can force air to move in a desired direction and is a true pump.) It was named the Kearny Air Pump
(KAP) by the Office of Civil Defense following tests of various models by Stanford Research Institute, the Protective
Structures Development Center, and General American Transportation Company. These tests confirmed findings first made at
Oak Ridge National Laboratory regarding the advantages of the KAP both as a manually operated pump for forcing large
volumes of outdoor air through shelters and as a device for distributing air within shelters and fanning the occupants. See Fig.
6.1.
The air pump instructions given in Appendix B are the result of having scores of families and pairs of untrained individuals,
including children, build and use this air pump. They were guided by successively improved versions of these detailed, written
instructions, that include many illustrations (see Appendix B). Some people who are experienced at building things will find
these instructions unnecessarily long and detailed. However, shelter-building experiments have shown that the physically
stronger individuals, usually the more experienced builders, should do more of the hard, manual work when shelters are built,
and that those less experienced at building should do the lighter work including making shelter ventilating pumps. These
detailed, step-by-step instructions have enabled people who never.
Book Page: 51
(Photograph) Fig. 6.1. A 6 foot KAP tested for durability at Oak Ridge. After 1000 hours of operation during
which it pumped air through a room at a rate of 4000 cubic feet per minute (4000 cfm), there were only minor tears in
the plastic flaps.
(Photograph) Fig. 6.2. Behind the girl is the homemade air pump that made it possible for a family of six to live
in a crowded trench shelter for more than three days. Outside the temperature rose to 930 F.
before had attempted to build a novel device of any kind to make serviceable air pumps.
(The air pump instructions given in Appendix B repeat some information in this chapter. This repetition is included both to help
the reader when he starts to build an air pump and to increase the chances of the best available complete instructions being
given to local newspapers during some future crisis. The instructions given in this book could be photographed, reproduced,
and mass-distributed by newspapers.)
Figure 6.2 shows (behind the girl) a 20-inch-wide by 36-inch-high KAP installed in the entry trench of a trench shelter. The
father of the Utah family described earlier had made this simple pump at home, using only materials and tools found in many
homes as described in Appendix B. He carried the pump on top of his car to the shelter-building site. The pendulum-like,
flap-valve pump was swung from two cabinet hinges (not shown) screwed onto a board. The board was nailed to roof poles of
the narrow entry trench extending behind the girl in the photograph. The pull-cord was attached to the pump frame below its
hinged top and extended along one trench wall for the whole length of the shelter. Any one of the six occupants could pull this
cord and easily pump as much as 300 cubic feet per minute of outdoor air through the shelter and through the insect screens
over both its entrances. (Without these screens, the numerous mosquitoes in this irrigated area would have made the family's
shelter stay very unpleasant.)
During the 77 hours that the family continuously occupied their narrow, covered trench, the temperatures outside rose as high
as 930 F. Without the air pump, the six occupants would have been driven from their shelter by unbearable temperature-
humidity conditions during the day.8
The photo in Fig. 6.2 also shows how the air pump hung when not being operated, partially blocking the entry trench and
causing a "chimney effect" flow of air at night. There was a 10-inch space between the air pump and the trench floor, and the
resulting flow of air maintained adequate ventilation in the cool of the desert night, when outdoor temperatures dropped as low
as 450 F. Cool outdoor air flowed down into the entry and under the motionless air pump, replacing the body-warmed air
inside the shelter. The entering cool air continuously
forced the warm air out of the shelter room at ceiling height through the emergency crawlway-exhaust trench at the other end.
When the weather is cool, a piece of plastic or tightly woven cloth could be hung inthe doorway of a well designed, narrow
shelter, to cause a flow of fresh air in the same manner.
Book Page: 52
Numerous shelter occupancy tests have proved that modern Americans can live for weeks in an adequately cooled shelter with
only 10 square feet of floor space per person.13Other tests, such as one conducted by the Navy near Washington, D.C. during
an abnormally cool two weeks in August, 1962, have shown that conditions can become difficult even when summertime
outdoor air is being pumped through a long-occupied shelter at the rate of 12 cubic feet per minute, per person.14,15This is
four times the minimum ventilation rate for each occupant specified by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
for American shelters: 3 cubic feet per minute (3 cfm). Three cfm is about three times the supply of outdoor air needed to keep
healthy people from having headaches as a result of exhaled carbon dioxide. In hot, humid weather, much more outdoor air
than 12 cfm per person must be supplied to a crowded, long-occupied shelter, as will be described in the following section and
in Appendix B.
MAINTAINING ENDURABLE SHELTER CONDITIONS IN HOT WEATHER
The Navy test mentioned above showed how much modern Americans who are accustomed to air conditioning could learn
from jungle natives about keeping cool and healthy by skillfully using hot, humid, outdoor air. While working in jungles from the
Amazon to Burma, I observed the methods used by the natives to avoid unhealthful conditions like those experienced in the
Navy shelter, which was ventilated in a conventional American manner. These jungle methods include the first five of the six
cooling methods listed in this section. During 24 years of civil defense research, my colleagues and 1 have improved upon the
cooling methods of jungle people, primarily by the invention and thorough field-testing of the homemade KAP described in
Appendix B, and of the Directional Fans covered by the instructions at the end of this chapter.
Even during a heat wave in a hot part of the United States, endurable conditions can be maintained in a fully occupied,
belowground shelter with this simple pump, if the test-proven requirements listed below are ALL met.
Most basement shelters and many aboveground shelters also can be kept at livable temperatures in hot weather if the cooling
methods listed below are ALL followed:
° Supply enough air to carry away all the shelter occupants' body heat without raising the "effective temperature ' of the
air at the exhaust end of the shelter by more than 2 degrees F. The "effective temperature" of the air to which a person is
exposed is equivalent to the temperature of air at 100% relative humidity that causes the same sensation of warmth or
cold. "Effective temperature" combines the effects of the temperature of the air, its relative humidity, and its movement.
An ordinary thermometer does not measure effective temperature. In occupancy tests of crowded shelters when the
supply of outdoor air was hot and dry, shelter occupants have been surprised to find that they felt hottest at the
air-exhaust end of their shelter, where the temperature reading was lower than at the air-intake end. Their sweaty bodies
had acted as evaporative air coolers, but their body heat had raised the effective temperature, a reliable indicator of heat
stress. If 40 cubic feet per minute (40 cfm) per person of outdoor air is supplied and properly distributed, then (even if
the outdoor air is at a temperature which is typical of the hottest hours during a heat wave in a hot, humid area of the
United States) the effective temperature of the shelter air will be increased no more than 2 degrees F by the shelter
occupants' body heat and water vapor. Except for a relatively few sick people dependent on air conditioning, anyone
could endure air that has an effective temperature only 2 degrees F higher than that of the air outdoors.
(There are exceptions to this ventilation requirement when the ceiling or walls of basement or aboveground shelters in
buildings are heated by the sun to levels higher than skin temperature. In such shelters, more than 40 cfm of outdoor air
per occupant must be supplied. However, if a shelter is covered by at least two feet of earth, it will be so well insulated
that its ceiling and walls will not get hot enough to heat the occupants.)
° Move the air gently, so as not to raise its temperature. In the aforementioned Navy test, a high speed, electric
ventilating pump and the frictional resistance of pipes and filters raised the temperature of the air supplied to the shelter
by 3 degrees F. Under extreme heat wave conditions, an air supply 3 degrees F hotter than outdoor air could be
disastrous especially if considerably less than 40 cfm per occupant is supplied, and body heat raises the air temperature
several additional degrees.
Book Page: 53
° Distribute the air quite evenly throughout the shelter. In a trench shelter, where air is pumped in at one end and flows
out the other, good distribution is assured.In larger shelters, such as basements, ventilating air will move from the
air-supply opening straight to the air exhaust opening. Persons out of this air stream will not be adequately cooled. By
using one or more additional, smaller KAPs (also described in Appendix B), fresh air can be distributed easily
throughout large shelter rooms, and the occupants will be gently fanned.
° Provide occupants with adequate drinking water and salt. In extremely hot weather, this means 4 quarts of water per
day per person and 1 tablespoon (10 grams) of salt, including the salt in food.
° Wear as few clothes as practical. When the skin is bare, moving air can evaporate sweat more efficiently for effective
cooling. Air movement can keep bare skin drier, and therefore less susceptible to heat rash and skin infections. In the
inadequately ventilated Navy test shelter, 34 of the 99 initially healthy young men had heat rash and 23 had more serious
skin complaints at the end of their sweaty two-week confinement, although their overall physical condition had not
deteriorated.15 However, at sick call every day all of these Navy test subjects with skin complaints were treated by
medical corpsmen. In a nuclear war, very few shelter occupants would have medicines to treat skin diseases and
infections, that if not taken care of usually worsen rapidly under continuously hot, humid conditions. Simple means for
preventing skin diseases and infections-means proved very effective by jungle natives and by our best trained jungle
infantrymen in World War II - are described in the Prevention of Skin Diseases section of Chapter 12.
° Keep pumping about 40 cfm of air per person through the shelter both day and night during hot weather, so that the
occupants and the shelter itself will be cooled off at night. In the Navy test, the ventilation rate of 7 to 12 cfm was not
high enough to give occupants the partial relief from heat and sweating that people normally get at night.15 In a National
Academy of Sciences meeting on protective shelters, an authority stated: "Laboratory experiments and field
investigations have shown that healthy persons at rest can tolerate daily exposures to ETs [effective temperatures] up to
900 F, provided they can get a good night's sleep in a cooler environment."14 An effective temperature 900 F is higher
than the highest outdoor effective temperature during a heatwave in the South or in American deserts.
ADEQUATE VENTILATION IN COLD WEATHER
In freezing weather, a belowground shelter covered with damp earth may continue to absorb almost all of its occupants' body
heat for many days and stay unpleasantly cold. In one winter test of such a fully occupied shelter, the temperature of the humid
air in the shelter remained around 50 degrees F.16 Under such conditions, shelter occupants should continue to ventilate their
shelter adequately, to avoid the following conditions:
° A dangerous buildup of carbon dioxide from exhaled breath, the first symptoms of which are headaches and deeper
breathing.
° Headaches from the carbon monoxide produced by smoking. When the ventilation rate is low, smoking should not be
permitted, even near the exhaust opening.
° Headaches, collapse, or death due to carbon monoxide from open fires or gasoline lanterns that release gases into the
shelter air.
NATURAL VENTILATION
Enough air usually will be blown through an aboveground shelter if sufficiently large openings are provided on opposite sides
and if there is any breeze. But if the weather is warm and still and the shelter crowded, the temperature-humidity conditions
soon can become unbearable.
Adequate natural ventilation for belowground shelters is more difficult. Even if there is a light breeze, not much air will make a
right-angle turn and go down a vertical entry, make another right-angle turn, and then flow through a trench or other shelter
partially obscured by people and supplies.
In cool weather, occupants body heat will warm the shelter air and make it lighter than the outdoor air. If a chimney-like
opening or vent-duct is provided in the ceiling, the warmed, lighter air will flow upward and out of the shelter, provided an
adequate air-intake vent is open near the floor. An Eskimo igloo is an excellent example of how very small ventilation openings,
skillfully located in the ceiling and at floor level, make it possible in cold weather for chimney-type natural ventilation to supply
the 1 cfm per person of outdoor air needed to prevent exhaled carbon dioxide from becoming dangerously concentrated.
In warm weather, chimney-type natural ventilation usually is inadequate for most high-protection factor shelters that are fully
occupied for days. And in hot weather, when as much as 40 cfm per occupant is required, body-warmed shelter air is no
lighter than the outdoor air. Chimney-type ventilation fails completely under these conditions.
Book Page: 54
SHELTER VENTILATION WITHOUT FILTERS
Numerous tests have shown that the hazards from fallout particles carried into shelters by unfiltered ventilating air are minor
compared to the dangers from inadequate ventilation. A 1962 summary of the official standards for ventilating systems of fallout
shelters stated: "Air filters are not essential for small (family size) shelters..."17 More recent findings have led to the same
conclusion for large fallout shelters. A 1973 report by the Subcommittee on Fallout of the National Academy of Sciences on
the radioiodine inhalation problem stated this conclusion: "The opinion of the Subcommittee is that inhalation is far less of a
threat than ingestion [eating or drinking], and does not justify countermeasures such as filters in the ventilating systems of
shelters."18
Recommendations such as those above realistically face the fact that, if we suffer a nuclear attack, the vast majority of
Americans will have only the fallout protection given by buildings and some expedient shelters. Consequently, how best to use
available resources must be the primary consideration when planning for protection against the worst dangers of a nuclear
attack; relatively minor hazards may have to be accepted. For unprepared people, inhalation of fallout particles would be a
minor danger compared to being forced out of a shelter because of dangerously inadequate ventilation.
The most dangerous fallout particles are those deposited on the ground within the first few hours after the explosion that
produces them. Typically, these 'hot" particles would be so large and fast-falling that they would not be carried into expedient
shelters equipped with low-velocity air intake openings, such as those described in this book. Nor would these most dangerous
'"hot" fallout particles be "sucked" into gooseneck air-intake pipes, or other properly designed air-intake openings of a
permanent shelter.
For most shelters built or improved hurriedly during a crisis it will be impractical to provide filtered air. The Car-Over-Trench
Shelter pictured in Fig. 6.3 points up the overriding need for pumped air for occupants of crowded shelters during warm or hot
weather. This simple shelter provides fallout protection about four times as effective as that given by a typical home basement.
After the car was driven over the trench, earth was shoveled into the car and its trunk and on top of its hood. At one end was a
combined crawlway entrance/air intake opening, at the other end, a 1-foot-square air exhaust opening. Each opening was
covered by a small awning. To keep loose shielding earth from running under the car and into the trench, the upper edges of
5-foot-wide strips of polyethylene film first were attached with duct tape to the sides and ends of the car, about 2 feet above
the ground. Then earth was piled onto the parts of the film strips that were lying on the ground, to secure them. Finally, earth
was piled against the vertical parts of the attached film strips.
Fig. 6.3. Pulling a Small. Stick-Frame KAP to Keep Temperatures Endurable for Occupants of a Car- Over-Trench
Shelter in Warm Weather. Enough air also can be supplied with a small Directional Fan, although more laboriously.
(Placing earth rolls - see page 150 - around the sides of an earth-loaded car provides better, more secure side shielding, but
requires more materials and work.)
INHALATION DANGERS
Only extremely small fallout particles can reach the lungs. The human nose and other air passages can filter out almost all
particles 10 micrometers [10 microns] [or larger] in diameter, and about 95 percent of those exceeding 5 micrometers." (See
reference 6, page 599.) Five micrometers equal 5 millionths of a meter, or 5 thousandths of a millimeter.
Using a dust mask or breathing through cloth would be helpful to keep from inhaling larger 'hot" fallout particles which may
cause beta burns in noses, sinuses, and bronchial tubes. Many such retained particles may be swallowed when cleared from
one's air passageways by the body's natural protective processes.
As shown below in Fig. 6.4, a relatively "large" particle - 40 microns (40 u m) in diameter, spherical, and with the sand-like
density of most fallout particles - falls about 1300 feet in 8 hours. (A dark-colored particle 40 microns in diameter is about as
small a speck as most people can see with the naked eye.) Most 40- u m-diameter fallout particles would take a
Book Page: 55
(Illustration) Fig. 6.4. Stabilized Radioactive Fallout Clouds Shown a Few Minutes After the Explosions, with distances
that spherical fallout particles having diameters of 40, 50, and 100 microns fall in 8 hours.6
few days to fall from the cloud of a one-megaton explosion down far enough into the troposphere to be occasionally scavenged
and promptly brought to earth by rain or snow while still very radioactive. In 1987, however, most of the thousands of
deployed Soviet ICBM warheads are 550 kilotons or smaller. (See Jane's Weapon Systems, 1987-88.) The stabilized clouds
of such explosions would be mostly in the troposphere, and some of even the tiniest particles - those small enough to be
breathed into one's lungs - would be promptly scavenged and deposited in scattered "hot spots." Fortunately, most of the very
small and tiniest fallout particles would not be deposited for days to months, by which time radioactive decay would have made
them much less dangerous. Breathing tiny radioactive particles into one's lungs would constitute a minor health hazard
compared to other dangers that would afflict an unprepared people subjected to a large scale nuclear attack.
SCAVENGING OF RADIOACTIVE PARTICLES
Scavenging is most effective below about 30,000 feet, the maximum height of most rain and snow clouds. See Fig. 6.4.
Because the Soviets have deployed thousands of ICBMs with warheads of "only" 100 to 550 kilotons, Americans face
increased dangers from very radioactive particles scavenged by rain-outs or snow-outs. The resultant "hot spots" of fallout
heavy enough to kill unsheltered people in a few weeks could be scattered even hundreds of miles downwind from areas of
multiple explosions, especially missile fields. Prudent Americans, even those living several hundred miles from important targets,
whenever practical should equip their shelters with adequate ventilating pumps and dust filters.
This potential danger from extremely small fallout particles will be worsened if the United States deploys mobile ICBMs such as
Midget- man, probably on large military reservations in the West. (The Soviet Union already has mobile ICBMs in its nuclear
forces.) In the event of a Soviet attack, our hard-to-target mobile missiles probably would be subjected to a barrage of
relatively small warheads air-bursted so as to blanket their deployment areas. The resultant large clouds of extremely small
radioactive particles in the troposphere usually would be blown eastward, and resultant life-endangering "hot spots" from
rain-outs and/or snow-outs could be scattered clear to the Atlantic coast.
Fortunately, even in many expedient shelters completed in a few days, filtered air can be provided by using a homemade KAP
to pump air through furnace or air-conditioner filters, as described in the last section of Appendix B. To learn how you can
supply a shelter at low cost with air so well filtered that essentially all extremely small fallout particles and infective aerosols are
removed, see Appendix E, How To Make a Homemade Plywood Double-Action Piston Pump and Filter.
Book Page: 56
These worsening potential dangers from extremely small "hot" fallout particles brought promptly to earth by scavenging are not
likely to endanger nearly as many Americans' lives as would 24-hour fallout of much larger particles from surface and
near-surface explosions. Providing enough outdoor air to shelters, rather than filtered air, will continue to deserve first priority.
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STOPPING OR RESTRICTING SHELTER VENTILATION
When instrument readings or observations show that heavy fallout has begun to be deposited, shelter occupants should decide
whether to restrict or stop ventilation. If it is windy outside, even some sand-like fallout particles may be blown into a shelter
with large ventilation openings. However, ventilation should not be restricted long enough to cause weaker occupants to be on
the verge of collapse from overheating, or to result in headaches from exhaled carbon dioxide.
If a house is burning dangerously close to a separate, earth covered shelter, closing the shelter's ventilation openings for an hour
or two usually will prevent the entry of dangerous concentrations of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, or smoke. (Most houses
will burn to the ground in less than two hours.)
When an attack is expected, a shelter, occupied or soon to be occupied, should be kept as cool as practical by pumping large
volumes of outdoor air through it when the outdoor air is cooler than the shelter air. This also will assure that the air is fresh and
low in exhaled carbon dioxide. Then, if a need arises to stop or restrict ventilation, the shelter can be closed for longer than
could be done safely otherwise.
VENTILATION/COOLING OF PERMANENT SHELTERS
A permanent family fallout shelter, built at moderate cost before a crisis, should have a ventilation system that can supply
adequate volumes of either filtered or unfiltered air, pumped in through an air-intake pipe and out through an air-exhaust pipe.
Provision also should be made for the grim possibility that fallout could be so heavy that a shelter might have to be occupied for
weeks, or even part-time for months. A small or medium-sized permanent shelter should be designed so that most of the time
after an attack it can have adequate natural ventilation through its entryway and emergency exit. During hot spells, forced
ventilation through these same large air passageways should be provided by using a homemade KAP. This manual air pump,
described in Appendix B, can force large volumes of air through low- resistance openings with minimum effort.
Ways to ventilate and cool permanent shelters are described in Chapter 17, "Permanent Family Fallout Shelters for Dual Use,"
and in Appendix E, "How to Make and Use a Homemade Plywood Double-Action Piston Pump and Filter."
WARNING: MANY OFFICIAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR BUILDING AND VENTILATING SHELTERS ARE
LIFE-ENDANGERING
The reader is advised not to read this section if pressed for time during a crisis, unless he is considering building an expedient or
permanent shelter described in an official civil defense publication.
Because of the worldwide extreme fear of radiation, civil defense specialists who prepare official self-help instructions for
building shelters have made radiation protection their overriding objective. Apparently the men in Moscow and Washington
who decide what shelter-building and shelter-ventilating instructions their fellow citizens receive - especially instructions for
building and improving expedient shelters-do not understand the ventilation requirements for maintaining endurable
temperature/humidity conditions in crowded shelters. It must be remembered that shelters may have to be occupied
continuously for days in warm or hot weather.
Russian small expedient shelters are even more dangerously under-ventilated than are most of their American counterparts, and
can serve to illustrate similar ventilation deficiencies of American shelters. Figure 6.5 is a Russian drawing (with its caption
translated) of a "Wood - Earth Shelter" in a Soviet self-help civil defense booklet, "Anti-Radiation Shelters in Rural Areas."
This booklet, published in a 200,000- copy edition, includes illustrated instructions for building 20 different types of expedient
shelters. All 20 of these shelters have dangerously inadequate natural ventilation, and none of them have air pumps. Note that
this high- protection-factor, covered-trench shelter depends on air flowing down through its "Dust Filter with Straw Packing
(hay)" and out through its small "Exhaust Duct with Damper."
As part of Oak Ridge National Laboratory's participation in Defense Nuclear Agency's "Dice Throw" 1978 blast test, I built
two Russian Pole- Covered Trench Shelters. These were like the shelter shown in Fig. 6.5, except that each lacked a trapdoor
and filter. As anticipated, so little air flowed through these essentially dead-ended test shelters that temperatures soon became
unbearable.
Book Page: 57
(Illustration) Fig. 6.5. [Figure 20.] Wood-Earth Shelter without Lining of the Walls for Clay Soils, 10 Occupants: 1 -
Trap Door; 2 - Dust Filter with a Straw Packing (hay); 3 - Earth Cover 60-80 cm thick; 4 - Roofing made of Poles;
5-Exhaust Duct with Damper; 6 - Curtain made of Tightly Woven Cloth; 7 - Removable Container for Wastes; 8-
Water Collecting Sump.
NOTE: Bill of materials is: Rough Lumber, 2.7 cubic meters; Nails, 0.12 kilogram; Wire, 0.64 kilogram; Work
Requirement, 90-110 man-hours; Shielding Coefficient, 250-300.
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Ch. 7: Protection Against Fires and Carbon Monoxide
RELATIVE DANGERS
Fire and its consequences probably would be the third-ranking danger to unprepared Americans
subjected to a massive nuclear attack. Direct blast effects would be first, covering a large fraction of
densely populated areas and killing far more people. Considerably fewer fatalities seem likely to result
from the second-ranking danger, fallout radiation.
THE FACTS ABOUT FIRE HAZARDS
Firestorms would endanger relatively few' Americans; only the older parts of a few American cities
have buildings close enough together, over a large enough area, to fuel this type of conflagration. Such
fires have not occurred in cities where less than about 30% of a large area was covered with buildings.
19
In the blast area of Hiroshima, a terrifying fire storm that burned almost all buildings within an area of
about 4.4 square miles resulted from many fires being ignited almost simultaneously. Many were caused
by heat radiation from the fireball. Even more fires were due to secondary effects of the blast, such as
the overturning of stoves. The buildings contained much wood and other combustible materials. The
whole area burned like a tremendous bonfire; strong winds that blew in from all directions replaced the
huge volumes of hot air that rose skyward from the intense fires.
Lack of oxygen is not a hazard to occupants of shelters in or near burning buildings or to those in
shelters that are closed tightly to prevent the entry of smoke or fallout. Carbon monoxide, toxic smoke
from fires, or high concentrations of carbon dioxide from shelter occupants' exhaled breaths would kill
occupants before they suffered seriously from lack of oxygen.
FIRES IGNITED BY HEAT RADIATION
Figure 7.1 shows a wood-frame house after it was heated for one second by heat radiation from a small nuclear weapon
exploded in a Nevada test. This test house had no furnishings, but the heat was intense enough to have ignited exposed
upholstery, curtains, bedding, papers, etc. in a typical home.
Heat radiation will set fire to easily ignitable materials (dry newspapers, thin dark fabrics, dry leaves and dry grass) in about the
same extensive areas over which blast causes moderate damage to frame houses. The blast wave and high-speed blast winds
will blow out many flames. However, tests have shown that fire will continue to smolder within some materials such as
upholstery and dry rotted wood, and after a while it often will burst into flame and will spread. The burning automobile pictured
in Fig. 7.2 is an example of such ignition beyond the range of severe blast damage.
The number of fires started by heat radiation in areas where blast is not severe can be reduced by whitewashing the insides of
window panes and by removing flammable materials from places in and around houses where heat radiation could reach them.
Also, occupants of shelters in some homes that would be only slightly damaged by blast could move quickly to extinguish small
fires and throw out smoldering upholstered articles before fallout is deposited.
Book Page: 62
Fig. 7.1. Heat radiation charred the paint on this house, which had been painted white to reflect heat rays. The
charring instantaneously produced the smoke. However, precautions had been taken to prevent this typical U.S. house
from being destroyed by fire, because the test was made to enable engineers to study the effects of blast, rather than fire.
The house was demolished by the 5-psi overpressure blast that struck seconds later, but it did not burn.
Fig. 7.2. Thermal radiation from a nuclear explosion entered the car above through its closed windows and
ignited the upholstery. The windows were blown out by the blast a few seconds later. However, the explosion was at
such a distance that the blast wave was not severe enough to dent the car body.
Book Page: 63
Earth-covered shelters can be protected against heat radiation from nuclear explosions and other causes by painting any
exposed wood and other combustible materials at shelter openings with a thick coating of slaked lime (old-fashioned
whitewash). The World War II firebombing of Kassel was less effective than were similar raids on other German cities because
the roof timbers of buildings had been so treated.20
Figure 7.3 illustrates the effectiveness of a thick coating of slaked lime in protecting a rough pine board against ignition by heat
radiation. No flames from the burning logs touched the board. (Before this photograph was taken, the uppermost burning logs
of a vertical-sided pile were removed so that the board could be seen clearly.)
Chinese civil defense instructions recommend coating exposed wood with both slaked lime and mud.21 If only mud is available,
a coating of it protects wood quite well. If kept damp, a mud coating is even more effective. (Simply keeping all exposed
flammable materials damp is helpful.)
In blast areas, cloth or plastic canopies over the openings of expedient shelters usually would be ignited by the heat and
certainly would be blown away by even moderate blast winds. If extra canopies and stakes could be made and kept inside the
shelter, these replacements could be quickly erected after blast winds subside and before fallout begins at least 15 minutes after
the explosion. If no spare canopies were available, it would be best to keep the available canopies and their stakes inside the
shelter, if it were not raining.
FOREST AND BRUSH FIRES
Unless forests or brushy areas are dry, it is difficult to start even scattered fires. Dangerous mass fires would be unlikely, except
in blast areas where the heat radiation would be very intense. However, people building a shelter would do well to select a
shelter site at least as far away from trees as the height of the tallest tree that could fall on the shelter because of fire and smoke
hazards in dry weather, and because digging a shelter among tree roots is difficult.
Fig. 7.3. Heat radiation had ignited the flaming half of the board on the ground, while the half near the shovel-painted
white with a thick coating of slaked lime-had not even begun to smoke.
Book Page: 64
CAUSES OF FIRE
Figure 7.4 pictures the same house shown in Fig. 7.1 after it had been struck by the blast effects of a small nuclear test
explosion at the 5-psi overpressure range. (If the house had been hit by the blast effects of a multimegaton weapon, with
longer-lasting blast winds, it would have been wrecked about as completely at the 3-psi overpressure range. At the 3-psi
overpressure range, the blast winds from an explosion 1000 times as powerful as the Nevada test explosion that wrecked this
house would blow 10 times as long. This longer-duration, 100-mph blast wind would increase the damage done by the blast
wave. The 3-psi overpressure range from a 20- megaton surface burst is about 10 miles from the center of the crater, and from
a one-megaton surface burst, about 4 miles.6)
If the blast-wrecked house shown in the illustration had had a furnace in operation when it was demolished, the chances of its
being set on fire would have been high. In Hiroshima many of the first fires resulted from secondary effects of blast, especially
the overturning of stoves, and not from heat radiation. Although the air burst produced no fallout, firefighters from undamaged,
nearby communities were unable to reach most of the burning areas because of blast debris blocking the roads. Later they were
kept from burning areas by the intense heat. Some water mains were broken, which made water unavailable for fire fighting in
certain areas.
In the event of an attack on the United States employing many surface bursts, fallout would prevent fire fighting for days to
weeks in a large part of the most populated regions.
The basements of many substantial buildings will withstand 5-psi blast effects and can prevent occupants from suffering serious
injuries from blast. Most home basements can be reinforced with stout boards and posts so as to give good protection against
blast effects up to considerably higher than 5 psi. But considering the dangers of fires in probable blast areas, it is safer to build
an earth-covered shelter well removed from buildings than it is to seek protection in shelters inside buildings.
CARBON MONOXIDE AND TOXIC SMOKE
If an undamaged building is burning, people inside may be killed by carbon monoxide, toxic smoke, or fiery-hot air. Tests have
shown that even fast-burning, rubble-free fires produce very high concentrations of carbon monoxide. If large-scale fires are
burning near a shelter, the dangers from both carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide may continue for as long as 1)2 hours after
ignition.22 Therefore, the ventilation pipes or openings of a shelter should not be placed close to a building that might be
expected to burn.
In the smoldering rubble of a large test fire, after 24 hours the carbon monoxide concentration was still more than 1% and the
air temperature was 1900 degrees F. A carbon monoxide concentration of only 0.08% (8 parts CO in 10,000 parts of air) will
cause headache, dizziness, and nausea in 45 minutes, and total collapse in 2 hours.
Fig. 7.4. Unburned wreckage of the same two-story, wood-frame house pictured in Fig. 7.1 after being
wrecked by the 5-psi blast effects of a small nuclear test explosion.
Book Page: 65
Realization of carbon monoxide dangers to persons in simple fallout shelters and basements may have led the writers of Soviet
civil defense publications to define the "zone of total destruction" as the blast areas where the overpressure exceeds 7 psi and
"residential and industrial buildings are completely destroyed ... the rubble is scattered and covers the burning structures," and
"As a result the rubble only smolders, and fires as such do not occur." 23 Smoldering fires produce more carbon monoxide
than do fiercely burning fires. Whether or not the occupants of basement shelters survive the direct blast effects is of little
practical importance in those blast areas where the rubble overhead burns or smolders. So in the "zone of complete
destruction," Russian rescue brigades plan to concentrate on saving persons trapped inside excellent blast shelters by the
rubble.
About 135,000 Germans lost their lives in the tragic city of Dresden during three days of firebomb raids. Most casualties were
caused by the inhalation of hot gases and by carbon monoxide and smoke poisoning.20 Germans learned that when these
dangers were threatening an air raid shelter, the occupants best chance of survival was to run outside, even if the bombs were
still falling. But in a nuclear war the fallout dose rate may be so high that the occupants of a shelter threatened by smoke and
carbon monoxide might suffer a more certain and worse death by going outside. Instead, if they know from instrument readings
and their calculations that they probably would receive a fatal dose before they could reach another shelter, the occupants
should close all openings as tightly as possible. With luck, carbon monoxide in deadly concentrations would not reach them, nor
would they be overcome by heat or their own respiratory carbon dioxide before the fire dangers ended.
Dr. A. Broido, a leading experimenter with fires and their associated dangers, reached this conclusion: "If I were building a
fallout shelter I would spend a few extra dollars to build it in my backyard rather than in my basement, locating the intake vent
as far as possible from any combustible material. In such a shelter I would expect to survive anything except the close-in blast
effects." 22
This advice also applies to expedient shelters built during a crisis.
Book Page: 66
Copyright 2000 Nuclear War Survival Skills
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Ch. 8: Water
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WATER AND SALT REQUIREMENTS
Painful thirst has been experienced by very few Americans. We take for granted that we will always
have enough water to drink. Most of us think of "food and water" in that order, when we think of
survival essentials that should be stored. But if unprepared citizens were confined in a shelter by
heavy fallout, they soon would realize that they should have given first priority to storing adequate
water.
For the kidneys to eliminate waste products effectively, the average person needs to drink enough water so that he urinates at
least one pint each day. (When water is not limited, most people drink enough to urinate 2 pints. Additional water is lost in
perspiration, exhaled breath, and excrement.) Under cool conditions, a person could survive for weeks on 3 pints of water a
day if he eats but little food and if that food is low in protein. Cool conditions, however, would be the exception in crowded
belowground shelters occupied for many days. Under such circumstances four or five quarts of drinking water per day are
essential in very hot weather, with none allowed for washing. For a two-week shelter stay, 15 gallons per person should be
stored in or close to a shelter. This amount usually would provide for some water remaining after two weeks, to prevent thirst in
case fallout dangers were to continue.
In a 1962 Navy shelter occupancy test lasting two weeks, 99 sailors each consumed an average of 2.4 quarts (2.3 liters) of
water per day.15 The test was conducted in August near Washington, D.C.; the weather was unseasonably cool. The shelter
was not air-conditioned except during the last two days of the test.
When one is sweating heavily and not eating salty food, salt deficiency symptoms especially cramping are likely to develop
within a few days. To prevent this, 6 or 8 grams of salt (about 1/4 oz, or 1/2 tablespoon) should be consumed daily in food and
drink. If little or no food is eaten, this small daily salt ration should be added to drinking water. Under hot conditions, a little salt
makes water taste better.
CARRYING WATER
Most families have only a few large containers that could be used for carrying water to a shelter and storing it in adequate
amounts for several weeks. Polyethylene trash bags make practical expedient water containers when used as waterproof liners
inside smaller fabric bags or pillowcases. (Plastic bags labeled a& being treated with insecticides or odor-controlling chemicals
should not be used.) Figure 8.1 shows a teenage boy carrying over 10 gallons (more than 80 pounds) of water, well balanced
front and back for efficient packing. Each of his two burlap bags is lined with two 20-gallon polyethylene trash bags, one inside
the other. (To avoid possible pinhole leakage it is best to put one waterproof bag inside another.)
To close a plastic bag of water so that hardly any will leak out, first spread the top of the bag until the two inner sides of the
opening are together. Then fold in the center so that the folded opening is 4 thicknesses, and smooth (see Fig. 8.2). Continue
smoothly folding in the middle until the whole folded-up opening is only about 1-1/2 inches wide. Then fold the top of the bag
over on itself so the folded-up opening points down. With a strip of cloth or a soft cord, bind and tie the folded-over part with
a bow knot, as illustrated.
Book Page: 67
Fig. 8.1. Carrying 80 pounds of water in two burlap bags, each lined with two larger plastic trash bags, one inside the
other. (Photograph)
Fig. 8.2. Folding and tying the mouth of a water-filled plastic bag. (Illustration)
For long hikes, it is best to tie the water-holding plastic bags so that the openings 'are higher than the water levels inside.
To transport this type of expedient water bag in a vehicle, tie a rope around the fabric outer bag near its opening, so that the
rope also encircles and holds the plastic liner-bags just below their tied-shut openings. The other end of this rope should then
be tied to some support, to keep the openings higher than the water level.
To use two fabric bags or pillowcases to carry a heavy load of water contained in larger plastic liner- bags connect the two
fabric bags as shown in Fig. 8.1.
A small pebble, a lump of earth, or a similar object should be tied inside the opening of each bag before the two are tied
together, to hold them securely. The bag that is to be carried in front should have the pebble tied about 4 inches further down
from the edge of its opening than the pebble tied in the bag to be carried in back. This keeps the pebbles from being pressed
against the carrier's shoulder by a heavy load.
A pair of trousers with both legs tied shut at the bottoms can be used to carry a balanced load if pillowcases or other fabric
bags are not at hand. Such a balanced load can be slung over the shoulder with the body erect and less strained than if the
same weight were carried in a single bag-like pack on the back. However, trouser legs are quite narrow and do not provide
room to carry more than a few gallons.
To prevent water from slowly leaking through the tied-shut openings ofplastic bags, the water levels inside should be kept
below the openings.
STORING WATER
When storing expedient water bags in a shelter, the water levels inside should be kept below the openings.
Not many expedient shelters would be large enough to store an adequate volume of water for an occupancy lasting two or
more weeks. Plastic-lined storage pits, dug in the earth close to the shelter, are dependable for storing large volumes of water
using cheap, compact materials.
Fig. 8.3. Vertical section of cylindrical water storage pit lined with two 30-gallon waterproof plastic bags. This pit held
about 20 gallons. (Illustration) ORNL- DWG 77- 0423R
Book Page: 68
Figure 8.3 shows a cylindrical water-storage pit dug so as to have a diameter about two inches smaller than the inflated
diameter of the two 30-gallon polyethylene trash bags lining it (one bag inside the other). Before a plastic bag is placed in such
a pit, the ends of roots should be cut off flush to the wall with a sharp knife, and sharp rocks should be carefully removed.
The best way to keep the upper edges of the pit lining bags from slipping into the pit is shown in Fig. 8.3: Make a circular wire
hoop the size of the opening of the bag, and tape it inside the top. In firm ground, the upper edges of double bags have been
satisfactorily held in place simply by sticking six large nails through the turned-under edges of the bags and into the firm earth.
Figure 8.3 shows how to roof and cover a water storage pit so as to protect the water. The "buried roof" of waterproof
material prevents any contamination of the stored water by downward-percolating rainwater, which could contain bacteria or
small amounts of radioactive substances from fallout. The thick earth cover over the flexible roofing gives excellent blast
protection, due to the earth arching that develops under blast pressure. In a large Defense Nuclear Agency blast test, a filled
water-storage pit of the size illustrated was undamaged by blast effects at an overpressure range which could demolish the
strongest aboveground buildings (53 psi).
A simpler way to store water is illustrated in Fig.8.4. If the soil is so unstable that an unshored water storage pit with vertical
sides cannot be dug, the opening of the bag (or of one bag placed inside another) can simply be tied shut so as to minimize
leakage (see Fig. 8.4). Fill the bag with water, tie it, and place it in the pit. Then bury it with earth to the level of the water
inside. A disadvantage of this method is leakage through the tied-shut openings due to pressure of loose earth on the bag. To
lessen leakage, leave an air space between the filled bag and a roofing of board or sticks, so that the weight of earth piled on
top of the roofing will not squeeze the bag. This storage method has another disadvantage: after the earth covering and the roof
are removed, it is difficult to bail out the water for use because as water is bailed out, the loose surrounding earth moves inward
and squeezes the bag above the lowered water level.
Fig. 8.4. These two 30-gallon polyethylene trash bags, one inside the other, held 16 gallons of water. They
were undamaged by 50-psi blast effects while buried in dry, very light soil. The plywood roof and the earth placed over
the water bag were removed before this picture was taken.
Fig. 8.5. Post-blast view of plastic-lined water storage pit undamaged at a 6.7-psi overpressure range. This pit
held about 200 gallons.
Large volumes of water can be stored in plastic lined rectangular pits. In order to roof them with widely available materials such
as ordinary ))-inch plywood or small poles, the pits should be dug no wider than 3 feet. Figure 8.5 pictures such a pit: 8 feet
long, 27 inches wide, and 30 inches deep. It was lined with a 10-foot-wide sheet of 4-mil polyethylene. The edges of this
plastic sheet were held in place by placing them in shallow trenches dug near the sides of the pit and covering them with earth.
Book Page: 69
Earth was mounded over the plywood roof to a depth of about 30 inches, with a "buried roof" of polyethylene. The earth cover
and its "buried roof" were similar to the pit covering illustrated by Fig. 8.3. This rectangular pit contained about 200 gallons of
water. No water leaked out after the pit had been subjected to blast effects severe enough to have flattened most substantial
buildings. However, rectangular pits at higher overpressures failed, due to sidewall caving that caused leaks.
In a subsequent blast test by Boeing Aerospace Company, a plastic-lined water pit was undamaged at the 200-psi
overpressure range. First a rectangular pit 4 ft. wide, 12 ft. long, and 2 ft. deep was dug. Then inside this pit a 2 x l0 x 2-ft.
water-storage pit was dug, and lined with plastic film. After being filled full of water, the storage pit was covered with plywood,
on which was shoveled 2 ft. of earth.
Plastic garbage cans are usually watertight; most used metal garbage cans are not. If thoroughly cleaned and disinfected with a
strong chlorine bleach solution, watertight garbage cans can serve for emergency water storage, as can some wastebaskets. If
new plastic film is available, it can be used as a lining to waterproof any strong box. To lessen the chances of the plastic being
punctured, rough containers first should be lined with fabric.
If shelter is to be taken in or near a building, water trapped in hot water heaters and toilet flush tanks or stored in tubs might be
available after an attack.
SIPHONING
Pouring water out of a heavy water-storage bag is inconvenient and often results in spillage. Dipping it out can result in
contamination. If a tube or piece of flexible garden hose is available, siphoning (see Fig. 8.6) is the best way. A field-tested
method is described below. To prevent the suction end of the tube from being obstructed by contact with the plastic liner of the
bag, tape or tie a wire "protector" to the end, as pictured later in this section.
To start siphoning,' suck on the tube until water reaches your mouth. Next fold over the tube near its end, to keep the tube full.
Lower its closed end until it is near its position shown in Fig. 8.6. Then release your hold on the tube, to start siphoning.
To cut off the water, fold over the tube and secure it shut with a rubber band or string.
(Illustration)Fig. 8.6. Using a tube to siphon water from a fabric bag lined with a larger plastic bag. ORNL-DWG
78-14676
Water can be siphoned from a covered water storage pit into a belowground shelter so that the siphon will deliver running
water for weeks, if necessary. The Utah family mentioned earlier siphoned all they needed of the 120 gallons of water stored in
a nearby lined pit. A field-tested method of siphoning follows:
1. Dig the water storage pit far enough away from the shelter so that the covering mounds will not interfere with drainage
ditches.
2. Use a flexible tube or hose which is no more than 25 feet long. For a single family, a flexible rubber tube with an inside
diameter of inch (such as surgical tubing) would be best. A flexible 2-inch hose of the type used with mobile homes and
boats serves well. As indicated by Fig. 8.7, the tube should be long enough to extend from the bottom of the water pit to
within about a foot of the shelter floor.
3. Make sure that the end in the water pit will not press against plastic and block the flow of water. This can be avoided
by (1) making and attaching a wire "protector" to the end of the tube, as shown in Fig. 8.8, or (2) taping or tying the end
to a rock or other object, to keep the end in the desired position.
4. Protect the tube by placing it in a trench about 4 inches deep. This small trench is best dug before roofing either the
storage pit or the shelter. Be sure a roof pole or board does not crush the tube. Cover the tube with earth and tie it so
that the end in the storage pit cannot be accidentally pulled out of position.
Book Page: 70
Fig. 8.7. Water siphoned into a belowground shelter. ORNL-DWG 78-11471
(Illustration)
Fig. 8.8. Two wire "protectors," each made of two pieces of coathanger wire taped to a 1/2 inch flexible hose and a
rubber tube. Shown on the right is a tube closed with a rubber band to stop a siphoned flow of water. (Illustration)
5. To start the flow of water into the shelter, hold the free end of the tube at about the height of the surface of the water
in the storage pit, while pulling gently on the tube so that the part in the shelter is practically straight. Exhale as much
breath as you can, then place the end of the tube in your mouth, and suck hard and long. (The longer the tube or hose
and the larger its diameter, the more times you will have to suck to start the flow of water.)
6. Without taking the tube out of your mouth, shut it off airtight by bending it double near the end.
7. Exhale, straighten the tube, and suck again, repeating until you feel a good flow of water into your mouth while still
sucking. Shut off the flow by bending the tube double before taking it out of your mouth.
8. Quickly lower the end of the tube (which is now full of water) and place the closed end in a container on the shelter
floor. Finally, open the end to start the siphoned flow.
9. When you have siphoned enough water, stop the flow by bending the tube double. Keep it closed in the
doubled-over, air-tight position with a strong rubber band or string, as shown in Fig. 8.8. To prevent loss of water by
accidental siphoning, suspend the end of the tube a couple of inches higher than the surface of the water in the storage pit
outside and close to where the tube comes into the shelter. (Despite precautions, air may accumulate in the highest part
of the tube, blocking a siphoned flow and making it necessary to re-start the siphoning by repeating the sucking.)
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DISINFECTING WATER
Water-borne diseases probably would kill more survivors of a nuclear attack than would fallout- contaminated water. Before
an attack, if water from a municipal source is stored in expedient containers that could be unclean, it should be disinfected. For
long storage, it is best to disinfect all water, since even a few organisms may multiply rapidly and give stored water a bad taste
or odor. Properly disinfected water remains safe for many years if stored in thick plastic or glass containers sealed airtight. For
multi-year storage do not use thin plastic containers, such as milkjugs, which in time often develop leaks.
Book Page: 71
Any household bleach solution, such as Clorox, that contains sodium hypochlorite as its only active ingredient may be used as a
source of chlorine for disinfecting. The amount of sodium hypochlorite, usually 5.25%, is printed on the label. (In recent years,
perhaps as a precaution against drinking undiluted chlorine bleach solution, some household bleach containers show a warning
such as "Not For Personal Use." This warning can be safely disregarded if the label states that the bleach contains only sodium
hypochlorite as its active ingredient, and if only the small quantities specified in these and other instructions are used to disinfect
water.) Add 1 scant teaspoonful to each 10 gallons of clear water, and stir. Add 2 scant teaspoonfuls if the water is muddy or
colored. Wait at least 30 minutes before drinking, to allow enough time for the chlorine to kill all the microorganisms.24
Properly disinfected water should have a slight chlorine odor.
To disinfect small quantities of water, put 2 drops of household bleach containing 5.25% sodium hypochlorite in each quart of
clearwater. Use 4 drops if the water is muddy or colored.24 If a dropper is not available, use a spoon and a square-ended
strip of paper or thin cloth about 1/4 inch wide by 2 inches long. Put the strip in the spoon with an end hanging down about 2
inch beyond the end of the spoon. Then when bleach is placed in the spoon and the spoon is carefully tipped, drops the size of
those from a medicine dropper will drip off the end of the strip.
As a second choice, 2% tincture of iodine can be used. Add 5 drops to each quart of clear water, and let stand 30 minutes.24
If the water is cloudy, add 10 drops to each quart. Commercial water purification tablets should be used as directed.
If neither safe water nor chemicals for disinfecting it are available during a crisis, store plenty of the best water at hand even
muddy river water. Most mud settles to the bottom in a few days; even in a crowded shelter ways often could be found to boil
water. Bringing water to a boil for one minute kills all types of disease-causing bacteria.24 Boiling for 10 to 20 minutes is
required to kill some rarer infective organisms.
SOURCES OF WATER IN FALLOUT AREAS
Survivors of a nuclear attack should realize that neither fallout particles nor dissolved radioactive elements or compounds can
be removed from water by chemical disinfection or boiling. Therefore, water should be obtained from the least radioactive
sources available. Before a supply of stored drinking water has been exhausted, other sources should be located. The main
water sources are given below, with the safest source listed first and the other sources listed in decreasing order of safety.
1. Water from deep wells and from water tanks and covered reservoirs into which no fallout particles or
fallout-contaminated water has been introduced. (Caution: Although most spring water would be safe, some
spring water is surface water that has flowed into and through underground channels without having been filtered.)
2. Water from covered seepage pits or shallow, hand-dug wells. This water is usually safe IF fallout or
fallout-contaminated surface water has been prevented from entering by the use of waterproof coverings and by
waterproofing the surrounding ground to keep water from running down outside the well casing. Figure 8.9 is
taken from a Chinese civil defense manual.21 It shows a well dug to obtain safe water from a fallout contaminated
source. If the earth is not sandy, gravelly, or too porous, filtration through earth is very effective.
3. Contaminated water from deep lakes. Water from a deep lake would be much less contaminated by dissolved
radioactive material and fallout particles than water from a shallow pond would be, if both had the same amount of
fallout per square foot of surface area deposited in them. Furthermore, fallout particles settle to the bottom more
rapidly in deep lakes than in shallow ponds, which are agitated more by wind.
4. Contaminated water from shallow ponds and other shallow, still water.
5. Contaminated water from streams, which would be especially dangerous ifthe stream is muddy from the first
heavy rains after fallout is deposited.
(Illustration)Fig. 8.9. A water-filtering well.This Chinese drawing specifies that this well should be dug 5 to 10 meters
(roughly 5 to 10 yards) from a pond or stream.
Book Page: 72
The first runoff will contain most of the radioactive material that can be dissolved from fallout particles deposited
on the drainage area.25 Runoff after the first few heavy rains following the deposit of fallout is not likely to contain
much dissolved radioactive material, or fallout.
6. Water collected from fallout-contaminated roofs. This would contain more fallout particles than would the
runoff from the ground.
7. Water obtained by melting snow that has fallen through air containing fallout particles, or from snow lying on the
ground onto which fallout has fallen. Avoid using such water for drinking or cooking, if possible.
WATER FROM WELLS
The wells of farms and rural homes would be the best sources of water for millions of survivors. Following a massive nuclear
attack, the electric pumps and the pipes in wells usually would be useless. Electric power in most areas would be eliminated by
the effects of electromagnetic pulse (EM P) from high-altitude bursts and by the effects of blast and fire on power stations,
transformers, and transmission lines. However, enough people would know how to remove these pipes and pumps from wells
so that bail- cans could be used to reach water and bring up enough for drinking and basic hygiene.
Fig. 8.10. Lower part of an expedient bail-can. The unattached, "caged" valve can be made of a material that does
not have the springiness of soft rubber. ORNL-DWO 78-6691R (Illustration)
How to make a simple bail-can is illustrated in Fig. 8.10. An ordinary large fruit-juice can will serve, if its diameter is at least 1
inch smaller than the diameter of the well-casing pipe. A hole about 1 inch in diameter should be cut in the center of the can's
bottom. The hole should be cut from the inside of the can: this keeps the inside of the bottom smooth, so it will serve as a
smooth seat for a practically watertight valve. To cut the hole, stand the can on a flat wood surface and press down repeatedly
with the point of a sheath knife, a butcher knife, or a sharpened screwdriver.
The best material for the circular, unattached valve shown in Fig. 8.10 is soft rubber, smooth and thin, such as inner-tube
rubber. Alternately, the lid of a can about 3/4 inch smaller in diameter than the bail- can may be used, with several thicknesses
of plastic film taped to its smooth lower side. Plastic film about 4 mils thick is best. The bail (handle) of a bail-can should be
made of wire, with a loop at the top to which a rope or strong cord should be attached.
Filling-time can be reduced by taping half-apound of rocks or metal to the bottom of the bail-can.
REMOVING FALLOUT PARTICLES AND DISSOLVED RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL FROM WATER
The dangers from drinking fallout contaminated water could be greatly lessened by using expedient settling and filtration
methods to remove fallout particles and most of the dissolved radioactive material. Fortunately, in areas of heavy fallout, less
than 2% of the radioactivity of the fallout particles contained in the water would become dissolved in water.25 If nearly all the
radioactive fallout particles could be removed by filtering or settling methods, few casualties would be likely to result from
drinking and cooking with most fallout- contaminated watr.
° Filtering
Filtering through earth removes essentially all of the fallout particles and more of the dissolved radioactive material than does
boiling-water distillation, a generally impractical purification method that does not eliminate dangerous radioactive iodines. Earth
filters are also more effective in removing radioactive iodines than are ordinary ion-exchange water softeners or charcoal filters.
In areas of heavy fallout, about 99% of the radioactivity in water could be removed by filtering it through ordinary earth. 73
Fig. 8.11. Expedient filter to remove radioactivity from water. ORNL DWG 77-18431 (Illustration)
To make the simple, effective filter shown in Fig. 8.11, the only materials needed are those found in and around the home. This
expedient filter can be built easily by proceeding as follows:
1. Perforate the bottom of a 5-gallon can, a large bucket, a watertight wastebasket, or a similar container with
about a dozen nail holes. Punch the holes from the bottom upward, staying within about 2 inches of the center.
2. Place a layer about 1 inches thick of washed pebbles or small stones on the bottom of the can. If pebbles are
not available, twisted coat-hanger wires or small sticks can be used.
3. Cover the pebbles with one thickness of terrycloth towel, burlap sackcloth, or other quite porous cloth. Cut the
cloth in a roughly circular shape about 3 inches larger than the diameter of the can.
4. Take soil containing some clay almost any soil will do from at least 4 inches below the surface of the ground.
(Nearly all fallout particles remain near the surface except after deposition on sand or gravel.)
5. Pulverize the soil, then gently press it in layers over the cloth that covers the pebbles, so that the cloth is held
snugly against the sides of the can. Do not use pure clay (not porous enough) or sand (too porous). The soil in the
can should be 6 to 7 inches thick.
6. Completely cover the surface of the soil layer with one thickness of fabric as porous as a bath towel. This is to
keep the soil from being eroded as water is poured into the filtering can. The cloth also will remove some of the
particles from the water. A dozen small stones placed on the cloth near its edges will secure it adequately.
7. Support the filter can on rods or sticks placed across the top of a container that is larger in diameter than the
filter can. (A dishpan will do.)
The contaminated water should be poured into the filter can, preferably after allowing it to settle as described below. The
filtered water should be disinfected by one of the previously described methods.
If the 6 or 7 inches of filtering soil is a sandy clay loam, the filter initially will deliver about 6 quarts of clear water per hour. (If
the filtration rate is faster than about 1 quart in 10 minutes, remove the upper fabric and recompress the soil.) After several
hours, the rate will be reduced to about 2 quarts per hour.
When the filtering rate becomes too slow, it can be increased by removing and rinsing the surface fabric, removing about 1 inch
of soil, and then replacing the fabric. The life of a filter is extended and its efficiency increased if muddy water is first allowed to
settle for several hours in a separate container, as described below. After about 50 quarts have been filtered, rebuild the filter
by replacing the used soil with fresh soil.
° Settling
Settling is one of the easiest methods to remove most fallout particles from water. Furthermore, if the water to be used is
muddy or murky, settling it before filtering will extend the life of the filter. The procedure is as follows:
1. Fill a bucket or other deep container three quarters full of the contaminated water.
2. Dig pulverized clay or clayey soil from a depth of four or more inches below ground surface, and stir it into the
water. Use about a 1-inch depth of dry clay or dry clayey soil for every 4-inch depth of water. Stir until practically
all the clay particles are suspended in the water.
Book Page: 74
3. Let the clay settle for at least 6 hours. The settling clay particles will carry most of the suspended fallout
particles to the bottom and cover them.
4. Carefully dip out or siphon the clear water, and disinfect it.
° Settling and Filtering
Although dissolved radioactive material usually is only a minor danger in fallout-contaminated water, it is safest to filter even the
clear water produced by settling, if an earth filter is available. Finally as always the water should be disinfected.
POST-FALLOUT REPLENISHMENT OF STORED WATER
When fallout decays enough to permit shelter occupants to go out of their shelters for short periods, they should try to replenish
their stored water. An enemy may make scattered nuclear strikes for weeks after an initial massive attack. Some survivors may
be forced back into their shelters by the resultant fallout. Therefore, all available water containers should be used to store the
least contaminated water within reach. Even without filtering, water collected and stored shortly after the occurrence of fallout
will become increasingly safer with time, due particularly to the rapid decay of radioactive iodines. These would be the most
dangerous contaminants of water during the first few weeks after an attack.
Book Page: 75
Copyright 2000 Nuclear War Survival Skills
Nuclear War Survival Skills
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Ch. 9: Food
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MINIMUM NEEDS
The average American is accustomed to eating regularly and abundantly. He
may not realize that for most people food would not be essential for survival
during the first two or three weeks following a nuclear attack. Exceptions
would be infants, small children, and the aged and sick, some of whom might
die within a week without proper nourishment. Other things are more
important for short-term survival: adequate shelter against the dangers from
blast and fallout, an adequate supply of air, and enough water.
The average American also may not realize that small daily amounts of a few
unprocessed staple foods would enable him to survive for many months, or
even for years. A healthy person if he is determined to live and if he learns
how to prepare and use whole-grain wheat or corn can maintain his health
for several months. If beans are also available and are substituted for some of the grain, the ration
would be improved and could maintain health for many months.
The nutritional information given in this chapter is taken from a July, 1979 publication, Maintaining
Nutritional Adequacy During a Prolonged Food Crisis.26 This book brings together from
worldwide sources the nutritional facts needed to help unprepared people use unaccustomed foods
advantageously during the prolonged crisis that would follow a heavy nuclear attack. The practical
know-how which will be given in this chapter regarding the expedient processing and cooking of basic
grains and beans is based on old ways which are mostly unknown to modern Americans. These
methods have been improved and field-tested by civil defense researchers at Oak Ridge National
Laboratory.
LOSS OF HIGH-PROTEIN ANIMAL FOODS
A massive nuclear attack would eliminate the luxurious, complicated American system of food production, processing, and
distribution. Extensive, heavy fallout and the inability of farmers to feed their animals would kill most of the cattle, hogs, and
chickens that are the basis of our high-protein diet. The livestock most likely to survive despite their owners' inability to care for
them would be cattle on pasture. However, these grazing animals would swallow large numbers of fallout particles along with
grass, and many would drink contaminated water. Their digestive tracts would suffer severe radiation damage.27 Also, they
would suffer radiation burns from fallout particles. Thus in an outdoor area where the total dose from gamma radiation emitted
within a few days from fallout particles on the ground might be only 150 R, most grazing animals probably would be killed by
the combined effects of external gamma- ray radiation, beta burns, and internal radiation.27
PRECAUTIONS WHEN EATING MEAT
In areas where the fallout would not be enough to sicken animals, their meat would be safe food. In fallout areas, however,
animals that have eaten or drunk fallout-contaminated food or water will have concentrated radioactive atoms and molecules in
their internal organs. The thyroid gland, kidneys, and liver especially should not be eaten.
If an animal appears to be sick, it should not be eaten. The animal might be suffering from a sickening or fatal radiation dose
and might have developed a bacterial infection as a result of this dose. Meat contaminated with the toxins produced by some
kinds of bacteria could cause severe illness or death if eaten, even if thoroughly cooked.
Book Page: 76
Under crisis conditions, all meat should be cooked until it is extremely well done - cooked long past the time when it loses the
last of its pink color. To be sure that the center of each piece of meat is raised to boiling temperature, the meat should be cut
into pieces that are less than 1/2-inch thick before cooking. This precaution also reduces cooking time and saves fuel.
SURVIVAL OF BREEDING STOCK
Extensive areas of the United States would not receive fallout heavy enough to kill grazing animals. The millions of surviving
animals would provide some food and the fertile breeding stock needed for national recovery. The loss of fertility caused by
severe radiation doses is rarely permanent. Extensive experiments with animals have shown that the offspring of severely
irradiated animals are healthy and fertile.27
LIVING ON BASIC PLANT FOODS
Even if almost all food-producing animals were lost, most surviving Americans should be able to live on the foods that enable
most of the world's population to live and multiply: grains, beans, and vegetables. And because of the remarkable productivity
of American agriculture, there usually would be enough grain and beans in storage to supply surviving Americans with sufficient
food for at least a year following a heavy nuclear attack.28 The problem would be to get the unprocessed foods, which are
stored in food-producing regions, to the majority of survivors who would be outside these regions.
Surprisingly little transportation would be needed to carry adequate quantities of these unprocessed foods to survivors in famine
areas. A single large trailer truck can haul 40,000 pounds of wheat enough to keep 40,000 people from feeling hunger pains for
a day. More than enough such trucks and the fuel needed to carry basic foods to food-short areas would survive a massive
nuclear attack.28 It is likely that reasonably strong American leadership and morale would prevail so that, after the first few
weeks, millions of the survivors in starving areas should receive basic unprocessed foods.
Eating food produced in the years after a large attack would cause an increase in the cancer rate, due primarily to its content of
radioactive strontium and cesium from fallout-contaminated soil. Over the first 30 years following an attack, this increase would
be a small fraction of the number of additional cancer deaths that would result from external radiation.29 Cancer deaths would
be one of the tragic, delayed costs of a nuclear war, but all together would not be numerous enough to endanger the long-term
survival of the population.
LIVE OFF THE LAND?
Very few survivors of a heavy attack would be in areas where they could live off the land like primitive hunters and gatherers.
In extensive areas where fallout would not be heavy enough to kill human beings, wild creatures would die from the combined
effects 'of external gamma radiation, swallowed fallout particles, and beta burns on their bodies. Survival plans should not
include dependence on hunting, fishing, or gathering wild plants.
FOOD FOR SHELTER OCCUPANTS
Most people would need very little food to live several weeks; however, the time when survivors of blast and fallout would
leave their shelters would mark the beginning of a much longer period of privation and hard manual labor. Therefore, to
maintain physical strength and morale, persons in shelters ideally should have enough healthful food to provide well-balanced,
adequate meals for many weeks.
In most American homes there are only enough ready-to-eat, concentrated foods to last a few days. Obviously, it would be an
important survival advantage to keep on hand a two-week supply of easily transportable foods. In any case, occupants of
shelters would be uncertain about when they could get more food and would have to make hard decisions about how much to
eat each day. (Those persons who have a fallout meter, such as the homemade instrument described in Chapter 10, could
estimate when and for how long they could emerge from shelter to find food. As a result, these persons could ration their limited
foods more effectively.)
During the first few weeks of a food crisis, lack of vitamins and other essentials of a well-balanced diet would not be of primary
importance to previously well-nourished people. Healthful foods with enough calories to provide adequate energy would meet
short-term needs. If water is in short supply, high-protein foods such as meat are best eaten only in moderation, since a person
eating high-protein foods requires more water than is needed when consuming an equal number of calories from foods high in
carbohydrates.
Book Page: 77
EXPEDIENT PROCESSING OF GRAINSAND SOYBEANS
Whole-kernel grains or soybeans cannot be eaten in sufficient quantities to maintain vigor and health if merely boiled or
parched. A little boiled whole-kernel wheat is a pleasantly chewy breakfast cereal, but experimenters at Oak Ridge got sore
tongues and very loose bowels when they tried to eat enough boiled whole-kernel wheat to supply even half of their daily
energy needs. Some pioneers, however, ate large quantities of whole-kernel wheat without harmful results after boiling and
simmering it for many hours. Even the most primitive peoples who subsist primarily on grains grind or pound them into a meal or
paste before cooking. (Rice is the only important exception.) Few Americans know how to process whole-kernel grains and
soybeans (our largest food reserves) into meal. This ignorance could be fatal to survivors of a nuclear attack.
Making an expedient metate, the hollowed-out grinding stone of Mexican Indians, proved impractical under simulated
post-attack conditions. Pounding grain into meal with a rock or a capped, solid-ended piece of pipe is extremely slow work.
The best expedient means developed and field-tested for pounding grain or beans into meal and flour is an improvised 3-pipe
grain mill. Instructions for making and using this effective grain-pounding device follow.
Improvised Grain Mill
The grain mill described can efficiently pound whole-grain wheat, corn, etc., into meal and flour thereby greatly improving
digestibility and avoiding the diarrhea and sore mouths that would result from eating large quantities of unground grain.
TO BUILD:
(1) Cut 3 lengths of pipe, each 30 inches long; 3/4-inch-diameter steel pipe (such as ordinary water pipe) is best.
(2) Cut the working ends of the pipe off squarely. Remove all roughness, leaving the full-wall thickness. Each
working end should have the full diameter of the pipe.
(3) In preparation for binding the three pieces of pipe together into a firm bundle, encircle each piece of pipe with
cushioning, slip-preventing tape, string or cloth in the locations illustrated.
(4) Tape or otherwise bind the 3 pipes into a secure bundle so that their working ends are as even as possible and
are in the same plane resting evenly on a flat surface.
(5) Cut the top smoothly out of a large can. A 4-inch-diameter, 7-inch-high fruit-juice can is ideal. If you do not
have a can, improvise something to keep grain together while pounding it.
Fig. ORNL-DWO 73-11449 (Illustration)
Book Page: 78
TO MAKE MEAL AND FLOUR:
(1) Put clean, dry grain ONE INCH DEEP in the can.
(2) To prevent blistering your hands, wear gloves, or wrap cloth around the upper part of the bundle of pipes.
(3) Place the can (or open-ended cylinder) on a hard, smooth, solid surface, such as concrete.
(4) To pound the grain, sit with the can held between your feet. Move the bundle of pipes straight up and down
about 3 inches, with a rapid stroke.
(5) If the can is 4 inches in diameter, in 4 minutes you should be able to pound 1-1/2 lb. (one cup) of
whole-kernel wheat into 1/5 lb. of fine meal and flour, and 3/10 lb. of coarse meal and fine-cracked wheat.
(6) To separate the pounded grain into fine meal, flour, coarse meal, and fine-cracked wheat, use a sieve made of
window screen.
(7) To separate flour for feeding small children, place some pounded grain in an 18 X 18-inch piece of fine nylon
net, gather the edges of the net together so as to hold the grain, and shake this bag-like container.
(8) To make flour fine enough for babies, pound fine meal and coarse flour still finer, and sieve it through a piece
of cheesecloth or similar material.
As soon as fallout decay permits travel, the grain-grinding machines on tens of thousands of hog and cattle farms should be
used for milling grain for survivors. It is vitally important to national recovery and individual survival to get back as soon as
possible to labor-saving, mechanized ways of doing essential work.
In an ORNL experiment, a farmer used a John Deere Grinder-Mixer powered by a 100-hp tractor to grind large samples of
wheat and barley. When it is used to grind rather coarse meal for hogs, this machine is rated at 12 tons per hour. Set to grind a
finer meal-flour mixture for human consumption, it ground both hard wheat and feed barley at a rate of about 9 tons per hour.
This is 2400 times as fast as using muscle power to operate even the best expedient grain mill. With its finest screen installed,
this large machine can produce about 3 tons of whole wheat flour per hour.
Unlike wheat and corn, the kernels of barley, grain sorghums, and oats have rough, fibrous hulls that must be removed from the
digestible parts to produce an acceptable food. Moistening the grain will toughen such hulls and make them easier to remove. If
the grain is promptly pounded or ground into meal, the toughened hulls will break into larger pieces than will the hulls of
undampened grain. A small amount of water, weighing about 2% of the weight of the grain, should be used to dampen the
grain. For 3 pounds of grain (about 6 cups), sprinkle with about one ounce (28 grams, or about 2 tablespoons) of water, while
stirring constantly to moisten all the kernels. After about 5 minutes of stirring, the grain will appear dry. The small amount of
water will have dampened and toughened the hulls, but the edible parts- inside will have remained dry. Larger pieces of hull are
easier to remove after grinding than smaller pieces.
One way to remove ground-up hulls from meal is by flotation. Put some of the meal-hulls mixture about 1 inch deep in a pan or
pot, cover the mixture with water, and stir. Skim off the floating hulls, then pour off the water and more hulls. Sunken pieces of
hulls that settle on top of the heavier meal can be removed with one's fingers as the last of the water is poured off. To produce a
barley meal good for very small children, the small pieces of hulls must again be separated by flotation.
Figure 9.1 illustrates sieving fine, dry barleymeal and the smaller pieces of hulls from the coarser meal and the larger pieces. The
sieve was a piece of window screen that measured inches before its sides were folded up and form an open-topped box.
(Illustration)Fig. 9.1. Sieving ground barley through a windowscreen sieve.
Book Page: 79
To lessen their laxative effects, all grains should be ground as finely as possible, and most of the hulls should be removed.
Grains also will be digested more easily if they are finely ground. The occupants of crowded shelters should be especially
careful to avoid foods that cause diarrhea.
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COOKING WITH MINIMUM FUEL
In areas of heavy fallout, people would have to remain continuously in crowded shelters for many days. Then they would have
to stay in the shelters most of each 24 hours for weeks. Most shelter occupants soon would consume all of their ready-to-eat
foods; therefore, they should have portable, efficient cook stoves. A cook stove is important for another reason: to help
maintain morale. Even in warm weather, people need some hot food and drink for the comforting effect and to promote a sense
of well-being. This is particularly true when people are under stress. The Bucket Stove pictured on the following pages (Figs.
9.2 and 9.3) was the most satisfactory of several models of expedient stoves developed at Oak Ridge and later field-tested.
° Bucket Stove
If operated properly, this stove burns only about 1/2 pound of dry wood or newspaper to heat 3 quarts of water from 600 F to
boiling.
Materials required for the stove:
* A metal bucket or can, 12- to 16-quart sizes preferred. The illustrations show a 14-quart bucket and a 6-quart
pot.
* Nine all-metal coat hangers for the parts made of wire. (To secure the separate parts of the movable
coat-hanger wire grate, 2 feet of finer wire is helpful.)
* A 6 X 10-inch piece of a large fruit-juice can, for a damper.
Construction:
With a chisel (or a sharpened screw driver) and a hammer, cut a 4-1/2 X 4-1/2-inch hole in the side of the bucket about 1-1/2
inches above its bottom. To avoid denting the side of the bucket when chiseling out the hole, place the bucket over the end of a
log or similar solid object.
To make the damper, cut a 6-inch-wide by 10-inch-high piece out of a large fruit-juice can or from similar light metal. Then
make the two coathanger-wire springs illustrated, and attach them to the piece of metal by bending and hammering the outer 1
inch of the two 6-inch-long sides over and around the two spring wires. This damper can be slid up and down, to open and
close the hole in the bucket. The springs hold it in any desired position. (If materials for making this damper are not available,
the air supply can be regulated fairly well by placing a brick, rock, or piece of metal so that it will block off part of the hole in
the side of the bucket.)
To make a support for the pot, punch 4 holes in the sides of the bucket, equally spaced around it and about 3-1/2 inches below
the bucket's top. Then run a coat-hanger wire through each of the two pairs of holes on opposite sides of the bucket. Bend
these two wires over the top of the bucket, as illustrated, so that their four ends form free-ended springs to hold the cooking
pot centered in the bucket. Pressure on the pot from these four free-ended, sliding springs does not hinder putting it into the
stove or taking it out.
Bend and twist 4 or 5 coat hangers to make the movable grate, best made with the approximate dimensions given in Fig. 9.2.
For adjusting the burning pieces of fuel on the grate, make a pair of 12-inch-long tongs of coathanger wire, as illustrated by Fig.
9.3.
To lessen heat losses through the sides and bottom of the bucket, cover the bottom with about 1 inch of dry sand or earth.
Then line part of the inside and bottom with two thicknesses of heavy-duty aluminum foil, if available.
To make it easier to place the pot in the stove or take it out without spilling its contents, replace the original bucket handle with
a longer piece of strong wire.
Operation:
The Bucket Stove owes its efficiency to: (1) the adjustable air supply that flows up through the burning fuel, (2) the movable
grate that lets the operator keep the maximum amount of flame in contact with the bottom of the cooking pot, and (3) the space
between the sides of the pot and the inside of the bucket that keeps the rising hot gases in close contact with the sides of the
pot.
In a shelter, a Bucket Stove should be placed as near as practical to an air exhaust opening before a fire is started in it.
Book Page: 80
Fig. 9.2. Bucket-stove with adjustable damper and movable wire grate. Photo 1397-78A
Book Page: 81
Fig. 9.3. Bucket-stove with its sliding damper partly closed. Foot-long tongs of coat hanger wire are especially useful
when burning twisted half-pages of newspaper.
Book Page: 82
If wood is to be burned, cut and split dry wood into small pieces approximately 1/2 inch square and 6 inches long. Start the fire
with paper and small slivers of wood, placing some under the wire grate. To keep fuel from getting damp in a humid shelter,
keep it in a large plastic bag.
If newspaper is to be burned, use half-pages folded and twisted into 5-inch-long "sticks," as illustrated. Using the wire tongs,
feed a paper "stick" into the fire about every half-minute.
Add fuel and adjust the damper to keep the flame high enough to reach the bottom of the pot, but not so high as to go up the
sides of the pot.
To use the Bucket Stove for heating in very cold weather, remove the pot and any insulation around the sides of the bucket;
burn somewhat more fuel per minute.
If used with the Fireless Cooker described on the following pages, a Bucket Stove can be used to thoroughly cook beans,
grain, or tough meat in water. Three quarts of such food can be cooked with less fuel than is required to soft-boil an egg over a
small campfire.
° Fireless Cooker
Fig. 9.4. Boiling-hot pot of food being placed in an expedient Fireless Cooker.
A Fireless Cooker cooks by keeping a lidded pot of boiling-hot food so well insulated all around that it loses heat very slowly.
Figure 9.4 shows one of these simple fuel-saving devices made from a bushel basket filled with insulating newspapers, with a
towel-lined cavity in the center. The Cavity is the size of the 6-quart pot. A towel in this cavity goes all around the pot and will
be placed over it to restrict air circulation. If the boiling-hot pot of food is then covered with newspapers about 4 inches thick,
the temperature will remain for hours so near boiling that in 4 or 5 hours even slow-cooking food will be ready to eat.
The essential materials for making an effective Fireless Cooker are enough of any good insulating materials (blankets, coats,
paper, hay that is dry and pliable) to cover the boiling-hot pot all over with at least 3 or 4 inches of insulation. A container to
keep the insulating materials in place around the pot is useful.
Wheat, other grains, and small pieces of tough meat can be thoroughly cooked by boiling them briskly for only about 5 minutes,
then insulating the pot in a Fireless Cooker for 4 or 5 hours, or overnight. Whole beans should be boiled for 10 to 15 minutes
before they are placed in a Fireless Cooker.
COOKING GRAIN AND BEANS WHEN SHORT OF FUEL OR POTS
° Cooking Grain Alone
When whole grains are pounded or ground by expedient means, the result usually is a mixture of coarse meal, fine meal, and a
little flour. Under shelter conditions, the best way to cook such meal is first to bring the water to a boil (3 parts of water for 1
part of meal). Add 1 teaspoon (5 grams) of salt per pound of dry meal. Remove the pot from the fire (or stop adding fuel to a
Bucket Stove) and quickly stir the meal into the hot water. (If the meal is stirred into briskly boiling water, lumping becomes a
worse problem.) Then, while stirring constantly, again bring the pot to a rolling boil. Since the meal is just beginning to swell,
more unabsorbed water remains, so there is less sticking and scorching than if the meal were added to cold water and then
brought to a boil.
Book Page: 83
If any type of Fireless Cooker is available, the hot cereal only has to be boiled and stirred long enough so that no thin, watery
part remains. This usually takes about 5 minutes. Continue to cook, either in the Fireless Cooker for at least 4 or 5 hours, or by
boiling for an additional 15 or 20 minutes.
When it is necessary to boil grain meal for many minutes, minimize sticking and scorching by cooking 1 part of dry meal with at
least 4 parts of water. However, cooking a thinner hot cereal has a disadvantage during a food crisis: an increased volume of
food must be eaten to satisfy one's energy needs.
If grain were the only food available, few Americans doing physical work could eat enough of it to maintain their weight at first,
until their digestive tracts enlarged from eating the very bulky foods. This adaptation could take a few months. Small children
could not adjust adequately to an all-grain diet: for them, concentrated foods such as fats also are needed to provide enough
calories to maintain growth and health.
° Cooking Grain and Beans Together
When soybeans are being used to supplement the lower quality proteins of grain and when fuel or pots are in short supply, first
grind or pound the beans into a fine meal. To further reduce cooking time, soak the bean meal for a couple of hours, keeping it
covered with water as it swells. Next put the soaked bean meal into a pot containing about 3 times as much water as the
combined volume of a mixture of 1 part of dry bean meal and 3 or 4 parts of dry grain meal. Gently boil the bean meal for
about 15 minutes, stirring frequently, before adding the grain meal and completing the cooking.
Stop boiling and add the grain meal while stirring constantly. Again bring the pot to a boil, stirring to prevent sticking and
scorching, and boil until the meal has swelled enough to have absorbed all the water. After salting, boil the grain-bean mush for
another 15 minutes or more before eating, or put it in a fireless cooker for at least 4 or 5 hours.
Soybeans boiled alone have a taste that most people find objectionable. Also, whole soybeans must be boiled for a couple of
hours to soften them sufficiently. But if soybeans are pounded or ground into a fine meal, and then 1 part of the soybean meal is
boiled with 4 parts of meal made from corn or another grain, the soybeans give a pleasant sweetish taste to the resulting mush.
The unpleasant soybean taste is eliminated. If cooked as described above, soybeans and other beans or dried peas can be
made digestible and palatable with minimum cooking.
100% GRAIN AND 100% BEAN DIETS
A diet consisting solely of wheat, corn, or rice, and salt has most of the essential nutrients. The critical deficiencies would be
vitamins A, C, and D. Such a grain-based diet can serve adults and older children as their '"staff of life" for months. Table 9.1
shows how less than 1-3/4pounds of whole wheat or dry yellow corn satisfies most of the essential nutritional requirements of a
long-term emergency ration. [The nutritional values that are deficient are printed in bold type, to make an easier comparison
with the Emergency Recommendations, also printed in bold type. Food energy is given in kilocalories (kcal), commonly called
calories (Cal).] Expedient ways of supplying the nutrients missing from these rations are described in a following section of this
chapter.
Other common whole grains would serve about as well as wheat and yellow corn. At least 1/6 oz of salt per day (about 5
grams) is essential for any ration that is to be eaten for more than a few' days, but 1/3 oz. (about 10 g or 3/4 tablespoon)
should be available to allow for increased salt needs and to make grain and beans more palatable. This additional salt would be
consumed as needed.
To repeat: few Americans at first would be able to eat the 3 or 4 quarts of thick mush that would be necessary with a ration
consisting solely of whole-kernel wheat or corn. Only healthy Americans determined to survive would be likely to fare well for
months on such unaccustomed and monotonous food as an all-grain diet. Eating two or more different kinds of grain and
cooking in different ways would make an all-grain diet both more acceptable and more nourishing.
Not many people would be able to eat 27 oz (dry weight before cooking) of beans in a day, and fewer yet could eat a daily
ration of almost 23 oz of soybeans. Beans as single-food diets are not recommended because their large protein content
requires the drinking of more fluids. Roasted peanuts would provide a better single-food ration.
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GRAIN SUPPLEMENTED WITH BEANS
People who live on essentially vegetarian diets eat a little of their higher-quality protein food at every meal, along with the grain
that is their main source of nutrition. Thus Mexicans eat some beans along with their corn tortillas, and Chinese eat a little
fermented soybean food or a bit of meat or fish with a bowl of rice.
Book Page: 84
Table 9.1. Daily rations of 100% grain, beans, or peanuts a)
Soybeans
(dry)
Red Beans
(dry)
Peanuts
(roasted)
Weight g
790
750
645
760
447
(27.8 oz.)
(26.4 oz.)
(22.7 oz.)
(26.8 oz.)
(15.8 oz.)
Energy, kcal
2,600
2,600
2,600
2,600
2,600
2,600
Protein, g
103
67
55 c)
220
171
117
Fat, g
15
29
30
114
11
218
Calcium, mg
324
165
400
1,458
836
322
Magnesium, mg
1,260
1,100
200-300
1,710
1,240
782
Iron, mg
26
15.7
10
54.2
52.4
9.8
Potassium, mg
2,920
2,130
1,500
2,000
10,500
7,420
vitamin A, RE
0
368
555
52
15
0
Thiamin, mg
4.3
2.8
1
7.1
3.9
1.3
Riboflavin, mg
1
0.9
1.4
2
1.5
0.6
Niacin, mg
34
16.5 d)
17
14.2
17.5
76.4
Vitamin C, mg
0
0
15-30
0
0
0
Vitamin D, ug
0
0
0 e)
0
0
0
a) Salt (1/3oz., or 10 g., or 3/4 tablespoon) should be available. This would be consumed as needed.
b) White corn supplies no Vitamin A, whereas yellow corn supplies 49 RE (retinol equivalent, a measure of Vitamin A value)
per 100 g dry weight. Most corn in the United States is yellow corn.
c) If a diet contains some animal protein such as meat, eggs, or milk, the recommended protein would be less than 55 g per
day. If most of the protein is from milk or eggs, only 41 g per day is recommended.
d) The niacin in corn is not fully available unless the corn is treated with an alkali, such as the lime or ashes Mexicans (and many
Americans) add to the water in which corn kernels are soaked or boiled.
e) Infants, children, and pregnant and lactating women should receive 10 g (10 micrograms, or 400 IU) of vitamin D. For
others, the current recommended daily allowance (RDA) for vitamin D is 200 IU (5 g).
Nutritionists have found that grains are low in some of the essential amino acids that the human body needs to build its proteins.
For long-term good health, the essential amino acids must be supplied in the right proportions with each meal by eating some
foods with more complete proteins than grains have. Therefore, in a prolonged food crisis one should strive to eat at every
meal at least a little of any higher-quality protein foods that are available. These include ordinary beans, soybeans, milk
powder, meat, and eggs.
Table 9.2 shows that by adding 7.0 oz (200 g) of red beans (or other common dried beans) to 21.1 oz (600 g) of either whole
wheat or yellow corn, with salt added, you can produce rations that contain adequate amounts of all the important nutrients
except vitamin C, vitamin A, vitamin D, and fat. If 5.3 oz (150 g) of soybeans are substituted for the red beans, the fat
requirement is satisfied. The 600 g of yellow corn contains enough carotene to enable the body to produce more than half the
emergency recommendation of vitamin A. The small deficiencies in riboflavin would not cause sickness.
Other abundant grains, such as grain sorghums or barley, may be used instead of the wheat or corn shown in Table 9.2 to
produce fairly well-balanced rations. Other legumes would serve to supplement grain about as well as red beans. (Peanuts are
the exception: although higher in energy (fat) than any other unprocessed food, the quality of their protein is not as high as that
of other legumes.)
EXPEDIENT WAYS TO SUPPLY DEFICIENT ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS
° Vitamin C
A deficiency of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) causes scurvy. This deadly scourge would be the first nutritional disease to afflict
people having only grain and/or beans and lacking the know-how needed to sprout them and produce enough vitamin C.
Within only 4 to 6 weeks of eating a ration containing no vitamin C, the first symptom of scurvy would appear: swollen and
bleeding gums. This would be followed by weakness, then large bruises, hemorrhages, and wounds that would not heal. Finally,
death from hemorrhages and heart failure would result.
The simplest and least expensive way to make sure that you, your family and neighbors do not suffer or die post-attack from
scurvy is to buy one kilogram (1,000,000 milligrams) of pure vitamin C, which is the crystalline "ascorbic acid" form. Unlike
vitamin C tablets, pure vitamin C crystals do not deteriorate. An inexpensive mail-order source is Bronson Pharmaceutical,
4526 Rinetti Lane, La Canada, California 91011; in 1988 I bought one kilogram for $18.75, postage paid. An ample daily
dose is 25 milligrams, about 0.0009 ounce. Ten grams (about one third ounce) is enough for a whole year for one person who
is eating only unsprouted grain and/or other foods providing no vitamin C. One gram (1,000 mg) of crystalline ascorbic acid is
1/4 teaspoonful. If you do not have a 1/4 teaspoon, put one level teaspoonful of the crystals on a piece of paper, and divide the
little pile into 4 equal parts; each will be approximately 1,000 mg. One of these 1,000 mg piles can easily be divided into 4 tiny
piles, each 250 mg. A 250 mg pile provides 10 ample daily doses of 25 mg each. If your family has a 1,000,000 mg supply,
taking a 50 mg daily dose of pure crystalline ascorbic acid may be preferred, either sprinkled on food or dissolved in water.
Book Page: 85
Table 9.2. Daily rations of whole wheat or yellow corn supplemented with soybeans or red beans. Recommended daily salt
ration, including salt in food: 3/4 tablespoon (1/3 0z, or ID g).
600 g (21.1 oz.)
Whole wheat plus 200
g (7.0 oz.)
Red beans (dry wt)
600 g (21.1 oz.)
Whole wheat plus 150
g (5.3 oz.)
Soybeans (dry wt)
Emergency
Recommendations
600 g (21.1 oz.)
Yellow Corn a plus 150
g (5.3 oz.)
Soybeans (dry wt)
600 g (21.1 oz.)
Yellow Corn a plus 150
g (5.3 oz.)
Soybeans (dry wt)
Energy, kcal
2,666
2,585
2,600
2,693
2,774
Protein, g
123
129
55 b)
105
98
Fat, g
15
39
30
50
26
Calcium, mg
466
585
400
471
352
Magnesium,
mg
1,286
1,358
200- 300
1,280
l,208
Iron, mg
33.6
32.4
10
25.2
26.4
Potassium, mg
4,188
4,736
1,500-2,000
4,220
3,672
vitamin A, RE
4
12
555
306
298
Thiamin, mg
4.3
5
1
3.9
3.2
Riboflavin, mg
1.1
1.2
1.4
1.2
1.1
Niacin, mg
30.4
29.1
17
16.5 c)
17.8
Vitamin C, mg
0
0
15-30
0
0
Vitamin D, ug
0
0
0 d)
0
0
a) White corn supplies no vitamin A, whereas yellow corn supplies 49RE (retinol equivalent, a
measure of vitamin A value) per 100g dry weight. Most corn in the United States is yellow corn.
b) If a diet contains animal protein such as meat, eggs or milk, the recommended protein would be
less than 55g per day. If all the protein is from milk or eggs, only 41g per day is required.
c) The niacin in corn is not fully available unless corn is treated with an alkali, such as the lime or
ashes added by Mexicans and Americans in the South and Southwest to the water in which they
soak or boil corn kernels.
d) Infants, children, and pregnant and lactating women should receive 10 g (10 micrograms, or 400
IU) of vitamin D. For others, the Current recommended daily allowance (RDA) for vitamin D is 200
IU (5 g).
One good expedient way to prevent or cure scurvy is to eat sprouted seeds not just the sprouts. Sprouted beans prevented
scurvy during a famine in India. Captain James Cook was able to keep his sailors from developing scurvy during a three-year
voyage by having them drink an unfermented beer made from dried, sprouted barley. For centuries the Chinese have prevented
scurvy during the long winters of northern China by consuming sprouted beans.
Only 10 mg of vitamin C taken each day (l/5 of the smallest vitamin C tablet) is enough to prevent scurvy. If a little over an
ounce (about 30 grams) of dry beans or dry wheat is sprouted until the sprouts are a little longer than the seeds, the sprouted
seeds will supply 10 to 15 mg of vitamin C. Such sprouting, if done at normal room temperature, requires about 48 hours. To
prevent sickness and to make sprouted beans more digestible, the sprouted seeds should be boiled in water for not longer than
2 minutes. Longer cooking will destroy too much vitamin C.
Usual sprouting methods produce longer sprouts than are necessary when production of enough vitamin C is the objective.
These methods involve rinsing the sprouting seeds several times a day in safe water. Since even survivors not confined to
shelters are likely to be short of water, the method illustrated in Fig. 9.5 should be used. First the seeds to be sprouted are
picked clean of trash and broken seeds. Then the seeds are covered with water and soaked for about 12 hours. Next, the
water is drained off and the soaked, swollen seeds are placed on the inside of a plastic bag or ajar, in a layer no more than an
inch deep. If a plastic bag is used, you should make two loose rolls of paper, crumple them a little, dampen them, and place
them inside the bag, along its sides. As shown in Fig. 9.5, these two dampened paper rolls keep the plastic from resting on the
seeds and form an air passage down the center of the bag. Wet paper should be placed in the mouth of the bag or jar so as to
leave an air opening of only about 1 square inch. If this paper is kept moist, the seeds will remain sufficiently damp while
receiving enough circulating air to prevent molding. They will sprout sufficiently after about 48 hours at normal room
temperature.
Book Page: 86
Fig. 9.5. Sprouting with minimum water.
Sprouting seeds also increases their content of riboflavin, niacin, and folic acid. Sprouted beans are more digestible than raw,
unsprouted beans, but not as easily digested or nourishing as are sprouted beans that have been boiled or sauteed for a couple
of minutes. Sprouting is not a substitute for cooking. Contrary to the claims of some health food publications, sprouting does
not increase the protein content of seeds, nor does it improve protein quality. Furthermore, sprouting reduces the caloric value
of seeds. The warmth generated by germinating seeds reduces their energy value somewhat, as compared to unsprouted seeds.
° Vitamin A
Well-nourished adults have enough vitamin A stored in their livers to prevent vitamin A deficiency problems for several months,
even if their diet during that time contains none of this essential vitamin. Children would be affected by deficiencies sooner than
adults. The first symptom is an inability to see well in dim light. Continuing deficiency causes changes in body tissues. In infants
and children, lack of vitamin A can result in stunted growth and serious eye problems even blindness. Therefore, a survival diet
should be balanced with respect to vitamin A as soon as possible, with children having priority.
Milk, butter, and margarine are common vitamin A sources that would not be available to most survivors. If these were no
longer available, yellow corn, carrots, and green, leafy vegetables (including dandelion greens) would be the best sources. If
these foods were not obtainable, the next best source would be sprouted whole-kernel wheat or other grains if seeds could be
sprouted for three days in the light, so that the sprouts are green. Although better than no source, sprouting is not a very
satisfactory way to meet vitamin A requirements. The development of fibrous roots makes 3-day sprouted wheat kernels
difficult to eat. And one must eat a large amount of seeds with green sprouts and roots to satisfy the recommended daily
emergency requirements up to 51-1/2 cups of 5-day sprouted alfalfa seeds. Survivors of a nuclear attack would wish they had
kept an emergency store of multivitamin pills.
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° Vitamin D
Without vitamin D, calcium is not adequately absorbed. As a result, infants and children would develop rickets (a disease of
defective bone mineralization). A massive nuclear attack would cut off the vast majority of Americans from their main source of
vitamin D, fortified milk.
Vitamin D can be formed in the body if the skin is exposed to the ultraviolet rays of the sun. Infants should be exposed to
sunlight Very cautiously, initially for only a few minutes especially after a massive nuclear attack. Such an attack possibly could
cause atmospheric changes that would permit more ultraviolet light to reach the earth's surface, causing sunburn in the U.S. as
severe as on the equator today. In cold weather, maximum exposure of skin to sunlight is best done in a shallow pit shielded
from the wind. Exposure in a shallow pit would give about 90 percent protection from gamma radiation from fallout particles on
the surrounding ground.
° Niacin and Calcium
Niacin deficiency causes pellagra, a disease that results in weakness, a rash on skin exposed to the sun, severe diarrhea, and
mental deterioration. If a typical modern American had a diet primarily of corn and lacked the foods that normally supply niacin,
symptoms of pellagra would first appear in about 6 months. Since corn is by far our largest crop the U.S. production in 1985
was about 425 billion pounds the skillful treatment of corn would be important to post-attack survival and recovery.
During the first part of this century, pellagra killed thousands of Americans inthe South each year. These people had corn for
their principal staple and ate few animal protein foods or beans. 87
Yet Mexicans, who eat even more corn than did those Southerners -- and have even fewer foods of animal origin -- do not
suffer from pellagra.
The Mexicans' freedom from pellagra is mainly due to their traditional method of soaking and boiling their dried corn in a
lime-water solution. They use either dry, unslaked lime (calcium oxide, a dangerously corrosive substance made by roasting
limestone) or dry, slaked lime (calcium hydroxide, made by adding water to unslaked lime). Dry lime weighing about 1% as
much as the dry corn is added to the soak water, producing an alkaline solution. Wood ashes also can be used instead of lime
to make an alkali solution. The alkali treatment of corn makes the niacin available to the human body. Tables 9.1 and 9.2 show
corn as having adequate niacin. However, the niacin in dried corn is not readily available to the body unless the corn has
received an alkali treatment.
Treating corn with lime has another nutritional advantage: the low calcium content of corn is significantly increased.
° Fat
The emergency recommendation for fat is slightly over 1 ounce per day (30 g) of fat or cooking oil. This amount of fat provides
only 10% of the calories in the emergency diet, which does not specify a greater amount because fats would be in very short
supply after a nuclear attack. This amount is very low when compared to the average diet eaten in this country, in which fat
provides about 40% of the calories. It would be difficult for many Americans to consume sufficient calories to maintain normal
weight and morale without a higher fat intake; more fat should be made available as soon as possible. Increased fat intake is
especially important for young children, to provide calories needed for normal growth and development. Oak Ridge National
Laboratory field tests have shown that toddlers and old people, especially, prefer considerably more oil added to grain mush
than the emergency recommendation of 10%.
° Vitamin B-12 and Animal Protein
Vitamin B-12 is the only essential nutrient that is available in nature solely from animal sources. Since a normal person has a 2
to 4-year supply of vitamin B-12 stored in his liver, a deficiency should not
develop before enough food of animal origin would again be available.
Many adults who are strict vegetarians keep in good health for years without any animal sources of food by using grains and
beans together. It is more difficult to maintain normal growth and development in young children on vegetarian diets. When
sufficient animal sources of food are available, enough should be provided to supply 7 grams of animal protein daily. This could
be provided by about 1.4 ounces (38 g) of lean meat, 0.7 ounce (20 g) of nonfat dry milk, or one medium-sized egg. When
supplies are limited, young children should be given priority. Again: a little of these high-grade supplementary protein foods
should be eaten with every meal.
° Iron
Most people live out their lives without benefit of an iron supplement. However, many pregnant and nursing women and some
children need supplemental iron to prevent anemia. One tested expedient way to make more iron available is to use iron pots
and pans, especially for cooking acid foods such as tomatoes. Another is to place plain iron nails (not galvanized nails) in
vinegar until small amounts of iron begin to float to the surface. This usually takes 2 to 4 weeks. Then a teaspoon of
iron-vinegar solution will contain about 30 to 60 mg of iron, enough for a daily supplement. The emergency recommendation is
10 mg per day. A teaspoon of the iron-vinegar solution is best taken in a glass of water. The iron content of fruit, such as an
apple, can be increased by placing iron nails in it for a few days.
FOOD RESERVES
Russia, China, and other countries that make serious preparations to survive disasters store large quantities of food primarily
grain---both in farming areas and near population centers. In contrast, the usually large U.S. stocks of grain and soybeans are
an unplanned survival resource resulting from the production of more food than Americans can eat or sell abroad. The high
productivity of U.S. agriculture is another unplanned survival asset. Providing enough calories and other essential nutrients for
100 million surviving Americans would necessitate the annual raising of only about 12% of our 1985 crop of corn, wheat, grain
sorghum, and soybeans - if nothing else were produced.
Book Page: 88
In 1985, the U.S. production of corn, wheat, soybeans, and grain sorghum totaled about 625 billion pounds - about 7 pounds
per day for one year for every American. A total of 2 pounds per person per day of these basic staples, in the proportions
shown in Table 9.2, would be sufficient to provide the essentials of an adequate vegetarian diet weighing about 27 ounces.
(Grain sorghum is not listed in Table 9.2; it has approximately the same food value as corn.) The remaining 5 ounces of the 2
pounds would feed enough chickens to meet a survivor's minimum long-term requirement for animal protein.
If corn, wheat, grain sorghum, and soybeans were the only crops raised, the annual production would need to be only 730
pounds per person. Our 1985 annual production would have supplied every adult, child, and infant in a population of 100
million with 6250 pounds of these four staples. This is more than 8 times enough to maintain good nutrition by Chinese
standards.
Recovery from a massive nuclear attack would depend largely on sufficient food reserves being available to enable survivors to
concentrate on restoring the essentials of mechanized farming. Enough housing would remain intact or could be built to provide
adequate shelter for the first few crucial years; enough clothing and fabrics would be available. But if survivors were forced by
hunger to expend their energies attempting primitive subsistence farming, many deaths from starvation would occur and the
prospects for national recovery would be greatly reduced.
Americans' greatest survival asset at the end of 1985 was about 17 billion bushels (about 850 billion pounds) of wheat, corn,
grain sorghums, and soybeans in storage, mostly on farms. If 200 million Americans were to survive a limited nuclear attack and
if only half of this stored food reserve could be delivered to the needy, each survivor would have adequate food for over 3
years, by Chinese nutritional standards.
In view of the crucial importance of large food reserves to the prospects for individual and national survival, it is to be hoped
that U.S, food surpluses and large annual carry-overs will continue.
A BASIC SURVIVAL RATION TO STORE
A ration composed of the basic foods listed below in Table 9.3 provides about 2600 calories per day and is nutritionally
balanced. It keeps better than a ration of typical American foods, requires much less space to store or transport, and is much
less expensive. The author and some friends have stored enough of these basic foods to last their families several months during
a crisis, and have eaten large quantities of these foods with satisfaction over the past 20 years. (A different emergency ration
should be stored for infants and very small children, as will be explained in the following section.) Field tests have indicated that
the majority of Americans would find these basic foods acceptable under crisis conditions. In normal times, however, no one
should store this or any other emergency food supply until after he has prepared, eaten, and found its components satisfactory.
Unprocessed grains and beans provide adequate nourishment for many millions of the world's people who have little else to eat.
Dry grains and beans are very compact: a 5-gallon can holds about 38 pounds of hard wheat. Yet when cooked, dry whole
grains become bulky and give a well-fed feeling a distinct advantage if it is necessary to go on short rations during a prolonged
crisis.
Table 9.3. A basic survival ration for multi-year storage
Ounces per day
Grams per day
Pounds for 30 days
full ration
Kilograms for 30 days
full ration
Whole-kernel hard
wheat
16
454
30
13.6
Beans
5
142
9.4
4.3
Nonfat milk powder
2
57
3.8
1.7
Vegetable oil
1
28
1.9
0.9
Sugar
2
57
3.8
1.7
Salt (iodized)
1/3
10
0.63
0.3
Total Weights
10
748
49.5
22.5
Multi-vitamin pills:
1 pill each day
Book Page: 89
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This basic ration has two disadvantages: (1) it requires cooking, and (2) Americans are unaccustomed to such a diet. Cooking
difficulties can be minimized by having a grain-grinding device, a bucket stove with a few pounds of dry wood or newspapers
for fuel, and the know-how to make a "fireless cooker" by using available insulating materials such as extra clothing. The
disadvantage of starting to eat unaccustomed foods at a stressful time can be lessened by eating more whole grains and beans in
normal times thereby, incidentally, saving money and improving a typical American diet by reducing fat and increasing bulk and
fiber.
When storing enough of this ration to last for several months or a year, it is best to select several kinds of beans for variety and
improved nutrition. If soybeans are included, take into account the differences between soybeans and common beans, as noted
earlier in this chapter.
In many areas it is difficult to buy wheat and beans at prices nearly as low as the farmer receives for these commodities.
However, in an increasing number of communities, at least one store sells whole-grain wheat and beans in large sacks at
reasonable prices. Mormons, who store food for a range of possible personal and national disasters, are often the best sources
of information about where to get basic foods in quantity, at reasonable cost. Soon after purchase, bulk foods should be
removed from sacks (but not necessarily from sealed-plastic liner-bags) and sealed in metal containers or in thick-walled plastic
containers for storage. Especially in the more humid parts of the United States, grain and beans should be frequently checked
for moisture. If necessary, these foods should be dried out and rid of insects as described later in this chapter.
Vegetable oil stores as well in plastic bottles as in glass ones. The toughness and lightness of plastic bottles make them better
than glass for carrying when evacuating or for using in a shelter. Since a pound of oil provides about 2-1/4 times as much
energy as does a pound of sugar, dry grain, or milk powder, storing additional vegetable oil is an efficient way to improve a
grain diet and make it more like the 40%-fat diet of typical Americans.
All multivitamin pills providing 5000 International Units (1500 mg retinol equivalent) vitamin A, 400 IU (10 mg) of vitamin D,
and 50 to 100 mg of vitamin C, must meet U.S. Government standards, so the least expensive usually are quite adequate.
Storage in a refrigerator greatly lengthens the time before vitamin pills must be replaced with fresh ones. Because vitamin C is
so essential, yet very inexpensive and long-lasting, it is prudent to store a large bottle.
It would be wise to have on hand ready-to-eat, compact foods for use during a week or two in a shelter, in addition to those
normally kept in the kitchen. It is not necessary to buy expensive "survival foods" or the special dehydrated foods carried by
many backpackers. All large food stores sell the following concentrated foods: non-fat milk powder, canned peanuts, compact
ready-to-eat dry cereals such as Grape Nuts, canned meat and fish, white sugar, vegetable oil in plastic bottles, iodized salt,
and daily multivitamin pills. If shelter occupants have a way to boil water (see Figs. 9.2 and 9.3, Bucket Stove), it is advisable
to include rice, noodles, and an "instant" cooked cereal such as oatmeal or wheat along with coffee and tea for those who
habitually drink these beverages.
Parched grain is a ready-to-eat food that has been used for thousands of years. Whole-kernel wheat, corn, and rice can be
parched by the following method: Place the kernels about 1/4-inch deep in a pan, a skillet, or a tin can while shaking it over a
flame, hot coals, or a red hot electric burner. The kernels will puff and brown slightly when parched. These parched grains are
not difficult to chew and can be pounded to a meal more easily than can the raw kernels. Parched grain-stores well if kept dry
and free of insects.
EMERGENCY FOOD FOR BABIES
Infants and very small children would be the first victims of starvation after a heavy nuclear attack, unless special preparations
are made on their behalf. Our huge stocks of unprocessed foods, which could prevent the majority of unprepared survivors
from dying of hunger, would not be suitable for the very young. They need foods that are more concentrated and less rough.
Most American mothers do not nurse their infants, and if a family's supply of baby foods were exhausted the parents might
experience the agony of seeing their baby slowly starve.
Few Americans have watched babies starving. In China, I saw anguish on starving mothers' faces as they patted and squeezed
their flat breasts, trying to get a little more milk into their weak babies' mouths. I saw this unforgettable tragedy in the midst of
tens of thousands of Chinese evacuating on foot before a ruthless Japanese army during World War II.
Book Page: 90
Years later, my wife and I stored several hundred pounds of milk powder while our five children were small. I believe that
parents who fear the use of nuclear weapons will be glad to bear the small expense of keeping on hand the emergency baby
foods listed in Table 9.4, below. (More detailed descriptions of these and many other foods, with instructions for their use, are
given in an Oak Ridge National Laboratory report, Maintaining Nutritional Adequacy During A Prolonged Food Crisis,
ORNL-5352, 1979. This report may be purchased for $6.50 from National Technical Information Service, U.S. Department
of Commerce, 5385 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22161.)
Tomake a formula adequate for a 24-hour period, the quantities of instant non-fat dry milk, vegetable cooking oil, and sugar
listed in the "Per Day" column of Table 9.4 should be added to 4 cups of safe water. This formula can be prepared daily in cool
weather or when a refrigerator is available. In warm or hot weather, or under unsanitary conditions, it is safer to make a formula
3 times a day. To do so, add 1/3 cup plus 2 teaspoons (a little less than one ounce) of instant nonfat milk powder to 1-1/3 cups
(2/3 pint) of boiled water, and stir thoroughly. Then add 1 tablespoon (about 1/3 ounce, or 9 grams) of vegetable oil and 2
teaspoons of sugar, and stir. (If regular bakers' milk powder is used, 1/4 cup is enough when making one-third of the daily
formula, 3 times a day.) If baby bottles are not at hand, milk can be spoon-fed to an infant.
Especially during a war crisis, the best and most dependable food for an infant is mother's milk provided the mother is assured
an adequate diet. The possibility of disaster is one more reason why a mother should nurse her baby for a full year. Storing
additional high-protein foods and fats for a nursing mother usually will be better insurance against her infant getting sick or
starving than keeping adequate stocks of baby foods and the equipment necessary for sanitary feeding after evacuation or an
attack.
To give a daily vitamin supplement to a baby, a multivitamin pill should be crushed to a fine powder between two spoons and
dissolved in a small amount of fluid, so that the baby can easily swallow it. If an infant does not receive adequate amounts of
vitamins A, D, and C, he will develop deficiency symptoms in 1 to 3 months, depending on the amounts stored in his body.
Vitamin C deficiency, the first to appear, can be prevented by giving an infant 15 mg of vitamin C each day (about 1/3 of a
50-mg vitamin C tablet, pulverized) or customary foods containing vitamin C, such as orange juice. Lacking these sources, the
juice squeezed from sprouted grains or legumes can be used. If no vitamin pills or foods rich in vitamin D are available,
exposure of the baby's skin to sunlight will cause his body to produce vitamin D. It would be wise to wait about 30 days after
an attack before exposing the baby to sunlight. After that, short exposures would be safe except in areas of extremely heavy
fallout. As a further precaution, the baby can be placed in an open, shallow pit that will provide shielding from radiation given
off by fallout particles on the ground. Initial exposure should be very short, no more than 10 minutes.
Table 9.4. Emergency food supply for one baby
Ingredients
Per Day
Per
Month
Per 6
Months
Per 6
Months
Volumes and Ounces
Grams
Pounds
Kilograms
Pounds
Kilograms
Instant non-fatdry milk
1 cup + 2
tablespoons (2-3/4
oz)
8
6
2.72
32
15
Vegetable cooking oil
3 tablespoons (1 oz)
30
2
0.9
12
55
Sugar
2 tablespoons (0.7
oz)
20
1.3
0.6
8
3.6
Standard daily multi-vitamin pills
1/3 pill
10 pills
60 pills
Book Page: 91
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If sufficient milk is not obtainable, even infants younger than six months should be given solid food. Solid foods for babies must
be pureed to a fine texture. Using a modern baby food grinder makes pureeing quick and easy work. Under crisis conditions, a
grinder should be cleaned and disinfected like other baby-feeding utensils, as described later in this section.
Several expedient methods are available: the food can be pressed through a sieve, mashed with a fork or spoon, or squeezed
through a porous cloth. Good sanitation must be maintained; all foods should be brought to a boil after pureeing to insure that
the food is safe from bacteria.
A pureed solid baby food can be made by first boiling together 3 parts of a cereal grain and 1 part of beans until they are soft.
Then the mixture should be pressed through a sieve. The sieve catches the tough hulls from the grain kernels and the skins from
the beans. The grain-beans combination will provide needed calories and a well-supplemented protein. The beans also supply
the additional iron that a baby needs by the time he is 6 months old. Flours made from whole grains or beans, as previously
described, also can be used; however, these may contain more rough material.
Some grains are preferable to others. It is easier to sieve cooked corn kernels than cooked wheat kernels. Since wheat is the
grain most likely to cause allergies, it should not be fed to an infant until he is 6 to 7 months old if other grains, such as rice or
corn, are available. Small children also need more protein than can be supplied by grains alone. As a substitute for milk, some
bean food should be provided at every meal. If the available diet is deficient in a concentrated energy source such as fat or
sugar, a child's feedings should be increased to 4 or 5 times a day, to enable him to assimilate more. Whenever possible, a
small child should have a daily diet that contains at least one ounce of fat (3 tablespoons, without scraping the spoon). This
would provide more than 10% of a young child's calories in the form of fat, which would be beneficial.
If under emergency conditions it is not practical to boil infant feeding utensils, they can be sterilized with a bleach solution. Add
one teaspoon of ordinary household bleach to a quart of water. (Ordinary household bleach contains 5.25% sodium
hypochlorite as its only active ingredient and supplies approximately 5% available chlorine. If the strength of the bleach is
unknown, add 3 teaspoons per quart.) Directions for safe feeding without boiling follow:
The Utensils
(Include at least one 1-quart and one 1-pint mason jar, for keeping prepared formula sterile until used.)
1. Immediately after feeding, wash the inside and outside of all utensils used to prepare the formula and to feed the infant.
2. Fill a covered container with clean, cold water and add the appropriate amount of chlorine bleach.
3. Totally immerse all utensils until the next feeding (3 or 4 hours). Be sure that the bottle, if used, is filled with bleach
solution. Keep container covered.
At Feeding Time
1. Wash hands before preparing food.
2. Remove utensils from the disinfectant chlorine solution and drain, but do not rinse or dry.
3. Prepare formula; feed the baby.
4. Immediately after feeding, wash utensils in clean water and immerse again in the disinfectant solution.
5. Prepare fresh chlorine solution each day.
STORAGE OF FOODS
Whole grains and white sugar can be stored successfully for decades; dried beans, non-fat milk powder, and vegetable oil can
be stored for several years. Some rules for good storage follow:
° Keep food dry. The most dependable way to assure continuing dryness is to store dry grain in metal containers, such
as ordinary 5-gallon metal storage cans or 55-gallon metal drums with gasketed lids. Filled 5-gallon cans are light enough
to be easily carried in an automobile when evacuating.
Particularly in humid areas, grain which seems to be dry often is not dry enough to store for a long period. To be sure
that grain is dry enough to store for years, use a drying agent. The best drying agent for this purpose is silica gel with
color indicator. The gel is blue when it is capable of absorbing water and pink when it needs to be heated to become an
effective drying agent again.
Book Page: 92
Silica gel is inexpensive if bought from chemical supply firms located in most cities. By heating it in a hot oven or in a can
over a fire until it turns blue again, silica gel can be used repeatedly for years.
The best containers for the silica gel used to dry grain (or to determine its dryness) are homemade cloth envelopes large
enough for a heaping cupful of the gel. A clear plastic window should be stitched in, through which color changes can be
observed. Put an envelope of silica gel on top of the grain in a 5-gallon can filled to within a couple of inches of its top.
Then close the can tightly. Even a rather loose-fitting lid can be sealed tightly with tape. If after a few days the silica gel is
still blue, the grain is dry enough. If the silica gel has turned pink, repeat the process with fresh envelopes until it can be
seen that the grain is dry.
° Keep grains and beans free of weevils, other insects, and rodents. Dry ice(carbon dioxide) is the safest means
still widely available to the public for ridding grain and beans of insects. Place about 4 inches of dry ice on top of the
grain in a 5-gallon metal container. Put the lid on somewhat loosely, so that air in the grain can be driven out of the can.
(This will happen as the dry ice vaporizes and the heavy carbon dioxide gas sinks into the grain and displaces the air
around the kernels.) After an hour or two, tighten the lid and seal it with tape. After one month, all insects in this
carbon-dioxide atmosphere will have died from lack of oxygen.
° Store foods in the coolest available place, out of the light. Remember that the storage life of most foods is cut in
half by an increase of 18 F (10 C) in storage temperature.30 Thus 48 months of storage at 52 degrees F is equivalent to
24 months at 70 degrees F, and to 12 months at 88 degrees F.
Illustrative of the importance of cool storage are my experiences in storing nonfat milk powder in an earth- covered, cool
shelter. In steel drums I stored unopened 100-pound bags of compact, non-fat milk powder that I bought from bakeries.
The cost per pound was much less than I would have paid for the largest packages sold in supermarkets. After 7 years
storage at temperatures of about 50 degrees F the year around, my milk powder was still good as good as it would have
been if stored in a normally air-conditioned and heated home for about 3 years.
° Do not place stored metal containers directly on the floor. To avoid possible condensation of moisture and the
rusting that results, place containers on spaced boards. For long term storage in damp permanent shelters or damp
basements, use solid-plastic containers with thick walls.
° Rotate stored foods. Eat the oldest food of each type and replace it with fresh food. Although cooking oil and
non-fat milk powder remain edible after several years of storage at room temperature, these and most other dry foods
are more nourishing and taste better if stored for no more than 2 years. Most canned foods taste better if kept no more
than one year. Exceptions are whole grains and white sugar, which stay good for decades if stored properly.
° Store plenty of salt. In our modern world salt is so abundant and cheap that most Americans do not realize that in
many areas soon after a major nuclear attack salt would become a hard-to-get essential nutrient. Persons working hard
without salt would suffer cramps and feel exhausted within a few days. Most famine relief shipments of grain probably
would not include salt. So store enough salt both to salt your family's food for months and to trade for other necessities.
SEEDS
For thousands of years storing seeds has been an essential part of the survival preparations made by millions of prudent people
fearing attack. Seeds are hopes for future food and the defeat of famine, that lethal follower of disastrous wars.
Among the most impressive sounds I ever heard were faint, distant rattles of small stones, heard on a quiet, black, freezing night
in 1944. An air raid was expected before dawn. I was standing on one of the bare hills outside Kunming, China, trying to
pinpoint the sources of lights that Japanese agents had used just before previous air raids to guide attacking bombers to
blacked-out Kunming. Puzzled by sounds of cautious digging starting at about 2:00AM, I asked my interpreter if he knew what
was going on. He told me that farmers walked most of the night to make sure that no one was following them, and were burying
sealed jars of seeds in secret places, far enough from homes so that probably no one would hear them digging.
Book Page: 93
My interpreter did not need to tell me that if the advancing Japanese troops succeeded in taking Kunming they would ruthlessly
strip the surrounding countryside of all food they could find. Then those prudent farmers would have seeds and hope in a
starving land.
If you doubt that enough of our current 'oversupply" of stored whole grains, soybeans, milk powder, etc. would reach you after
a nuclear attack, you should store seeds known to grow well in your area.
When getting your supply of survival seeds, remember:
° Grains and beans are the best plant sources of energy and protein.
° Even if you have enough vitamins for several months, you may not be able to buy more until long after a nuclear war.
° The deadly curses of scurvy, vitamin A deficiencies, and pellagra can be prevented by eating the plants, seeds, and
sprouted seeds described earlier in this chapter.
° Plants grown from hybrid seeds give larger yields, but do not produce as productive seeds as do plants grown from
good non-hybrid seeds.
° Seeds of proven productivity in your locality may be more valuable than money after a major nuclear attack.
° You should get mostly non-hybrid and store seeds, after learning from experienced local gardeners which are best.
Book Page: 94
Copyright 2000 Nuclear War Survival Skills
Nuclear War Survival Skills
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Ch. 10: Fallout Radiation Meters
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THE CRITICAL NEED
A survivor in a shelter that does not have a dependable meter to measure
fallout radiation or that has one but lacks someone who knows how to use it
will face a prolonged nightmare of uncertainties. Human beings cannot feel,
smell, taste, hear, or see fallout radiation. A heavy attack would put most
radio stations off the air, due to the effects of electromagnetic pulse, blast,
fire, or fallout from explosions. Because fallout intensities often vary greatly
over short distances, those stations still broadcasting would rarely be able to give reliable information
concerning the constantly changing radiation dangers around a survivor's shelter.
Which parts of the shelter give the best protection? How large is the radiation dose being received by
each person? When is it safe to leave the shelter for a few minutes? When can one leave for an hour's
walk to get desperately needed water? As the fallout continues to decay, how long can one safely
work each day outside the shelter? When can the shelter be left for good? Only an accurate,
dependable fallout meter will enable survivors to answer these life-or-death questions.
Gamma radiation is by far the most dangerous radiation given off by fallout particles. Gamma rays are
like X rays, only more penetrating and harmful. The roentgen (R) is the unit most commonly used to
measure exposures to gamma rays, or to X rays, and most American civil defense instruments give
readings in roentgens (R) or roentgens per hour (R/hr). Therefore, for simplicity's sake, in this book
almost all radiation doses are given in roentgens (R), and radiation dose rates are given in roentgens
per hour (R/hr). This simplification is justified because, for external whole-body gamma radiation from
fallout, the numerical value of an exposure or dose given in roentgens is approximately the same as the
numerical value given in rems or rads. (For information on the rem and the rad, and on the seriousness
and probability of injuries likely to be suffered as a result of receiving different sized doses of gamma radiation, see "Lifetime
Risks from Radiation", a section of Chapter 13.)
The dose (the quantity) of radiation that a person receives, along with the length of time during which the dose is received,
determine what injuries, if any, will be suffered as a result of the dose. Of people who, in a few days, each receive a dose of
350 roentgens under nuclear war conditions, about half will die. Doses are measured with small instruments called dosimeters,
either by directly reading the dose between the time at which a dosimeter is charged to read zero and the time of a subsequent
reading, or by calculating by subtraction the dose between two readings. However, to avoid receiving a lethal or sickening
dose, the most useful instrument is a dose rate meter. The National Academy of Sciences' Advisory Committee on Civil
Defense in 1953 concluded: "The final effectiveness of shelter depends upon the occupants of any shelter having simple, rugged,
and reliable dose rate meters to measure the fallout dose rate outside the shelter."
With a reliable dose rate meter you can quite quickly determine how great the radiation dangers are in different places, and then
promptly act to reduce your exposure to these unseen, unfelt dangers. For example, if you go outside an excellent fallout shelter
and learn by reading your dose rate meter that you are being exposed to 30 R/hr, you know that if you stay there for one hour
you will receive a dose of 30 R. But if you go back inside your excellent shelter after 2 minutes, then while outside you will have
received a dose of only 1 R.
Book Page: 95
(2 minutes 2/60 of an hour = 1/30 hr; and receiving a dose at the rate of 30 R/hr for 1/30 hr results in a dose of 30 R/hr x 1/30
hr = 1 R.) Under nuclear war conditions, receiving an occasional dose of 1 R (1,000 milliroentgens) would be of little concern,
as explained in Chapter 13 and 18.
WARNINGS FOR BUYERS OF FALLOUT METERS
You are "on your own" when buying a dose rate meter or dosimeter because:
° No U.S. Government agency or other Government facility advises the public regarding sources of the best
available radiation-measuring instruments for use in time of war, or warns concerned individuals that certain
instruments are either incapable of measuring adequately high dose rates or doses for wartime use, or are
dangerously inaccurate. For example, a dose rate meter that in 1982 sold nationwide was tested in that year at
Oak Ridge National Laboratory to determine its accuracy for measuring gamma radiation. This instrument was
reasonably accurate at low dose rates, but at the high dose rates of life or death importance in a nuclear war its
readings were dangerously low: When it should have read 150 R/hr, it read 13.9 R/hr. Another dose rate meter of
this same model, tested in California by Dr. Bruce Clayton, read only 16 R/hr when it should have read 400 R/hr.
Obviously, if this model were used and trusted by a person doing rescue work for hours outdoors in heavy fallout,
while believing that he was receiving a non-incapacitating dose he actually would be getting a fatal dose!
° Instruments that measure only milliroentgen-range dose rates are sold for war use by some companies. Since
most Americans have no idea what size of radiation doses would incapacitate or kill them, and do not even know
that a milliroentgen is 1/1000 of a roentgen, some people buy instruments that are capable of measuring maximum
dose rates of only one roentgen or less per hour. For example, an American company advertised and sold for
$370.00 in 1986 its dose rate meter that has a maximum range of "0 1000 mR/hr." It is the only dose rate meter in
that company's listing of "Radiation Detection Products for the General Public", described as.... , applicable for
use in case of nuclear war." The highest dose rate that it can measure, one roentgen per hour, is far too low to be
of much use in a nuclear war.
° Used and surplus dose rate meters and dosimeters are likely to be inaccurate or otherwise unreliable. Very few
buyers have access to a radiation source powerful enough to check instruments for accuracy over their full ranges
of measurements. My education regarding bargain fallout meters began in 1961, after I bought two dosimeters of
a model then being produced by a leading manufacturing company and purchased in quantity by the Office of Civil
Defense. Within a week after receiving these instruments, one of them could not be charged. The other was found
to be inaccurate. Later I learned that the manufacturing company sold to the public its instruments that did not
pass Government quality tests.
Most Federal and State organizations do not criticize faulty civil defense products, apparently because they are not charged
with this responsibility and want to avoid angering manufacturers and sellers who may go to their Congressmen or Legislators to
seek redress for lost sales.
In this book I am not giving the names of any of the companies that sell or have sold potentially life-endangering survival items.
To do so would reduce the chances of this book being distributed or advocated by Government agencies.
WAR RESERVES OF FALLOUT METERS
One of Americans' most important assets for surviving a nuclear war is the Federal Emergency Management Agency's
(FEMA's) supply of fallout meters. These instruments include approximately 600,000 dose rate meters and about 3,300,000
dosimeters, all suitable for wartime use. In 1986 almost all of these old instruments-that can be found-reportedly still are in
good working condition. Because of continuing inadequate funding for civil defense, in recent years most of FEMA's
instruments have been serviced, calibrated, and, if necessary, repaired only once every four years. In a few localities these
instruments are no longer being serviced.
Most of these critically important instruments are kept in cities, in buildings likely to be destroyed by blast or fire in the event of
a massive Soviet attack. If there were a sufficiently long, officially recognized period of warning before an attack, it might be
possible during such a worsening crisis to move a large fraction of these fallout meters outside the areas of probable blast or fire
damage, and to place them in officially designated fallout shelters. However, this unlikely development would not provide
private family shelters with instruments.
Most families need their own fallout meters. This need is greatest for families living in localities not likely to be damaged by blast
or fire, and for those planning to evacuate to such less hazardous localities during a worsening crisis.
Book Page: 96
COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE FALLOUT METERS
In 1987 an American does not have many choices if he wants to buy an off-the-shelf dose rate meter suitable for measuring the
high levels of fallout radiation that would result from a nuclear attack. Although inexpensive dose rate meters and dosimeters
have been under development by the military services and civil defense researchers for the past 15 years, they have not been
produced commercially for sale to the public. Field tests of factory-produced models have not been completed at this writing.
Dose Rate Meters
The best radiation-measuring instrument for wartime use available in the United States in 1987 is the Universal Survey Meter
RD-10, manufactured in Finland by Alnor Oy. It is sold in the United States by a subsidiary, Alnor Nuclear, 2585 Washington
Road, Suite 120, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania 15241. In 1988 the FOB price, pre-paid, is $1,100.00. The RD-10 accurately
measures gamma and X rays from very close to natural background radiation up to 300 R/hr, in two ranges (0.03 - 300 m
R/hr, and 0.03 - 300 R/hr). It meets Finnish Army standards for ruggedness and accurate operation in sub-zero cold (down to
-250C, or -130F); it has an illuminated scale for night use and an audible pulse rate signal, and is built to withstand
electromagnetic pulse (EMP) effects. (A few of my friends and I for years have owned Finnish instruments of an earlier model,
the RD-8; they still are in excellent working condition.)
A less expensive dose rate meter designed for rugged wartime use is the Portable Radiological Dose Rate Meter PDRM 82,
manufactured in England by Plessey Controls Limited, Sopers Lane. Poole, Dorset BH17 7ER, England. This instrument is the
current standard issue of the British armed forces and civil defense, is designed for a storage life of at least 20 years, is
microcomputer controlled, EMP-proof, and displays "FAIL" if a fault exists. (Like all instruments, occasionally a PDRM 82
does fail. One bought by a friend in 1987 and tested by a radiation laboratory in Utah read 86 centigrays per hour when it
should have read 300, and failed to display "FAIL.' Mailed back to England, Plessey Controls finally replaced it with another
new PDRM 82.) The only consequential disadvantages of the PDRM 82, compared to more expensive dose rate meters, are
that it reads in centigrays per hour (cGy/hr is equivalent to Rads/hr, or R/hr) and does not measure dose rates lower than 0.1
cGy/hr (100 mR/hr). In 1987 this portable, four-digit-liquid-display dose rate meter is sold by Plessey Controls for 250 British
pounds plus air shipment charges - all pre-paid. To learn the latest delivery date and the latest price delivered direct by air,
write Plessey Controls.
However, in a nuclear war 100 mR/hr will be a low dose rate in most life-threatening fallout areas. (I bought a PDRM 82 direct
from England in 1984, my objective being to have it tested at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. I later learned that such testing
was unnecessary, since U.S. Army specialists already had tested the PDRM 82 and had found it excellent.)
Technical Note. Conversion of readings of most foreign and scientific radiation-monitoring instruments to the radiation units
usually given by American civil defense instruments, or used in the U.S. in regulations and articles concerning radiation hazards:
ABSORBED RADIATION DOSE
1 gray (1 Gy) = 100 Rads 1 centigray (1 cGy) = 1 Rad
(As explained in the first section of this chapter, for practical civil defense work 1 Rad = 1 roentgen = 1 Rem.)
DOSE EQUIVALENT
1 sievert (1 Sv) 100 Hems
1 millisievert (1 mSv) = 0.1 Rem
ACTIVITY
1 bequerel (1 Bq) 27 picocuries (Radiation contamination of milk and water are given in picocuries per liter, or
bequerels per liter. One picocurie is one millionth of one millionth of a curie; 1 curie is 37,000,000,000 bequerels.)
No wonder that most newspaper and television accounts of radiation accidents and hazards are confused!
I have not been able to find an American- made, modern dose rate meter that is designed for wartime use and is being sold in
1987. Among those designed for peacetime use that may be satisfactory in wartime is the RO-2A manufactured by Eberline,
P.O. Box 2108, Santa Fe, New Mexico 87504-2108. The RO-2A is a portable air ionization-chamber instrument used to
measure beta, gamma, and X-ray radiation from 50 mR/hr to 50 R/hr. The price in 1987 is $950.00. In Eberline's summary
specifications and in the specifications that I have read of other U.S. manufacturers of dose rate meters, no mention is made of
the instruments' being EMP-proof.
Dosimeters
Several reliable dosimeters and dosimeterchargers are sold in the United States. Among the established retail sources is
Dosimeter Corporation, P.O. Box 42377, Cincinnati, Ohio 45242. Its DCA Model No. 686 measures accumulated doses
from 0 to 600 R, and in January of 1986 sold for $59.95. The battery powered charger, DCA Model No. 909, cost $90.00;
one charger can be used to charge several dosimeters.
Book Page: 97
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A more expensive direct reading 600 R dosimeter is model 019-006 of Atomic Products Corporation, P.O. Box 1157, Center
Moriches, New York 11934. It sells for $120.00; dosimeter charger 020-001, " . . . used to 'zero' all Direct- Reading
Dosimeters", costs $98.00.
To keep them dependable, all commercially available dosimeters and dose rate meters should be (1) kept supplied with fresh
batteries for charging or operating, (2) checked with a strong enough radiation source (at no longer than 3-year intervals) to see
if they still are measuring radiation accurately, and (3) repaired if necessary. (To learn whether a dose rate meter still is
functioning, use a radioactive check source such as Dosimeter Corporation's Check Source (Model 3001), that contains 5
microcuries cesium- 137 and sells for $35.00. This type of check test will prove only that your instrument measures dose rates
slightly above normal background radiation; it will not prove that your instrument could accurately measure the much higher
dose rates that will be of vital concern in a nuclear war. Some instrument companies will properly calibrate a radiation
measuring instrument that is sent to them. For example, Dosimeter Corporation charges $50.00 to calibrate a dose rate meter
or dosimeter, and makes needed repairs at an additional cost.)
The reader is advised to buy at least a good commercial dose rate meter, with which to quickly measure high levels of fallout
radiation -if he can afford one. A family that has a reliable dose rate meter, and that remains in a shelter almost all of the time
during which fallout dose rates outdoors are dangerously high, can calculate with sufficient accuracy the accumulated doses
received by its members. To do this, a continuous record must be kept of dose rates and the times at which those
measurements are made. (Having a reliable dosimeter eliminates the need for keeping such detailed records and making these
calculations, but if only one instrument can be afforded it should be a dose rate meter.) A good commercial instrument, if
properly maintained and periodically calibrated with a radiation source to check its accuracy, probably will be serviceable for
years.
A prudent owner of even an excellent dose rate meter would do well to make and learn to use a KFM, the dependable
homemakeable fallout meter briefly described later in this chapter, with complete instructions for making and using it given in
Appendix C. Then during a period of heavy war fallout you can check the readings of your complex instrument by comparing
them with those of your KFM, and, if the complex instrument is giving inaccurate readings, your KFM will meet your basic
need.
A HOMEMAKEABLE DOSE RATE METER, THE KFM
What is a KFM?
The only do-it-yourself fallout meter that is accurate and dependable was invented in 1977. It is called the KFM (Kearny
Fallout Meter); one is pictured in Fig. 10.1.
Fig. 10.1. A homemade KFM, an accurate dose rate meter for measuring dose rates from 30 mR/hr (0.03 R/hr) up to
43 R/hr.
This simple instrument has undergone rigorous scientific testing in several laboratories, including Oak Ridge National
Laboratory; its accuracy and dependability were confirmed. Many hundreds of KFMs have been made by untrained people,
ranging from members of junior high school science classes to grandmothers making them for their children and grandchildren.
These successful makers have been guided only by thoroughly field-tested instructions and patterns not quite as good as the
improved ones given in Appendix C of this updated book.
Only common materials found in millions of homes are needed to build a KFM. (If all of the materials, including those for a
dry-bucket, have to be purchased, their total cost in 1986 is less than seventeen dollars.) The KFM serves as an accurate dose
rate meter when used in conjunction with a watch and the KFM's attached table relating changes in readings in listed time
intervals to dose rates.
Book Page: 98
No radiation source is needed either to initially calibrate a KFM or subsequently to check its accuracy. (Calibrations for
accuracy were completed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory and are the basis of the KFM's attached table.) A KFM is more
accurate than most civil defense instruments, and its accuracy is permanently established by the laws of physics applicable to
the specified dimensions and other characteristics of its parts, and to their positioning relative to each other- provided that it is
made and maintained according to the instructions. Unlike all factory-made radiation measuring civil defense instruments that
are reliable and available today, a KFM is charged electrostatically. No battery is needed.
Additional Advantages of KFMs
* A KFM combines the provenly practical radiation measuring functions of an electroscope and of an ionization
chamber having a specified volume. Electroscopes were the basic radiation measuring instruments used by
scientists, including Nobel Laureate Lord Rutherford, who pioneered studies of atomic nuclei and radiations. The
author is indebted to another Nobel Laureate physicist, Dr. Luis W. Alvarez, for the idea of making a homemade
electroscope with two thread-suspended, aluminum-foil leaves, to measure fallout radiation. Many excellent and
unavoidably expensive dose rate meters, including civil defense instruments, are ionization chamber devices.
* A KFM, used in conjunction with a watch, does not have to be charged to any specified initial reading, or
discharged by exposure to radiation to any specified final reading, to accurately measure the dose rate during a
time interval specified on its attached table. Fig. 10.2 illustrates this operational advantage of KFMs.
Fig. 10.2 Normalized Calibration Points for Two KFMs, Showing the Straight-Line Relationship Between Milliroentgen
Radiation DOSES and Resultant Readings. The complete instructions for making and using a KFM (see Appendix C)
explain how an operator with a watch can use this instrument to accurately measure DOSE RATES.
(Text in Graph) ADJUSTED CALIBRATION CURVES OF KFM 20 G AND KFM 20 I
(BOTH HAVE 8-PLY LEAVES OF STANDARD ALUMINUM FOIL)
THE CALIBRATION READINGS HAVE ALL BEEN ADJUSTED GRAPHICALLY TO SIMULATE ALL
INITIAL LEAF SEPARATIONS BEING EQUAL. ORNL-DWG 76-6548
Book Page: 99
Additional Information on Accuracy and Dependability
* Readers who want additional technical information on the KFM are advised to buy a copy of the original Oak
Ridge National Laboratory report on this instrument, The KFM, A Homemade Yet Accurate and Dependable
Fallout Meter (ORNL-5040, CORRECTED), by Cresson H. Kearny, Paul R. Barnes, Conrad V. Chester, and
Margaret W. Cortner. Date published: January 1978. Copies are sold by the National Technical Information
Service, U.S. Department of Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22161. Since the price
continues to increase, it is best to write first, to learn the postage-paid cost.
* Civil defense professionals of foreign countries also have concluded that KFMs have lifesaving potential. The
June 1978 Special Issue of The Journal of the Institute of Civil Defence ("The Premier Society of Disaster
Studies", with headquarters in London) was entirely devoted to the KFM, and gave international distribution to
the original complete instructions and cut-out paper patterns. The interest of Chinese civil defense officials in the
KFM and my other low cost survival inventions led to my making, with White House approval, two long trips in
China as an official guest. In eight Chinese cities I acquired survival know-how by exchanging civil defense
information with top civil defense officials.
A Major Disadvantage: A KFM Looks Like a Toy
* This instrument appears too simple to be trusted to measure deadly radiation, a frightening mystery to most
people. Typical moderns are accustomed to pushing buttons and twisting dials to get information instantly from
instruments they do not understand. Most feel that a dependable radiation-monitoring instrument has to be
complex. However, especially during a worsening nuclear crisis many typical Americans would build KFMs if
they become convinced of the accuracy and dependability of this homemakeable instrument that they can
understand, use intelligently', and repair if necessary.
Caution:
Earlier versions of KFM-making instructions, written when common sewing threads were good insulators, recommend sewing
threads for suspending a KFM's leaves. Now most sewing threads are anti-static treated, are poor insulators, and are
unsatisfactory for use in KFMs. Makers of KFMs should use the instructions in this updated edition, that recommend widely
available, excellent insulators for suspending a KFM's leaves, and that incorporate several field-tested design improvements.
Instructions for Making and Using KFMs
Appendix C gives the latest field-tested instructions (with patterns) to enable you to make a KFM and to learn how to use it.
The great need for civil defense instruments is likely to be fully recognized only during a worsening nuclear crisis. Therefore, in
this edition the KFM instructions and patterns are printed on only one side of a sheet, with extra patterns at the end of the text,
and with two pages at the very end to expedite the rapid reproduction of the KFM instructions. Timed printing tests by two
newspapers have proved that, with the help of these two pages of special instructions, a newspaper can paste up and
photograph all pages of the KFM instructions, print a 12-page tabloid giving them, and start distributing the tabloid-all in less
than one hour. Thus, if you have a copy of this book during an all-too-possible nuclear crisis, you may be able to give these
instructions to a newspaper and help thousands of your fellow citizens obtain the information that they need to make fallout
meters for themselves.
Advice on Building a KFM
The reader is urged to set aside several hours in the near future for making a KFM and for mastering its use. During field tests,
average American families have needed about 6 hours to study the instructions given in Appendix C, to make this simple
instrument, and to learn how to use it. These several hours may not be available in the midst of a crisis. Higher priority work
would be the building of a high-protection factor shelter, the making of a shelter-ventilating pump, and the storing of adequate
water, in a crisis it might not be possible to obtain some needed materials for a KFM.
It is very difficult to concentrate on unfamiliar details during a nerve-racking crisis, or to do delicate work with hands that may
become unsteady. The best time to build and learn to use a KFM is in peacetime, long before a crisis. Then this long-lasting
instrument should be stored for possible future need.
Book Page: 100
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Ch. 11: Light
THE NEED FOR MINIMUM LIGHT
Numerous disasters have proved that many people can remain calm for several days in total darkness.
But some occupants of a shelter full of fearful people probably would go to pieces if they could see
nothing and could not get out. It is easy to imagine the impact of a few hysterical people on the other
occupants of a pitch-dark shelter. Under wartime conditions, even a faint light that shows only the
shapes of nearby people and things can make the difference between an endurable situation and a
black ordeal.
Figure 11.1 shows what members of the Utah family saw in their shelter on the third night of
occupancy. All of the family's flashlights and other electric lights had been used until the batteries were
almost exhausted. They had no candles at home and failed to bring the cooking oil, glass jar, and
cotton string included in the Evacuation Checklist. These materials would have enabled them to make
an expedient lamp and to keep a small light burning continuously for weeks, if necessary.
At 2 AM on the third night, the inky blackness caused the mother, a stable woman who had never
feared the dark, to experience her first claustrophobia. In a controlled but tense voice she suddenly
awoke everyone by stating: "I have to get out of here. I can't orient myself." Fortunately for the shelter-
occupancy experiment, when she reached the entry trench she overcame her fears and lay down to
sleep on the floor near the entrance.
Conclusion: In a crisis, it is especially bad not to be able to see at all.
Fig. 11.1. Night scene in a trench shelter without light.
ELECTRIC LIGHTS
Even in communities outside areas of blast, fire, or fallout, electric lights dependent on the public power system probably would
fail. Electromagnetic pulse effects produced by the nuclear explosions, plus the destruction of power stations and transmission
lines, would knock out most public power.
No emergency lights are included in the supplies stocked in official shelters. The flashlights and candles that some people would
bring to shelters probably would be insufficient to provide minimum light for more than a very few days.
A low-amperage light bulb used with a large dry cell battery or a car battery is an excellent source of low-level continuous light.
One of the small 12-volt bulbs in the instrument panels of cars with 12-volt batteries will give enough light for 10 to 15 nights,
Book Page: 101
without discharging a car battery so much that it cannot be used to start a car.
Making an efficient battery-powered lighting system for your shelter is work best done before a crisis arises. During a crisis you
should give higher priority to many other needs.
Things to remember about using small bulbs with big batteries:
o Always use a bulb of the same voltage as the battery.
o Use a small, high-resistance wire, such as bell wire, with a car battery.
o Connect the battery after the rest of the improvised light circuit has been completed.
o Use reflective material such as aluminum foil, mirrors, or white boards to concentrate a weak light where it is needed.
o If preparations are made before a crisis, small 12-volt bulbs (0.1 to 0.25 amps) with sockets and wire can be bought
at a radio parts store. Electric test clips for connecting thin wire to a car battery can be purchased at an auto parts store.
CANDLES AND COMMERCIAL LAMPS
Persons going to a shelter should take all their candles with them, along with plenty of matches in a waterproof container such
as a Mason jar. Fully occupied shelters can become so humid that matches not kept in moisture-proof containers cannot be
lighted after a single day.
Lighted candles and other fires should be placed near the shelter opening through which air is leaving the shelter, to avoid
buildup of slight amounts of carbon monoxide and other headache-causing gases. If the shelter is completely closed for a time
for any reason, such as to keep out smoke from a burning house nearby, all candles and other fires in the shelter should be
extinguished.
Gasoline and kerosene lamps should not be taken inside a shelter. They produce gases that can cause headaches or even
death. If gasoline or kerosene lamps are knocked over, as by blast winds that would rush into shelters over extensive areas, the
results would be disastrous.
SAFE EXPEDIENT LAMPS FOR SHELTERS
The simple expedient lamps described below are the results of Oak Ridge National Laboratory experiments which started with
oil lamps of the kinds used by Eskimos and the ancient Greeks. Our objective was to develop safe, dependable, long- lasting
shelter lights that can be made quickly, using only common household materials. Numerous field tests have proved that average
Americans can build good lamps by following the instructions given below (Fig. 11.2).
These expedient lamps have the following advantages:
o They are safe. Even if a burning lamp is knocked over onto a dry paper, the flame is so small that it will be extinguished
if the lamp fuel being burned is a cooking oil or fat commonly used in the kitchen, and if the lamp wick is not much larger
than 1/16 inch in diameter.
o Since the flame is inside ajar, it is not likely to set fire to a careless person's clothing or to be blown out by a breeze.
o With the smallest practical wick and flame, a lamp burns only about 1 ounce of edible oil or fat in eight hours.
o Even with a flame smaller than that of a birthday candle, there is enough light for reading. To read easily by such a
small flame, attach aluminum foil to three sides and the bottom of the lamp, and suspend it between you and your book,
just high enough not to block your vision. (During the long, anxious days and nights spent waiting for fallout to decay,
shelter occupants will appreciate having someone read aloud to them.)
o A lamp with aluminum foil attached is an excellent trap for mosquitoes and other insects that can cause problems in an
unscreened shelter. They are attracted to the glittering light and fall into the oil.
o Two of these lamps can be made in less than an hour, once the materials have been assembled, so there is no reason
to wait until a crisis arises to make them. Oil exposed to the air deteriorates, so it is best not to store lamps filled with oil
or to keep oil-soaked wicks for months.
Book Page: 102
Fig. 11.2. Safe Expedient Lamps
Book Page: 103
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Ch. 12: Shelter Sanitation and Preventive Medicine
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CLEAN WATER AND FOOD
Disinfecting water by boiling (preferably for at least 10 minutes) or by
treating it with chlorine or iodine has been described in Chapter 8, Water.
When water is first stored, it should be disinfected by the addition of 1 scant
teaspoon of ordinary household bleach for each 10 gallons.
To avoid contaminating water when removing small quantities from a container such as a waterproof
bag, the simplest way is first to pour some into a pot or other medium-sized container, from which
small amounts can be poured into individual cups. Dipping water with a cup runs more risk of
contamination. The cleanest way to take small quantities of water out of a container is to siphon it with
a flexible tube, as described in Chapter 8, Water.
Sanitary storage of food in expedient shelters is often difficult. Although almost any paper or plastic
covering will keep fallout particles from food, shelter dampness can cause paper containers to break.
Ants, roaches, and weevils can cut through paper or plastic coverings to reach food inside. Placing
paper containers of food in plastic bags and suspending the bags from the ceiling of the shelter
entryway gives good protection against bugs, and quite good protection against moisture for a few
weeks. (Do not obstruct the air flow through an entryway if heat is a problem.) A small amount of
insect repellent or grease smeared on the suspending string or wire will stop all crawlers. Metal and
strong plastic containers with tight lids protect food best.
The hygienic preparation and serving of food in a shelter, especially in hot weather, require that all
cooked food be eaten promptly. It is best to eat within half-an-hour after cooking. Canned foods
should be consumed shortly after opening. The cleaning and disinfecting of utensils, bowls, etc., should be done promptly, to
prevent bacteria from multiplying and to lessen the chances of ants and other insects being attracted into the shelter. Sugar
should be mixed with cereals in the cooking pot, to avoid spilling.
In Oak Ridge National Laboratory shelter tests, only a few infants and toddlers have been included among the occupants.
Feeding infants and small children over a piece of plastic would be one good way to keep the inevitable spillage from
complicating shelter life.
Book Page: 106
To avoid using dishes, most foods can be served on squares of plastic. Spoons and such plastic "dishes" can be licked clean
after eating, then disinfected by boiling or by dipping them into chlorine bleach solution containing one tablespoon of
Clorox-type bleach to a quart of water.
A shelter occupant without a spoon can eat very thick grain mush in a sanitary manner by placing it on a piece of plastic held in
his hand, forming it into a ball, and taking bites. .Although Chinese peasants often eat wet-rice balls held in their bare hands,
experiments have indicated -not unexpectedly that Americans do not like to eat this way.
Cooking without oil or fat makes disinfecting utensils much easier when water and fuel are being conserved. Cereals and sugar
are easy to wash off with a little water, without soap.
CONTROL OF INSECTS
Insect sprays used in high-protection-factor shelters are likely to cause more problems than they eliminate. Poisonous
insecticides should be used with caution. Insect repellents on the skin and clothing are generally helpful, but not likely to be in
sufficient supply to last for weeks or months. Some insect problems and simple means of controlling them are described below.
Mosquitoes would multiply rapidly after an attack, because normal control measures would not be in effect. Using insect screen
or mosquito netting to cover the ventilation openings of a shelter is the best way to keep out mosquitoes, flies, and all larger
insects. The lack of insect screening-when it would be too late to obtain any-could result in more harassment, discomfort and
possible disease than most people accustomed to modern living are likely to imagine. However, if the shelter has no air pump, it
is impractical to use screens that obstruct the free movement of vital air except in cold weather.
The fly population would explode after a nuclear attack. Radiation doses several times larger than doses that would kill people
do not sterilize insects, in extensive rural areas where almost all people could have adequate shelter to be safe from fallout, most
domestic animals and wild creatures would be killed. Trillions of flies would breed in the dead bodies.
If you have prudently kept a can of modern fly bait in your survival supplies, a little sprinkled on top of the plastic covering can
kill literally thousands of flies.
Shelter occupants should make every effort to prevent flies from reaching disease-spreading human wastes.
Ants, especially in the warmer parts of the country, could drive people out of expedient shelters. The best prevention is to try to
find a shelter-building site that is
not near an ant nest, if shelter occupants are careful in storing food and eating, ants are less likely to become a problem.
Ticks and chiggers are usually found on grass and low bushes. To avoid carrying these pests into the shelter, do not bring grass
or dead leaves into your shelter for bedding except in freezing weather. Cut leafy branches high above the ground: few pests
live in tall vegetation.
PERSONAL POSSESSIONS
Toothbrushes are not boiled or otherwise disinfected after being used, because we all develop considerable resistance to our
own infective organisms. For the same reason, each individual should have his own personal drinking cup, bowl, and spoon.
They should be cleaned as well as possible and kept covered when not in use.
PREVENTION OF SKIN DISEASES
In crowded shelters, especially during hot weather, skin diseases are likely to be a more serious problem than is generally
recognized. The importance of learning how to prevent skin diseases was made apparent by one of the very few shelter-
occupancy tests to be conducted in the summer without air conditioning. This was a Navy test in which 99 men lived for 12
days in an underground shelter cooled only with outdoor summer air.15 The incidence of skin complaints was high, even though
medical treatment was available on a daily basis. The total number of reports to sick call was 560; 34 of these 99 healthy young
men contracted heat rash and 23 had other skin complaints such as fungus infections. However, these sailors lived in an
inadequately ventilated shelter and did not cleanse their sweaty skins or use the other methods listed below for preventing skin
troubles.
Even in shelters that are skillfully ventilated with adequate outdoor air, skin diseases will be a serious problem especially in hot
weather unless special hygiene measures are followed. Humid heat and heat rash increase susceptibility to skin diseases. Most
of the following measures for preventing skin diseases have been practiced by jungle natives for thousands of years.
° Wash off sweat and dead skin. (When it is hot and humid, dead skin is continuously rubbing and flaking off and starting
to decay.) Many jungle natives rinse their bodies several times a day. Bathing several times a day with soap is harmful in
humid heat: the rapid loss of normal skin oils is one of the causes of skin diseases.
Book Page: 107
Your skin can be kept fairly clean by rinsing off each day with just a cup of water, while rubbing gently with a very small
cloth. A 6-inch square of bedsheet cloth serves well. So that you can dispose of the dirty water afterwards, wash
yourself while standing on a piece of plastic with its edges held up slightly. (Place sticks or narrow boards under the
edges.) Use about two-thirds of the precious water for the first rinse, starting from the face down and gently rubbing
neck, armpits, stomach, groin, buttocks, and feet with a washcloth. Then use the remaining water to rinse off again, using
bare fingers. If boiling water is available, sterilize washcloths every day by boiling them for a few minutes.
° Sleep as cool and bare as practical, to dry the maximum skin area.
° If practical, sit and sleep only where other members of your family do and avoid use of bedding by more than one
family.
° Avoid infection from toilet seats by disinfecting with a strong chlorine solution and then rinsing, by covering with paper,
or by not sitting down.
° Wash or disinfect clothing as often as practical, especially underwear and socks. Disinfecting clothing, not laundering it,
is the most important health objective under difficult shelter conditions. Dipping clothing into boiling water disinfects it.
Unless plenty of water is available for rinsing, do not disinfect clothing by putting it in a chlorine bleach solution.
° Wear shoes or sandals when walking about, to prevent fungus infections of the feet.
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AN OUNCE OF PREVENTION
Should fallout force Americans to stay crowded into basements and expedient shelters for days or weeks, they should protect
themselves against the spread of infectious diseases by taking both accustomed and unaccustomed preventive measures.
Thousands of our jungle infantrymen in World War II learned to practice many of the health- preserving techniques described in
this chapter. If modern medical facilities were temporarily unavailable, the prevention of diseases would become much more
important to all of us.
The following infection-preventing measures are simple, practical, and require some self-discipline. The author has observed
their practice and has used them while exploring and soldiering in a number of jungle, desert, and mountain regions. I also have
used these measures while field-testing nuclear war survival skills in several states.
Basic first aid also would be of increased importance during a major confrontation or war. Good first aid booklets and
instructions are available in practically all communities, so most first aid information will not be repeated here.
DISPOSAL OF HUMAN WASTES
To preserve health and morale in a shelter without a toilet or special chemicals for treatment of excrement and urine, human
wastes should be removed before they produce much gas. A garbage can with a lid or a bucket covered with plastic will not
hold the pressurized gas produced by rotting excrement. The following expedient means of disposal are listed in increasing
order of effectiveness.
° Use a 5-gallon paint can, a bucket, or a large waterproof wastebasket to collect both urine and excrement. Use and keep it
near the air-exhaust end of the shelter. Keep it tightly covered when not in use: a piece of plastic tied over the top keeps out
insects and reduces odors. When such waste containers are full or begin to stink badly while covered, put them outside the
shelter still covered to keep out flies.
For some people, especially the aged, bringing a toilet seat from home would be justified. Padding on the edge of the bucket
also helps those who have to sit down. An improvised seat of plywood or board serves well.
If only one container is available and is almost filled, periodically dump the wastes outside unless fallout is still being deposited.
Before an anticipated attack, people who plan to stay in a shelter should dig a waste-disposal pit if they do not have sufficient
waste containers for weeks of shelter occupancy. The pit should be located about 3 feet from the shelter in the down-wind
direction. This usually will be the air exhaust end of an earth-covered shelter. The pit should be surrounded by a ring of
mounded, packed earth about 6 inches high, to keep surface water from heavy rains from running into it.
Quickly putting or dumping wastes outside is not hazardous once fallout is no longer being deposited. For example, assume the
shelter is in an area of heavy fallout and the dose rate outside is 400 R/hr enough to give a potentially fatal dose in about an
hour to a person exposed in the open. If a person needs to be exposed for only 10 seconds to dump a bucket, in this 1/360th
of an hour he will receive a dose of only about 1 R. Under war conditions, an additional 1-R dose is of little concern.
Book Page: 104
If the shelter design does not permit an occupant to dispose of wastes without running outside, he can tie cloth or plastic over
his shoes before going out, and remove these coverings in the entry before going back inside the shelter room. This precaution
will eliminate the chance of tracking "hot" fallout particles into the shelter, and the small chance of someone getting a tiny beta
burn in this way.
° Have all occupants only urinate in the bucket, and defecate into a piece of plastic. Urine contains few harmful organisms and
can be safely dumped outside.
Two thicknesses of the thin plastic used to cover freshly dry-cleaned clothes will serve to hold bowel movements of several
persons. Gather the plastic around the excrement to form a bag-like container. Tie the plastic closed near its upper edges with a
string or narrow strip of cloth. Do not tie it so tightly as to be gas-tight. Each day's collection should be gently tossed outside.
As the excrement rots, the gas will leak out of the tied end of the plastic covering. Flies will be attracted in swarms, but they will
not be able to get into the plastic to contaminate their feet or to lay eggs. And because rotting excrement is so attractive to flies,
shelter occupants will be bothered less by these dangerous pests.
If you have prudently kept a can of modern fly bait in your survival supplies, a little sprinkled on top of the plastic covering can
kill literally thousands of flies. The most effective fly baits, such as Die Fly and Improved Golden Malrin, are sold in farm supply
stores.
Fig. 12.1. A 5-gallon paint can used for a hose-vented toilet can, with a plastic trash bag for its removable liner.
° Use a hose-vented, 5-gallon can or bucket lined with a heavy plastic bag: cover tightly with plastic when not in use. Figure
12.1 shows this type of expedient toilet.
The vent-hose runs through a hole near the top of the paint can shown and is taped to seal it to the can. Such a hole can be
quite easily cut with a chisel or a sharpened screwdriver. The hose is long enough to extend outside the shelter. Its outer end
should be secured about 6 inches above ground level, to prevent water from running into it during a heavy rain. When a
toilet-can is tightly covered, foul gases can escape through the hose to the outdoors.
With its opening tied shut, a large plastic trash bag containing as much as 30 pounds of wastes can be lifted out of a toilet-can
and disposed of outside the shelter.
The 6-member Utah family described in preceding chapters used a home-like expedient toilet during their 77-hour shelter stay.
Figure 12.2 pictures the toilet seat they took with them, placed on a hose-vented container in a hole in the ground. The toilet
was at one end of the shelter. A person sitting on this toilet could put his feet in the adjacent "stand-up hole" and be more
comfortable.
The blanket shown hanging on the left in Fig. 12.2 could be drawn in front of the toilet for privacy. Behind the girl's head was
the emergency crawlway-ventilation trench. When the toilet was being used, the shelter-ventilating KAP pumped air under the
blanket-curtain and out the ventilation trench, resulting in very little odor in the rest of the shelter.
Vomiting is certain to cause both morale and health problems, especially for unprepared shelter occupants fearing this first
dramatic symptom of radiation sickness. Nervousness, combined with the effects of unaccustomed food and water, will cause
even some healthy persons to vomit. In a crowded shelter, the sight and smell of vomit will make others throw up. Plastic bags,
well distributed throughout a shelter, are the best means to catch vomit and keep it
off the floor. Buckets, pots, or a newspaper folded into a cone also will serve.
Book Page: 105
Fig. 12.2. The hose-vented expedient toilet used by the Utah family for over 3 days. (The unconnected telephone was
brought along as a joke.)
DISPOSAL OF DEAD BODIES
In large shelters which are occupied for many days, someone may die even when no occupants have been injured by blast, fire,
or radiation. The sight or the sickly-sweet stink of a decaying human body is greatly disturbing. Some civil defense workers
have theorized that the best way to take care of a corpse in a shelter until the fallout dose-rate outdoors is low enough to allow
burial is to seal it in a large plastic bag. A simple test with a dead dog proved this idea impractical: gas pressure caused the bag
to burst. One solution is to put the corpse outside as soon as the odor is evident. First, if possible, place it in a bag made of
large plastic trash bags taped together and perforated with a few pinholes.
RESPIRATORY DISEASES
The spread of respiratory and other diseases transmitted by coughing and sneezing would be difficult to control in
long-occupied shelters. Adequate ventilation would help in disease prevention. In small shelters, it would be better if persons
who are sneezing or coughing could stay near the opening being used for air exhaust. In large shelters with many occupants, the
risk of one or more of them having a disease that is easily spread obviously will be higher than in a small shelter.
Book Page: 108
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Ch. 13: Surviving Without Doctors
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A TEMPORARY RETURN TO SELF-HELP
Most doctors, hospital facilities, and medical supplies are located in cities.
An all-out attack would destroy most of these modern blessings. Even if
medical assistance were nearby, only a few of the survivors confined to
shelters in areas of heavy fallout would be able to get needed medicines or
the help of a doctor. For periods ranging from days to months, most
unprepared survivors would be forced to live under medical conditions
almost as primitive as those experienced by the majority of mankind for all
but the past few decades of human history.
BENIGN NEGLECT
Life without modern medical help would be less painful and hazardous for those survivors who have
some practical knowledge of what should be done or not done under primitive, unsanitary conditions.
Information about first aid and hygienic precautions can be obtained from widely available Red Cross
and civil defense booklets and courses. This knowledge, with a stock of basic first aid supplies, would
reduce suffering and prevent many dangerous illnesses. However, first aid instructions do not include
advice about what to do for serious injuries and sicknesses if no doctors or effective medicines are
available.
Where There Is No Doctor,32 the excellent self- help handbook ;recommended by Volunteers in
Technical Assistance, gives much information that goes far beyond the scope of first aid. But even this
handbook repeatedly recommends getting professional medical help whenever possible for serious
injuries and illnesses.
Fortunately, the human body has remarkable capabilities for healing itself, especially if the injured or sick person and his
companions practice intelligent "benign neglect." Such purposeful non-interference with the body's recuperative processes was
called "masterful inactivity" by Colonel C. Blanchard Henry, M.D., a widely recognized authority on mass casualty evacuation
and treatment. Colonel Henry was one of the first medical officers to visit Hiroshima and Nagasaki after their destruction and
was an experienced analyzer of civil defense preparations in several countries.
The following is a brief summary of Colonel Henry's medical advice for nuclear war survivors living under primitive conditions
and unable to get the help of a doctor or effective medicines.33 (Additional advice, enclosed in brackets, is from a medical
publication.34)
° Wounds: Apply only pressure dressings to stop bleeding unless an artery has been cut, as by a blast- hurled piece of
glass. If blood is spurting from a wound, apply both a pressure dressing and a windlass-type tourniquet. Loosen the
tourniquet pressure about every 15 minutes, to allow enough blood to reach the flesh beyond the tourniquet and keep it
alive. There is a fair chance that clotting under the pressure dressing will stop blood loss before it becomes fatal.
° Infected wounds: Do not change dressings frequently. The formation of white pus shows that white corpuscles are
mobilizing to combat the infection. In World War I, wounded soldiers in hospitals suffered agonies having their wounds
cleaned and dressed frequently: many died as a result of such harmful care. In contrast, before antibiotics became
available late in World War II, casts and dressings on infected wounds sometimes were not changed for weeks. (The
author saw this treatment in China and India and smelled the stench resulting from such "benign neglect" of American
soldiers' wounds--- neglect that helped save limbs and lives.)
Book Page: 109
° Pieces of glass deeply embedded in flesh: Do not probe with tweezers or a knife in an attempt to extract them.
Most glass will come out when the wounds discharge pus.
° Burns: Do not apply grease, oil or any other medicine to the burned area. Cover the area securely with a clean, dry
dressing or folded cloth. Do not change the dressing frequently. [For most burns, the bandage need not be removed until
the tenth to fourteenth day. Give plenty of slightly salted water: about 1 teaspoon (4.5 gm) of salt per quart (or liter),
preferably chilled, in amounts of 1 to 3 liters daily. 4]
° Broken bones: Apply simple splints to keep the bones from moving. Do not worry about deformities: most can be
corrected later by a doctor. Do not attempt traction setting of broken bones.
° Shock: Keep the victim warm. Place blankets or other insulation material under him. Do not cover him with so many
blankets that he sweats and suffers harmful fluid losses. Give him plenty of slightly salted water [about a teaspoon of salt
in a liter (or quart) of water].
° Heat prostration: Give adequate fluids, including slightly salty water.
° Simple childbirth: Keep hands off. Wait until the mother has given birth. Do not tie and cut the cord unless a potent
disinfectant is available. Instead, use the primitive practice of wrapping the cord and the placenta around the infant until
they dry. Avoid the risk of infecting the mother by removing the rest of the afterbirth: urge the mother to work to expel it.
° Toothache: Do not attempt to pull an aching tooth. Decaying teeth will abscess and fall out. This is a painful but
seldom fatal process- --one which was endured by most of our remote ancestors who reached maturity.
VETERINARIAN ANTIBIOTICS
People who for decades have used antibiotics to combat their infections have not produced normal quantities of antibodies, and
have subnormal resistance to many infections. People who have not been dependent on antibiotics have these antibodies. In the
aftermath of a massive nuclear attack, most surviving Americans would be in rural areas: many would need antibiotics. A large
part of their need could be met by the supplies of veterinarian antibiotics kept on livestock and chicken farms, at feed mills, and
in small towns. Many animals are given more antibiotics in their short lives than most Americans receive in theirs. Hogs, for
example, are given antibiotics and or other disease-controlling medicines in their feed each day. In many farming areas,
veterinary antibiotics and other medicines are in larger supply than are those for people. Realistic preparations to survive an
all-out attack should include utilizing these supplies.
RADIATION SICKNESS
For the vast majority of Americans who would receive radiation doses from a massive attack, the help of doctors, antibiotics,
blood transfusions, etc., would not be of life-or-death importance. Very few of those receiving acute doses (received within 24
hours) of less than 100 R would become sick, even briefly. All of those exposed to acute doses between 100 Rand 200 R
should recover from radiation effects.6 However, under post-attack conditions of multiple stresses and privations, some who
receive acute radiation doses of 100 R to 200 R may die of infectious diseases because of their reduced resistance. If total
doses this size or even several times larger are received over a period of a few months in small doses of around 6 R per day, no
incapacitating symptoms should result. The human body usually can repair almost all radiation damage if the daily doses are not
too large.
The majority of those with acute doses of less than about 350 R will recover without medical treatment. Almost all of those
receiving acute doses of over 600 R would die within a few weeks, even if they were to receive treatment in a typical hospital
during peacetime. If all doctors and the equipment and drugs needed for heroic treatments magically were to survive an attack
and persons suffering from radiation sickness could reach them relatively few additional lives could be saved.
The most effective way to reduce losses of health and life from radiation sickness is to prevent excessive exposure to radiation.
Adequate shelter and essential life-support items are the best means of saving lives in a nuclear war. The following information
on radiation sickness is given to help the reader understand the importance of building a good shelter and to help him distinguish
between symptoms of common illnesses and first symptoms of radiation sickness.
Book Page: 110
The first symptoms of radiation sickness are nausea, vomiting, headache, dizziness, and a general feeling of illness.6 These
symptoms begin several hours after exposure to acute doses of 100 R to 200 R. and within 30 minutes or less after receiving a
fatal dose. A source of probable confusion is the fact that one or more of these symptoms is experienced by many people when
they are first exposed to great danger, as in an air raid shelter during a conventional bombardment.
The occupants of a shelter might worry unnecessarily for weeks, mistaking their early emotional reactions for the initial phase of
radiation sickness. This would be particularly true if they had no dependable instrument for measuring radiation, or if none of
them knew how to use such an instrument.
The initial symptoms end within a day or two. Then follows the latent phase of radiation sickness, during which the patient
experiences few, if any, symptoms. If the dose received was in the non-fatal range. the latent phase may last as long as 2
weeks.
In the final phase, the victim of serious or fatal radiation sickness will have reduced resistance to infections and is likely to suffer
diarrhea, loss of hair, and small hemorrhages of the skin, mouth, and; or intestinal tract. Diarrhea from common causes may be
confused with the onset of radiation sickness, but hemorrhages and loss of much hair are clear indications of having received
serious, but not necessarily fatal, radiation exposure. The final phase usually lasts for one to two months. Any available
antibiotics should be reserved for this critical phase of the illness.
Doses of 1000 R to 5000 R result in bloody diarrhea, fever, and blood circulation abnormalities, with the initial symptoms
beginning within less than 30 minutes after exposure and the final phase occurring less than a day thereafter. Death results within
2 to 14 days. The victim of a dose of over 5000 R dies a hard death within 48 hours, due to radiation damage to the central
nervous system.
Recovery from most cases of radiation sickness will be more likely for patients who receive a well balanced diet, rest, freedom
from stress, and clean surroundings. But most patients, even without these advantages, will survive -as proved by the survival of
thousands of Hiroshima and Nagasaki citizens who suffered serious radiation sickness. Nursing radiation victims is not
hazardous. Even persons dying from a dose of 5000 Rare not sources of dangerous radiation by wartime standards, and
radiation sickness is not contagious.
LIFETIME RISKS FROM RADIATION
The large radiation doses that many survivors of a nuclear attack would receive would result in serious long-term risks of death
from cancer, but the lifetime risks from even large wartime radiation doses are not as bad as many people believe. Significantly,
no official U.S. estimates have been made available to the public regarding excess cancer deaths to be expected if America is
subjected to a nuclear attack. However, reliable statistics are available on the numbers of additional fatal cancers suffered by
persons who received large whole-body radiation doses at Hiroshima and in other disasters, and who lived for months to
decades before dying. Dr. John N. Auxier -who for years was a leading health physicist at Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
was one of the American scientists working in Japan with Japanese scientists studying the Hiroshima and Nagasaki survivors,
and currently is working on radiation problems with International Technology Corporation-in 1986 summarized for me the risk
of excess fatal cancers from large whole-body radiation doses: "If 1,000 people each receive a whole-body radiation dose of
100 rems [or 100 rads, or 100 R], about 10 additional fatal cancers will result." These 10 fatal cancers will be in addition to
about 150 fatal cancers that normally will develop among these 1,000 people during their lifetimes. This risk is proportional to
large doses; thus, if 1,000 people each receive a dose of 200 rems, about 20 additional lethal cancer cases would be expected.
"Rem" is an abbreviation for "roentgen equivalent (in) man." The rem takes into account the biological effects of different kinds
of radiation. For external gamma-ray radiation from fallout, the numerical value of an exposure or dose given in roentgens is
approximately the same as the numerical value given in rems or in rads. The rad is the unit of radiation energy absorption in any
material and applies to all kinds of nuclear radiations. Therefore, for simplicity's sake, this book gives both instrument readings
(exposures) and doses in roentgens (R).
Book Page: 111
The reader desiring good information on the long-term and worldwide effects of radiation is referred to two authoritative
reports of the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. 20006: The Effects on Populations of Exposures to Low
Levels of Ionizing Radiation (The BEIR Report made by the NAS Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation)
(November 1972); and Long- Term Worldwide Effects of Multiple Nuclear- Weapons Detonations (1975).
From the standpoint of basic survival know-how, these and other complicated scientific studies show that to minimize lifetime
risks from radiation, after a nuclear attack people should:
° Provide the best protection against radiation for pregnant women and young children, since fetuses and the very young
are the most likely to be hurt by radiation.
° Realize that, with the exception of lung cancer, older people are no more susceptible to radiation injury than are those
in the prime of life. Also, a 65-year-old probably will not live long enough to die of a cancer that takes 20 years or more
to develop. Many older people, if they know realistic risk estimates, will choose to do essential outdoor work and take
non- incapacitating radiation doses in order to spare younger members of their families the risk of getting cancer decades
later.
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PREVENTION OF THYROID DAMAGE FROM RADIOACTIVE IODINES
There is no medicine that will effectively prevent nuclear radiations from damaging the human body cells that they strike.
However, a salt of the elements potassium and iodine, taken orally even in very small quantities 1/2 hour to 1 day before
radioactive iodines are swallowed or inhaled, prevents about 99% of the damage to the thyroid gland that otherwise would
result. The thyroid gland readily absorbs both non-radioactive and radioactive iodine, and normally it retains much of this
element in either or both forms. When ordinary, non-radioactive iodine is made available in the blood for absorption by the
thyroid gland before any radioactive iodine is made available, the gland will absorb and retain so much that it becomes
saturated with non-radioactive iodine. When saturated, the thyroid can absorb only about l% as much additional iodine,
including radioactive forms that later may become available in the blood: then it is said to be blocked. (Excess iodine in the
blood is rapidly eliminated by the action of the kidneys.)
An excess of ordinary iodine retained in the thyroid gland is harmless, but quite small amounts of radioactive iodine retained in
the thyroid eventually will give such a large radiation dose to thyroid cells that abnormalities are likely to result. These would
include loss of thyroid function, nodules in the thyroid, or thyroid cancer. Sixty-four Marshall Islanders on Rongelap Atoll were
accidentally exposed to radioactive fallout produced by a large H-bomb test explosion on Bikini Atoll, about 100 miles away.
Twenty-two of them developed thyroid abnormalities beginning nine years later.6 In the two days before they were taken out of
the fallout area, these completely uninformed natives, living essentially outdoors, had received estimated whole- body
gamma-ray doses of about 175 R from the fallout all around them. They absorbed most of the radioactive iodine retained by
their thyroid glands as a result of eating and drinking fallout-contaminated food and water during their two days of exposure.
(Because of unusual environmental conditions at the time of fallout deposition, some of the retained radioactive iodine may have
come from the air they breathed.)
An extremely small and inexpensive daily dose of the preferred non-radioactive potassium salt, potassium iodide (KI), if taken
1/2 hour to 1 day before exposure to radioactive iodine, will reduce later absorption of radioactive iodine by the thyroid to only
about 1% of what the absorption would be without this preventive measure. Extensive experimentation and study have led to
the Federal Drug Administration's approval of 130-milligram (130- mg) tablets for this preventive (prophylactic) use only.36,37
A 130-mg dose provides the same daily amount of iodine as does each tablet that English authorities for years have placed in
the hands of the police near nuclear power plants, for distribution to the surrounding population in the very unlikely event of a
major nuclear accident. It is quite likely that a similar-sized dose is in the Russian "individual, standard first-aid packet."
According to a comprehensive Soviet 1969 civil defense handbook,38 this first-aid packet contains "anti-radiation tablets and
anti-vomiting tablets (potassium iodide and etaperain)."
° Prophylactic use of potassium iodide in peacetime nuclear accidents.
When the Three Mile Island nuclear reactor accident was worsening and it appeared that the reactor's containment structure
might rupture and release dangerous amounts of radioactive iodines and other radioactive material into the atmosphere, the
Government rushed preparation of small bottles of a saturated solution of potassium iodide. The reactor's containment structure
did not rupture.
Book Page: 112
The 237,013 bottles of saturated KI solution that were delivered to Harrisburg, Pennsylvania-mostly too late to have been
effective if the Three Mile Island accident had become an uncontained meltdown -were stored in secret in a warehouse, and
were never used.
Since this famous 1979 accident, that injured no one, the Governors of the 50 states have been given the responsibility for
protecting Americans against radioiodines by providing prophylactic potassium iodide. By May of 1986, only in Tennessee
have Americans, other than some specialists, been given potassium iodide tablets; around one nuclear reactor some 7,500
residents have been given the officially approved KI tablets, to assure their having this protection if a nuclear accident occurs.
In April of 1982 the Bureau of Radiological Health and Bureau of Drugs, Food and Drug Administration, Department of Health
and Human Services released "FINAL RECOMMENDATIONS, Potassium Iodide As A Thyroid- Blocking Agent In A
Radiation Emergency: Recommendations On Use". These lengthy recommendations are summarized in the FDA's "mandated
patient product insert". (See a complete copy in the following section.) This insert is packed with every bottle of
non-prescription KI tablets sold. However, the lengthy FDA recommendations contain many facts not mentioned in this
required insert, including the following: "Based on the FDA adverse reaction reports and an estimated 48 x 106 [48 million]
300-mg doses of potassium iodide administered each year [in the United States], the NCRP [National Council on Radiation
Protection and Measurements] estimated an adverse reaction rate of from 1 in a million to 1 in 10 million doses." (Note that this
extremely low adverse reaction rate is for doses over twice as large as the 130-mg prophylactic dose.)
FDA PATIENT INFORMATION USE OF 130-MG SCORED TABLETS OF POTASSIUM IODIDE FOR
THYROID BLOCKING
(Potassium Iodide Tablets, U.S.P.)
(Pronounced poe-TASS-e-um EYE-oh-dyed)
(Abbreviated KI)
TAKE POTASSIUM IODIDE ONLY WHEN PUBLIC HEALTH OFFICIALS TELL YOU. IN A RADIATION
EMERGENCY, RADIOACTIVE IODINE COULD BE RELEASED INTO THE AIR. POTASSIUM IODIDE (A FORM
OF IODINE) CAN HELP PROTECT YOU.
IF YOU ARE TOLD TO TAKE THIS MEDICINE, TAKE IT ONE TIME EVERY 24 HOURS. DO NOT TAKE IT
MORE OFTEN. MORE WILL NOT HELP YOU AND MAY INCREASE THE RISK OF SIDE EFFECTS. DO NOT
TAKE THIS DRUG IF YOU KNOW YOU ARE ALLERGIC TO IODINE (SEE SIDE EFFECTS BELOW).
INDICATIONS
THYROID BLOCKING IN A RADIATION EMERGENCY ONLY
DIRECTIONS FOR USE
Use only as directed by State or local public health authorities in the event of a radiation emergency.
DOSE
ADULTS AND CHILDREN ONE YEAR OF AGE OR
OLDER: One (1) tablet once a day. Crush for small children.
BABIES UNDER ONE YEAR OF AGE: One-half (1/2) tablet once a day. Crush first.
DOSAGE: Take for 10 days unless directed otherwise by State or local public health authorities.
Store at controlled room temperature between 150 and 300C (59 degrees to 86 degrees F). Keep bottle tightly closed and
protect from light.
WARNING
POTASSIUM IODIDE SHOULD NOT BE USED BY PEOPLE ALLERGIC TO IODIDE. Keep out of the reach of
children. In case of overdose or allergic reaction, contact a physician or public health authority.
DESCRIPTION
Each iOSAT™ Tablet contains 130 mg. of potassium iodide.
HOW POTASSIUM IODIDE WORKS
Certain forms of iodine help your thyroid gland work right. Most people get the iodine they need from foods like iodized salt or
fish. The thyroid can "store" or hold only a certain amount of iodine.
In a radiation emergency, radioactive iodine may be released in the air. This material may be breathed or swallowed. It may
enter the thyroid gland and damage it. The damage would probably not show itself for years. Children are most likely to have
thyroid damage.
If you take potassium iodide, it will fill up your thyroid gland. This reduces the chance that harmful radioactive iodine will enter
the thyroid gland.
WHO SHOULD NOT TAKE POTASSIUM IODIDE
The only people who should not take potassium iodide are people who know they are allergic to iodide. You may take
potassium iodide even if you are taking medicines for a thyroid problem (for example, a thyroid hormone or anti-thyroid drug).
Pregnant and nursing women and babies and children may also take this drug.
HOW AND WHEN TO TAKE POTASSIUM IODIDE
Potassium iodide should be taken as soon as possible after public health officials tell you. You should take one dose every 24
hours. More will not help you because the thyroid can "hold" only limited amounts of iodine. Larger doses will increase the risk
of side effects. You will probably be told not to take the drug for more than 10 days.
Book Page: 113
SIDE EFFECTS
Usually, side effects of potassium iodide happen when people take higher doses for a long time. You should be careful not to
take more than the recommended dose or take it for longer than you are told. Side effects are unlikely because of the low dose
and the short time you will be taking the drug.
Possible side effects include skin rashes, swelling of the salivary glands, and "iodism" (metallic taste, burning mouth and throat,
sore teeth and gums, symptoms of a head cold, and sometimes stomach upset and diarrhea).
A few people have an allergic reaction with more serious symptoms. These could be fever and joint pains, or swelling of parts
of the face and body and at times severe shortness of breath requiring immediate medical attention.
Taking iodide may rarely cause overactivity of the thyroid gland, underactivity of the thyroid gland, or enlargement of the
thyroid gland (goiter).
WHAT TO DO IF SIDE EFFECTS OCCUR
If the side effects are severe or if you have an allergic reaction, stop taking potassium iodide. Then, if possible, call a doctor or
public health authority for instructions.
HOW SUPPLIED
Tablets (Potassium Iodide Tablets, U.S.P.): bottles of [number of tablets in a bottle] tablets
( ). Each white, round, scored tablet contains 130 mg. potassium iodide.
Note that this official FDA required insert given above prudently stresses the name, the pronunciation, and the chemical formula
(KI) of these Government-approved 130-mg potassium iodide tablets. Perhaps this emphasized information will keep some
alarmed Americans (misinformed in a future crisis by the media that typically stated during the Chernobyl nuclear accident that
"iodine tablets" were being given to people endangered by radioactive iodine from the burning reactor) from getting and taking
iodine tablets, widely sold for water purification, or tincture of iodine.
Strangely, neither in official information available to the general public on the prophylactic use of KI nor in the above-mentioned
FDA "Final Recommendations" is any mention made of the much greater need for KI in a nuclear war-even for Americans
during an overseas nuclear war in which the United States would not be a belligerent.
Also note that this official insert contains no instructions for giving a crushed KI tablet to infants and small children. Nor is there
any mention of the fact that the KI under the tablet's coating is a more painful-tasting drug than any that most people ever have
taken. This omitted information is given in the next to last section of this chapter.
° Protection against radioactive iodine in fallout from a nuclear war fought outside the United States.
Most strategists believe that a nuclear war fought by nations other than the United States is a more likely catastrophe than a
nuclear attack on America. Several of the Soviet and Chinese nuclear test explosions have resulted in very light fallout
deposition and some contamination of milk by radioactive iodine in many of the 50 states. However, serious contamination of
milk, fruits, and vegetables could result if war fallout from many overseas nuclear explosions were carried to an America at
peace. These potential dangers and effective countermeasures are included in Chapter 18, Trans-Pacific Fallout.
If a nuclear war were to be fought in northern parts of Asia, or in Europe, or in the Middle East, a very small fraction of the
fallout would come to earth on parts or all of the United States.40 This fallout would not result in an overwhelming catastrophe
to Americans, although the long-term health hazards would be serious by peacetime standards and the economic losses would
be great.40 The dangers from radioactive iodine in milk produced by cows that ate fallout contaminated feeds or drank fallout
contaminated water would be minimized if Americans did not consume dairy products for several weeks after the arrival of war
fallout. Safe milk and other baby foods would be the only essential foods that soon would be in very short supply. The parents
of babies and young children who had stored potassium iodide would be especially thankful they had made this very
inexpensive preparation, that can give 99% effective protection to the thyroid. All members of families with a supply of
potassium iodide could safely eat a normal diet long before those without it could do so.
The most dangerous type of radioactive iodine decays rapidly. At the end of each 8 day period it gives off only half as much
radiation as at the start of that period. So at the end of 80 days it emits only about 111000 as much radiation per hour as at the
beginning of these 80 days. Because of this rapid decay, a 100-day supply of potassium iodide should be sufficient if a nuclear
war, either overseas or within the United States, were to last no more than a week or two.
Book Page: 114
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The probability of most Americans being supplied with prophylactic potassium iodide during a major nuclear disaster appears
low. Under present regulations the decision concerning whether to stockpile and dispense potassium iodide tablets rests solely
with each state's governor.41
° Need for thyroid protection after a nuclear attack on the United States.
After a nuclear attack, very few of the survivors would be able to obtain potassium iodide or to get advice about when to start
taking it or stop taking it. In areas of heavy fallout, some survivors without potassium iodide would receive radiation doses large
enough to destroy thyroid function before modern medical treatments would again become available. Even those injuries to the
thyroid that result in its complete failure to function cause few deaths in normal times, but under post-attack conditions thyroid
damage would be much more hazardous.
° Ways to obtain potassium iodide for prophylactic use.
* By prescription.
With a prescription from a doctor, a U.S.P. saturated solution of potassium iodide can be bought at many pharmacies today.
(In a crisis, the present local supplies would be entirely inadequate.) The saturated solution contains a very small amount of a
compound that prevents it from deteriorating significantly for a few years. It is best stored in a dark glass bottle with a solid,
non-metallic cap that screws on liquid-tight. A separate medicine dropper should be kept in the same place. An authoritative
publication36 of the National Committee on Radiation Protection and Measurements states: "Supplies of potassium iodide can
be stored in a variety of places, including homes,..."
In 1990 the price of a 2-ounce bottle of U.S.P. saturated solution of potassium iodide, which is sold by prescription only,
ranges from about $7.00 to $11.00 in Colorado. A 2-ounce bottle contains about 500 drops. Four drops provide the daily
dose of 130 mg for adults and for children older than one year. For babies less than one year old, the daily dose of a saturated
solution is two drops (65 mg). Thus approximately 99% effective protection against the subsequent uptake of radioactive iodine
by the thyroid can be gotten by taking saturated potassium iodide solution. If bought by prescription, today the recommended
daily dose costs 6 to 9 cents.
* Without prescription.
In 1990 the leading company selling 130-mg potassium iodide tablets without prescription and by mail order in the United
States is ANBEX, Inc., P.O. Box 861, Cooper Station, New York, N.Y. 10276. Two bottles, each containing fourteen
130-mg potassium iodide tablets, cost $10.00. Thus the cost per 24-hour dose is 36 cents. To the best of my knowledge, the
company in the U.S. that in July of 1990 is selling 130-mg KI tablets without prescription at the lowest price is Preparedness
Products, 3855 South 500 West, Bldg. G, Salt Lake City, Utah 84115. This company sells 14 tablets, in a brown, screw-cap
glass bottle, for $3.50, postpaid, including shipping charges. For three or more bottles, the price is $2.50 per bottle.
After the disastrous Russian nuclear power reactor accident at Chernobyl in May of 1986, pharmacies in Sweden soon sold all
of their 130- mg potassium iodide tablets and Poland limited its inadequate supplies of prophylactic iodide salts to the
protection of children. In California, pharmacists reported abnormally large sales of iodine tablets, and also of tincture of iodine-
apparently due to the buyers' having been misinformed by the media's reports that Europeans were taking "iodine" for
protection.
Individuals can buy chemical reagent grade potassium iodide, that is purer than the pharmaceutical grade, from some chemical
supply firms. No prescription or other authorization is necessary. In 1990 the least expensive source of which I am aware is
NASCO, 901 Jamesville Avenue, Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin 53538. The price for 100 grams (100,000 mg) in 1990 is $10.50,
plus $2.00 to $4.00 for shipping costs. Thus the cost in 1990 for a 130-mg daily dose is less than 2 cents. NASCO sells 500
grams (500,000 mg- about one pound) for $35.50, plus $2.00 to $4.00 for shipping-making the cost per standard daily dose
only one cent.
For years of storage, crystalline or granular potassium iodide is better than a saturated solution. Dry potassium iodide should be
stored in a dark bottle with a gasketed, non-metallic cap that screws on tightly. Two-fluid-ounce bottles, filled with dry
potassium iodide as described below, are good sizes for a family. Separate medicine droppers should be kept with stored
bottles.
Thus at low cost you can buy and store enough potassium iodide for your family and large numbers of your friends and
neighbors- as I did years ago.
° Practical expedient ways to prepare and take daily prophylactic doses of a saturated solution of potassium iodide.
To prepare a saturated solution of potassium iodide, fill a bottle about 60% full of crystalline or granular potassium iodide. (A
2-fluid-ounce bottle, made of dark glass and having a solid, non-metallic, screwcap top, is a good size for a family.
Book Page: 115
About 2 ounces of crystalline or granular potassium iodide is needed to fill a 2-fluid-ounce bottle about 60% full.) Next, pour
safe, room-temperature water into the bottle until it is about 90% full. Then close the bottle tightly and shake it vigorously for at
least 2 minutes. Some of the solid potassium iodide should remain permanently undissolved at the bottom of the bottle; this is
proof that the solution is saturated.
Experiments with a variety of ordinary household medicine droppers determined that 1 drop of a saturated solution of
potassium iodide contains from 28 to 36 mg of potassium iodide. The recommended expedient daily doses of a saturated
solution (approximately 130 mg for adults and children older than one year, and 65 mg for babies younger than one year) are
as follows:
* For adults and children older than one year, 4 drops of a saturated solution of potassium iodide each 24 hours.
* For babies younger than one year, 2 drops of a saturated solution of potassium iodide each 24 hours.
Potassium iodide has a painfully bad taste, so bad that a single crystal or 1 drop of the saturated solution in a small child's
mouth would make him cry. (A small child would be screaming in pain before he could eat enough granular or crystalline KI to
make him sick. Some KI tablets are coated and tasteless.) Since many persons will not take a bad tasting medication,
especially if no short-term health hazards are likely to result from not taking it, the following two methods of taking a saturated
solution are recommended:
* Put 4 drops of the solution into a glass of milk or other beverage, stir, and drink quickly. Then drink some of the
beverage with nothing added. If only water is available, use it in the same manner.
* If bread is available, place 4 drops of the solution on a small piece of it; dampen and mold it into a firm ball the size of
a large pea, about 3A inch in diameter. There is almost no taste if this "pill" is swallowed quickly with water. (If the pill is
coated with margarine, there is no taste.)
As stated before, 4 drops of the saturated solution provide a dose approximately equal to 130 mg of potassium iodide.
° Preparing potassium iodide tablets to give to infants and small children.
The official FDA instructions for using KI tablets state that one half of a 130-mg tablet, "first crushed", should be given every
24 hours to "babies under one year of age", and that a whole tablet should be crushed "for small children."
Putting even a small fraction of a crushed or pulverized potassium iodide tablet on one's tongue is a startling experience, with a
burning sensation. A slightly burnt sensation continues for hours. Therefore, a mother is advised to make this experiment where
her children cannot see her.
To eliminate the painfully bad taste of a crushed or pulverized KI tablet, first pulverize it thoroughly. Next stir it for a minute into
at least 2 ounces of milk, orange juice, or cold drink, to make sure that the KI (a salt) is completely dissolved. Then the taste is
not objectionable. If only water is available, stir the pulverized tablet into more than 2 ounces of water.
KI is a corrosive salt, more injurious than aspirin to tissue with which it is in direct contact. Some doctors advise taking KI
tablets after meals, except when so doing would delay taking the initial dose during an emergency. All recognize that taking a
dilute solution of KI is easier on the stomach than taking the same dose in tablet form. This may be a consequential
consideration when taking KI for weeks during a prolonged nuclear war emergency.
° WARNINGS
* Elemental (free) iodine is poisonous, except in the very small amounts in water disinfected with iodine tablets or a few
drops of tincture of iodine. Furthermore, elemental iodine supplied by iodine tablets and released by tincture of iodine
dropped into water is not effective as a blocking agent to prevent thyroid damage. If you do not have any potassium
iodide, DO NOT TAKE IODINE TABLETS OR TINCTURE OF IODINE.
* DO NOT MAKE A FUTILE, HARMFUL ATTEMPT TO EAT ENOUGH IODIZED SALT TO RESULT IN
THYROID BLOCKING. Iodized salt contains potassium iodide, but in such a low concentration that it is impossible to
eat enough iodized salt to be helpful as a blocking agent.
OTHER WAYS TO PREVENT THYROID DAMAGE
Besides the prophylactic use of potassium iodide, the following are ways to prevent or reduce thyroid damage under peacetime
or wartime conditions:
Book Page: 116
* Do not drink or otherwise use fresh milk produced by cows that have consumed feed or water consequentially
contaminated with fall- out or other radioactive material resulting from a peacetime accident or from nuclear explosions in
a war.
* As a general rule, do not eat fresh vegetables until advised it is safe to do so. If under wartime conditions no official
advice is obtainable, avoid eating fresh leafy vegetables that were growing or exposed at the time of fallout deposition;
thoroughly wash all vegetables and fruits.
* If a dangerously radioactive air mass is being blown toward your area and is relatively small (as from some possible
nuclear power facility accidents), and if there is time, an ordered evacuation of your area may make it unnecessary even
to take potassium iodide.
* For protection against inhaled radioactive iodine, the FDA Final Recommendations (which are mentioned in the
preceding section) state that the following measures "should be considered": "..sheltering [merely staying indoors can
significantly reduce inhaled doses], evacuation, respiratory protection, and/or the use of stable iodide."
Research has been carried out in an effort to develop a thyroid protection procedure based on the ordinary iodine solutions
which are used as disinfectants. Since iodine solutions such as tincture of iodine and povidone-iodine are dangerous poisons if
taken orally, these experiments have utilized absorption through the skin after topical application on bare skin.
All reported experimental topical applications on human skin have given less thyroid protection than does proper oral
administration of potassium iodide. Moreover, undesirable side effects of skin application can be serious. For these reasons
researchers to date have not recommended a procedure for the use of ordinary iodine solutions for thyroid protection.
Potassium iodide, when obtained in the crystalline reagent form and used as recommended above on pages 114 and 115, is
safe, inexpensive, and easy to administer. Prudent individuals should obtain and keep ready for use an adequate supply of
potassium iodide well in advance of a crisis.
Book Page: 117
Copyright 2000 Nuclear War Survival Skills
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Ch. 14: Expedient Shelter Furnishings
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IMPORTANCE OF ADEQUATE FURNISHINGS
Throughout history, people have endured being crowded together while
living and sleeping on hard surfaces. In times of war and privation, people have lived in such conditions
for much longer periods than would be necessary for shelter occupancy due to fallout.42Realistic
basement-shelter-occupancy tests conducted by research contractors for the U.S. Office of Civil
Defense (now the Federal Emergency Management Agency) have shown that modern Americans can
live and sleep for two weeks on a concrete floor. In some of these tests, only 8 square feet of floor
space was provided for each person; only pieces of corrugated cardboard 3/16-inch thick lessened the
hardship of sleeping and sitting on concrete.13
Nevertheless, shelters should be adequately furnished whenever possible, for these reasons:
° More people can occupy a properly furnished shelter for weeks, if necessary if adequate
additional ventilation is supplied for the additional occupants.
° Cleanliness, health, and morale are better if well designed furnishings are used. More serious
complications than discomfort are likely to result if occupants have to huddle together on a bare
floor especially if the floor is damp earth.
° Persons occupying a shelter made relatively comfortable by its furnishings are more likely to
stay in the shelter long enough to avoid dangerous exposure to fallout radiation.
CHAIRS, BENCHES, AND BUNKS
The father of the previously described Utah family of six knew that the members of his family would be most uncomfortable and
probably would have sore backs if they spent the required 72 hours of continuous shelter occupancy huddled on the floor.
(Their shelter room was only 3-1/2 feet wide and l6-1/2 feet long.) So this family took with them from home four folding chairs
and two pieces of plywood (each 21 inches wide by 6 feet long) tied as part of the load on top of the family car. Four small
wooden boxes served as food containers during the drive to the shelter-building site. In the shelter, the boxes were used to
support the ends of two narrow plywood bunks (Fig. 14.1).
The family's system of sleeping and sitting in shifts worked reasonably well. There were discomforts: the adults found the two
plywood bunks too narrow, and the plywood was so hard that all the family members used their sleeping bags for padding
rather than for needed warmth on chilly nights. The father and oldest son, whose turn to sleep was during normal waking hours,
had trouble sleeping in such a small shelter while the lively 4-year-old son was awake.
Note that in the shelter pictured in Fig. 14.1 the earth walls are covered with plastic from trash bags. Covering earth walls with
plastic or bed sheets makes for a cleaner shelter, with less earth falling in the faces of people who sleep on the floor. Bedsheets
on the walls make a shelter brighter, but are flammable and a potential fire hazard. The plastic film prevented the earth walls
from drying and crumbling as a result of the hot, dry desert air pumped through the shelter during the day.
Book Page: 118
Fig. 14.1. Bunks and folding chairs furnished this Pole-Covered Trench Shelter. (Note the suspended transistor
radio. Reception is good in all types of expedient shelters tested to date.)
Fig. 14.2. Benches with overhead bunks in a skillfully designed Small-Pole Shelter of Russian design. Three
rural families in a wooded area of Tennessee built this expedient blast shelter in 48 hours, including the time spent felling
trees and making furnishings.
Benches with overhead wooden bunks are shown in Fig. 14.2. These were installed in a Small- Pole Shelter 6 feet wide with a
ceiling almost 7 feet high.
A well-designed expedient shelter should be as small as practical, with all space used very efficiently. The builders should make
the heights and widths of benches and bunks as specified in the detailed shelter drawings, such as those for the Small-Pole
Shelter given in Appendix A.3.
Serious difficulties can result from failure to use specific dimensions that may appear unimportant. For example, in field tests at
Fort Bragg, N.C., 48 airborne infantrymen, working only with hand tools, cut pine trees and built two 24-man Small-Pole
Shelters in less than 24 hours.43 The men did not think it necessary to use the specific dimensions when they made the
furnishings. As a result, they built the benches too high and the overhead bunks too far below the ceilings. This error forced the
men to sit for hours in hunched positions. Even these able-bodied young men would have developed very sore backs and
would have wanted very much to leave their shelters if they had been forced to sit in a bent-over position for days.
Figure 14.2 shows a good example of the importance of using dimensions which have been thoroughly field-tested when
building essential parts of a shelter. Note the small air-exhaust opening above the girl lying on the overhead bunk at one end of
the shelter.
Book Page: 119
This opening led to a small, chimney- like, air-exhaust duct made of boards, with its cross- sectional area as specified in
Russian civil defense handbooks for natural ventilation of small expedient shelters. With such a small air-exhaust opening- only
4 square inches (10 square centimeters) per person a fully occupied shelter of this size would soon become dangerously
overheated in warm or hot weather, even though a good low-pressure expedient shelter-ventilating pump (a KAF or a
Directional Fan) were to be used. A much larger air-exhaust opening is needed. See Appendix A.3.
BEDSHEET-HAMMOCK AND CHAIR
On the last night of the Utah family's shelter stay it was clear that the six members would win the cash bonus offered them for
their 72-hour occupancy of the shelter starting immediately after they completed building it. Therefore, the author showed them
that night how to make boat-shaped hammocks out of bedsheets. (Any strong cloth of the right size can be used.) They were
shown how to hang these short, yet stable, hammocks securely from poles of the shelterroof. With three members sleeping in
hammocks, two on the plywood bunks, and one on the floor, all six could sleep at the same time. Figure 14.3 shows part of
this sleeping arrangement.
Fig. 14.3. Girl resting in a boat-shaped hammock. Her brother slept on the upper bunk of their 3-1/2-ft-wide
trench shelter.
In a shelter this size without bunks, hanging four short hammocks at slight angles to the length of the trench would permit four
occupants to sleep comfortably. An additional two persons could sleep on the floor. In the Utah family's shelter, the floor was
made comfortable by covering the damp earth with pieces of polyethylene cut from trash bags, then placing strips of shag rug
over the plastic.
In shelters with ceilings at least 6 feet high, one hammock can be hung above another. In a SmallPole Shelter that is 6 feet wide,
a greater number of people can sleep or sit comfortably at the same time if Bedsheet-Hammocks and Bedsheet-Chairs are
used rather than benches or a combination of benches and overhead bunks. Figure 14.4 shows how BedsheetHammocks can
be used like double-deck bunks.
Fig. 14.4. Bedsheet-Hammocks hung one above the other across the room of a Russian-type Small- Pole
Shelter made of lumber.
Detailed instructions for making a BedsheetHammock and a Bedsheet-Chair are given at the end of this chapter.
Book Page: 120
In an evacuation during a real crisis, carrying comfortable folding chairs and the materials to make wooden bunks would not be
advisable. If the family car were loaded instead with an equivalent weight of additional food and clothing, the members'
prospects of surviving would be improved. But in an actual crisis evacuation, a family planning to occupy a shelter with a strong
roof should take along a bedsheet for each member. The other lightweight Items described in the instructions for making a
Bedsheet-Hammock and a Bedsheet-Chair also should be carried. By following the instructions at the end of this chapter, a
comfortable hammock can be made and quickly converted to a comfortable suspended chair when not needed for sleeping.
Hammocks hung high off the floor and above other sleepers must be strong, securely suspended, and cupped so that it is
impossible to fall out accidentally. This is why the instructions emphasize using a double thickness of bedsheet and folding the
cloth so as to make the hammock boat-like, with high sides.
In a cold shelter, keeping warm in a hammock is somewhat difficult. Easily compressible materials, such as those used in a
sleeping bag, are squeezed so thin under a person's body that they lose most of their insulating value. Pads of newspapers
about an inch thick, protected by cloth coverings, will reduce heat losses. The best insulation is a quilt, fastened to the underside
of a hammock by attaching it with rows of stitches every few inches and at right angles to each other.
Figure 14.5 shows a Bedsheet-Hammock that had been quickly converted into a Bedsheet-Chair and hung near a shelter wall.
It occupies less than half the floor space used by the two hammocks shown in the preceding illustration. If a reclining seat is
desired, the two support-points on the ceiling to which the chair-arm cords are attached can be located farther out from the
wall.
Enough padding material should be placed in the bowl-shaped seat of a Bed sheet-Chair to make it rather flat. Extra, clothing
or a folded blanket can be used. The three cords suspending the chair should be adjusted for length so that the sitter's feet can
rest on the floor and the edge of the chair seat does not press on the undersides of his thighs. (Such pressure cuts off
circulation. During the London Blitz of World War 11, many of the people who sat night after night in shelters on folding chairs
with canvas seats developed serious leg conditions. Authorities later prohibited bringing such chairs into shelters.)
CAUTION: To prevent skin infections and other diseases from spreading, a person's hammock or chair should not be used by
others. This precaution is particularly important if the shelter is hot and its occupants are sweaty.
Fig. 14.5. A Bedsheet-Hammock converted into a comfortable suspended Bedsheet-Chair.
HOW TO MAKE A BEDSHEET-HAMMOCK AND CONVERT IT TO A SUSPENDED
BEDSHEET-CHAIR
1. PURPOSE: To enable more people to occupy a shelter more comfortably.
2. ADVANTAGES:
* The hammock can be made in a few minutes, once you have the materials and the knowhow.
Book Page: 121
* The only materials required are a strong double-bed sheet (or an equally large piece of any strong fabric),
a few feet of rope (or a piece of strong fabric from which expedient "rope" can be made quickly), a few
large nails, and some wire.
* It is difficult to fall out of the hammock because its sides are each made about 8 inches shorter than its
lengthwise mid-section, 50 as to produce a boat-like shape.
* It provides room for head and shoulders close to either end; thus it is practical to hang this hammock
between supports that are as close together as 6 feet. See Fig. 14.6.
Before beginning work, someone should read aloud all of the instructions for making the hammock. This
will help to avoid mistakes.
Fig. 14.6. The author lying in a Bedsheet Hammock. (Note that he is pulling the operating cord of a homemade
shelter-ventilating pump, a KAP.)
MAKING A BEDSHEET-HAMMOCK
A. How to fold and tie the bed sheet:
1. Select a strong double-bed sheet (one containing polyester is best) and use a ruler or tape measure to avoid guessing
at measurements.
2. Fold the bedsheet lengthwise down its center line, so that pairs of corners are together.
3. With the sheet folded, mark the center of each of the two folded ends; then hold one end up.
4. Starting at one corner of one end of the folded bedsheet, make accordion-like pleats. Make each pleat about 2 inches
wide; make the left corner of each pleat about 1 inch lower than the left corner of the preceding pleat, when the sheet is
being held as illustrated. Use your left hand to hold the completed pleats in place, while making new pleats with your
right hand.
(Illustration) ORNL-DWG 77-17387
Book Page: 122
5. When one-half of the upper end of the sheet has been folded into pleats almost to the CENTER MARK, adjust the
pleats so that the CENTER MARK is about 4 inches below the STARTING CORNER.
6. Continue making 2-inch pleats on past the CENTER MARK, but make the right corner of each pleat about 1 inch
higher than the right corner of the preceding pleat. When the pleat-folding is completed, the STARTING CORNER and
the other corner should be at the same height (4 inches) above the CENTER MARK.
7. Tie the hammock-supporting rope tightly around the end of the sheet about 3 inches below the edge with the
CENTER MARK. (If a rope strong enough to support at least the weight of two men is not available, make an
expedient "rope" by tearing a 16-inch- wide strip from a sheet or other strong cloth and then rolling this strip crosswise
to its length to make a tight roll several feet long. Then tie string or small strips of cloth about 1 inch wide around it,
spaced 4 to 6 inches apart, to keep the rolled-up cloth from unrolling.)
8. Bend the pleat-folded end of sheet downward around the hammock rope, so that the knot of the hammock rope is
uppermost.
9. To keep the sheet from being pulled through the encircling hammock rope, bind the doubled-over end of the sheet
with cord (or with narrow strips of cloth) about 1 inch below the rope. Tie the binding cord at least four times around,
knotting it each time around.
Fig. Pg. 122 (3 Part Illustration) ORNL-DWG 77-17390
10. Repeat the procedure (4 through 9) with the other end of the double-folded sheet, thus producing a boat-shaped
hammock with its two sides each about 8 inches shorter than its lengthwise center section.
Book Page: 123
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A. How to hang the hammock:
1. To suspend a hammock from a strong wooden roof such as the poles of a PoleCovered Trench Shelter, drive two
strong nails (at least 3-1/2 inches long) into the wood at approximately 450 angles, crossing and touching each other.
Bind the two nails together with wire. To prevent a hammock rope from being rubbed directly against fixed metal, make
a loose loop of strong wire (best if doubled) through the crossed nails; tie the hammock rope to this free-moving wire
loop.
2. To suspend the hammock from a wooden wall, use the same type of crossed-nails supports, with the nails driven in
one above the other.
3. For comfort and safety, hang the hammock with the head end 18 inches higher than the center and with the foot end
24 inches higher than the center.
4. To make sure that the hammock is strong enough, two persons should place their open hands on its centerline and put
all of their weight on the hammock.
5. To suspend hammocks and hammock-chairs from a pole roof that is not being built under fear of immediate attack,
use loops of strong wire around the poles at the planned support points. (The correct placement of wire loops takes
considerable time and delays completion of the shelter.) To reduce stresses and possible breakage, the loops should be
loose, as illustrated.
Fig. Pg. 123ab ORNL-DWG 77-17394
Book Page: 124
MAKING A SUSPENDED BEDSHEET-CHAIR
A Bedsheet-Hammock may be quickly converted into a comfortable Suspended Bed sheet-Chair so that a shelter occupant
can sit comfortably, yet occupy less floor space during the daytime. Follow these steps:
1. Select one end of the hammock to be the top of the back of the chair.
2. From this end, measure 52 inches (4 ft 4 in.) along each side-edge of the hammock (see sketch), and mark these two
spots.
3. About 2-1/2 inches in from these two marks (toward the centerline of the hammock), make two more marks.
Fig. Pg. 124 ab (2 Illustrations) ORNL DWG 77-18432, ORNL DWG 77-17395
4. To make an attachment point for a chair "arm", hold a pebble (or a lump of earth) under one of these last marks, pull
the double-thickness cloth tight around the pebble, and tie it in place. (See illustration.) Repeat on the other side-edge of
the hammock.
5. Tie the end of one rope (or "rope" made of 10- inch-wide strip of strong cloth) to one attachment point, and the end
of another rope to the other attachment point.
6. Suspend the top of the back of the chair to a suspension point on the ceiling at least 4 inches out from the wall, and
adjust the length of this suspending rope so that the chair arms will be about the same height from the floor as the arms of
an easy chair (see sketch).
7. Suspend the arms of the chair from two suspension points 20 inches apart and 20 inches farther out from the wall than
the suspension point of the back of the chair. (Study the illustration.)
8. Fold the unused end of the hammock up and back into the "seat" of the chair; fill the hollow of the seat with coats, a
blanket, or anything else soft, to make it comfortable.
9. Adjust the lengths of all three suspending ropes so that the 'chair seat is the right height for the person sitting in it.
When both feet are flat on the floor, the front edge of the seat should not press against the undersides of the thighs.
10. To simplify repeated conversion of the hammock to a chair, mark the spot on each of the 3 suspending ropes where
each is tied to its suspension point on the ceiling; also mark the spot on each suspending rope for a chair arm where each
is tied to its suspension point on a chair arm. If enough light rope or strong cord is available, the easiest and quickest way
to connect and disconnect the arm supports is to suspend each arm with a double strand of rope, looped around an
attachment point as illustrated by the sketch of the attachment point.
Book Page: 125
Copyright 2000 Nuclear War Survival Skills
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Ch. 15: Improvised Clothing and Protective Items
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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COLD WEATHER CLOTHING
If Americans would learn to use skillfully the ordinary clothing, towels, cloth,
newspapers, and paper bags in their homes, they could keep warm enough
to stay healthy even under much colder conditions than they believe
endurable without specialized outdoor winter clothing. Efficient cold-
weather clothing can be improvised if the following ways of conserving body
heat are understood and used:
° Trap "dead" air. Covering enough of your body with a thick layer of trapped "dead" air is the basic requirement for keeping
warm. Figure 15.1 shows how efficient body insulation works: Both the air warmed by close contact with the skin and the
water vapor from evaporated perspiration flow outward into the insulating material. Any material that breaks up and separates
air into spaces no more than 1/8 inch
Fig. 15.1 Efficient body insulation. ORNL-DWG 77-18426
across has efficient cells of "dead" air. Air that is within 1/16 inch of any surface whether that of a filament of goose down or of
a piece of paper is slowed down by "sticking" to that surface and becoming hard to move. Trapped "dead" air moves outward
very slowly, carrying heat away from the body at a slow rate thus minimizing heat losses by convection.
° Use windbreaker materials. An outer windbreaker layer of clothing that is essentially air-tight, such as a brown paper bag
worn over a knit wool cap, prevents the escape of warmed air and results in an insulating layer of trapped "dead" air. A single
layer of good windbreaker material also prevents cold outside air from being blown into the insulating material and displacing
warmed air (Fig. 15.1).
The best windbreaker materials permit very little air to pass through them, while at the same time they allow water vapor to
escape. Perspiration that cannot be felt or seen on cool skin continually evaporates, forming warm water vapor close to the
skin. This moisture escapes outward through good insulating and windbreaker materials; as a result, underlying body insulation
remains dry and efficient. Water vapor can pass readily through many sheets of newspaper or unglazed brown paper, although
not enough wind can flow through a single sheet to be felt.
° Prevent excessive heat losses by conduction. Body heat also is lost by conduction the direct flow of heat into a colder
material. For example, if one sleeps in an excellent goose-down sleeping bag laid directly on cold ground, body weight will
compress the down to a small fraction of an inch. This barrier to heat flow' is too thin and will cause the body to lose heat
rapidly to the cold earth. Likewise, the soles of ordinary shoes are such poor insulators that standing or walking on frozen
ground sometimes results in frozen feet.
Book Page: 126
MINIMIZING HEAT LOSSES FROM HEAD AND NECK
The head and neck of the girl pictured in Fig. 15.2 are insulated almost as well as if she were wearing the hood of a
skin-side-out Eskimo parka. She folded a large, fluffy bath towel and placed it over her head, neck, and the upper part of her
body. A brown paper bag was worn over the towel. The edges of the face hole cut in the bag were taped to prevent tearing. A
strip of cloth was tied around the part of the bag over her neck. Such a parka-like covering not only is the most efficient way to
insulate the head and neck but also prevents air warmed by the body from escaping upward around the neck. The girl also is
wearing a man's shirt large enough to cover and hold thick newspaper insulation around her body and arms.
Fig. 15.2. A bath towel and a paper bag used to efficiently insulate head, neck, and shoulders.
It is very important to prevent heat losses from the head and neck, which have many blood vessels near the skin surface. Heat
losses from these vital parts cannot be sensed nearly as well as heat losses from other parts of the body. Furthermore, blood
vessels near the surface in the head and neck do not automatically constrict to reduce heat losses, as they do in other parts of
the body when heat is being lost faster than it can be supplied by metabolism. So when a person is in the cold particularly when
inactive he should keep his hands, feet, and whole body warmer by insulating his head and neck very well. (One difficulty in
following this advice is that a wellcovered head often will feel unpleasantly warm even sweaty before one's body temperature
rises enough to increase the warming flow of blood to hands and feet.)
INSULATING THE WHOLE BODY
Occupants of freezing-cold shelters can keep warm enough to sleep without blankets by skillfully using ordinary indoor clothing
plus paper and pieces of cloth to insulate their whole bodies. The girls pictured in Fig. 15.3 slept without a blanket in a frozen
Door-Covered Trench Shelter while the night temperature outdoors dropped to 100 F. The shelter's ventilation openings were
adjusted so that the inside temperature remained a few degrees below freezing, to prevent frozen earth from melting into icy
mud. These girls had insulated themselves well. First, they covered their cotton shirts and pants with 10 thicknesses of
newspaper wrapped around their bodies and tied with strips of cloth. Then around each arm and leg they wrapped and tied 8
sheets of newspaper, thus insulating their limbs with at least 16 thicknesses.
Fig. 15.3. Girls wearing expedient clothing are prepared for sleeping in the freezing cold trench shelter.
Book Page: 127
As an outer covering over their legs, they wrapped wide strips torn from a bedsheet. Their expedient foot coverings were of the
type described in a following paragraph. Their heads and necks were insulated with towels covered with brown paper bags.
Old cotton raincoats allowed water vapor to pass through and helped hold in place the insulating newspapers, which extended
to cover the girls' bare hands.
The girls slept on newspapers spread about an inch thick over the gravel floor of the trench. When sleeping on cold or frozen
ground, it is best to place newspapers or other insulation on top of a layer of small limb-tips or brush, so that drying air can
circulate under the bedding. A sheet of plastic under bedding will keep it from being dampened by a wet floor but will not
prevent it from being dampened after a few days by condensed water vapor from the sleeper's body.
Newspaper and other paper through which water vapor can pass are such good windbreaker materials that they can be used
under any loosefitting outer garment even one through which air can pass quite readily. They also provide good insulation.
Figure 15.4 shows the author coming out of an icy shelter at sunup. Many thicknesses of newspaper covered my body and
arms and extended like cuffs from my sleeves. A porous cotton bathrobe covered the newspapers and helped hold them in
place. Because so little heat was lost through this clothing, plenty of warm blood continued to flow to my bare hands, ridding
my body of excess heat by radiation.
IMPROVISED WINTER FOOTWEAR
Cold-weather footwear that is warmer than all but the best-insulated winter boots can be improvised readily. The trick is
learning how to tie the several insulating layers securely in place, so that you could hike for miles in the snow if necessary.
For use in dry snow, first tie a porous insulating layer such as two bath towels or 10 big sheets of newspaper over each shoe. If
you have no low- heeled shoes, make a paper sole by folding 3 large newspaper sheets to make a sole that has 72 thicknesses
of paper. Then proceed in the following manner:
1. Place your foot and the sole on 10 newspaper sheets, as pictured in Fig. 15.5.
Fig. 15.4. The author emerges after a night's sleep in freezing cold temperatures inside a Car-Over-Trench
Shelter. Expedient clothing, primarily newspaper insulation, kept him warm without a blanket.
Book Page: 128
2. Fold all the sheets over the top of your foot while keeping the sole in the proper place, as indicated in Fig. 15.5.
3. Use a strip of cloth about 3 inches wide and 5 feet long to tie the papers in front of your ankle with a single overhand
knot (half of a square knot). With the same strip, tie another single overhand knot over the tendon behind the ankle.
Finally, tie a bow knot in front of the ankle.
4. Cover the insulating layer with a tough fabric, such as canvas or burlap sack material; secure with a second strip of
cloth and tie as described above.
If the snow is wet, place a piece of strong plastic film or coated fabric outside the insulating layer, after securing it with the first
strip of cloth. The outer protective covering should be tied over the waterproofing, with the second strip of cloth securing both
it and the waterproofing. (When resting or sleeping in a dry place, remove any moistureproof layer in the foot coverings, to let
your feet dry.) Figure 15.6 shows a test subject's waterproofed expedient foot- covering, held in place as described above,
after a 2-mile hike in wet snow. His feet were warm, and he had not stopped to tighten or adjust the cloth strips.
Fig. 15.6. Expedient water-proofed foot- covering, over a newspaper sole and other newspaper insulation.
Persons who have not worked outdoors in icy weather seldom realize the importance of warm footwear for winter. Russian
civil defense manuals direct urban citizens to take winter boots with them when they evacuate, even in summer.
Fig. 15.5. Insulating a foot with a folded newspaper sole and 10 sheets of newspaper.
Book Page: 129
KEEPING WARM WITHOUT FIRE
° If occupants of a cold room or shelter lack adequate clothing and bedding, all should lie close together.
° Always place some insulating material between your body and a cold floor. (Pieces of shag rug are excellent.)
Plastic film should be placed under the insulating material if the ground is damp.
° Go to bed or put on all your body insulation before you begin to feel cold. Once the loss of body heat causes
blood vessels in your hands and feet to constrict, it often is hard to get these vessels to return to normal dilation
again.
° Do not jump up and down or wave your arms to get or to keep warm. The wind-chill factor is a measure of air
movement over your skin; rapid body movements always cause some such air movement. If practical, lie down
and cover up; then do muscular tension exercises by repeatedly tightening all your muscles so tight that you
tremble.
° Prevent sweating and the dampening of insulation by taking off or opening up clothing as you begin to exercise,
before you begin to sweat.
° If you are getting cold, don't smoke. Nicotine causes blood vessels to constrict and the flow of blood to hands
and feet to be reduced.
° Don't drink an alcoholic beverage to warm yourself. Alcohol causes increased blood flow close to the skin
surface, resulting in rapid loss of body heat. It is impossible for alcohol to make up for such loss for very long.
RAINWEAR
All that is needed to make serviceable, improvised rainwear is waterproof material and waterproof tape. Plastic film from large
trash bags will do; 4-mil polyethylene is better; tough, lightweight, coated fabric is best. Fabric duct tape is the best widely
available tape.
Figure 15.7 shows a pair of improvised rain chaps. Rain chaps are separate leg coverings, each with a loop to suspend it from
one's belt and usually made large enough to be pulled on and off over the shoes and trousers. Rain chaps are better than
waterproof trousers for working or walking while wearing a poncho or raincoat, because body movements cause drying air to
be literally pumped under the chaps. This air keeps trousers and legs dry, and therefore warmer.
Fig. 15.7. Improvised rain chaps made of trash- bag polyethylene and freezer tape.
In the same way, a poncho or rain cape will allow plenty of air to reach the garments under them while one is working. When
exercise is stopped, clothing underneath will stay dry and warm for some time.
SANDALS
Shoes are almost always in short supply for years following a disastrous war. Except in very cold weather, sandals can be
made to serve quite well. The best sandal designs for hard work and serious walking have a strap around the heel and in front
of the ankle, with no thong between the toes (Fig. 15.8).
Fig. 15.8. A Ho Chi Minh Sandal, excellent Vietnamese expedient footwear. Rubber bands cut from an inner tube
have been inserted into a sole of auto-tire tread.
Book Page: 130
Such sandals also have the advantage of enabling one to wear socks and other foot insulation inside the straps.
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CLOTHING TO PROTECT AGAINST BETA BURNS
If fresh and very radioactive fallout particles remain for long on the skin or extremely close to the skin, beta burns result. Any
clothing that keeps fallout off the skin helps greatly. The best expedient protection is given by an outer layer of easily removable
clothing similar to the improvised rainwear previously described, but fully covering the hair and neck and providing plastic
trousers instead of chaps. Removable shoe coverings are highly advisable. All such protective coverings should be removed
before entering a shelter, or removed in the entryway before going into the shelter room.
If a person has fallout particles on clothing that he must continue to wear, he should vigorously brush his outer clothing before
entering a shelter room. If fallout particles are washed off, rinsed off, or otherwise removed from the skin within a few minutes,
no beta burns will result.
A few days after a nuclear explosion, fallout particles are not radioactive enough to cause beta burns. In areas of heavy fallout,
the danger from external doses of gamma radiation from fallout on the ground will continue much longer than will the risk of
beta burns from some of these same fallout particles.
The gamma rays given off by fallout particles brought into a shelter on clothing or bodies would subject shelter occupants to
gamma doses so small as to be of no significance by wartime standards. Nor would shelter occupants be endangered by
radiation from the body of a person who, before reaching shelter, had received a gamma dose large enough to kill him many
times over. Except in science fiction stories, the body of such a person does not become radioactive."
FALLOUT MASKS
For the majority of Americans in most fallout areas, means for filtering fallout particles out of the air they breathe would not be
essential survival equipment.18 Most fallout particles tiny enough to enter one's lungs would fall to earth so slowly that they
would reach ground thousands of miles away from the explosions. By then, radioactive decay would make them much less
dangerous, and their deposition would be spread out over much of the earth.
In past years American-endangering Soviet warheads typically' were between 20 and one megaton. Explosions this large would
inject almost all fallout particles into the stratosphere, high above rain clouds. Today thousands of deployed Soviet ICBM
warheads are between 550 and 100 kilotons. (See Jane's Weapons Systems, 1987-88.) Both surface bursts and air bursts of
today's smaller warheads would inject most of their radioactive particles into the troposphere, from whence rain-outs and
snow-outs would bring huge numbers of even tiny particles to earth in '"hot spots" scattered across America.
Persons living in dry, windy areas often wear dust masks and goggles to protect their noses and eyes from dust and sand
particles. If fallout particles are mixed with dust and sand that is being blown into a shelter, then persons in windy areas who
occupy small below-ground expedient shelters should cover their noses and mouths with several thicknesses of towels or other
cloth. Those who have dust masks should wear them, especially when working outside in dry, windy weather soon after fallout
deposition. Other than whole-body exposure to gamma rays, the main danger to well informed people would be from possible
beta burns caused by fresh. "hot" fallout particles that would collect in nasal passageways, and from swallowed fallout particles.
(Much of the material continually eliminated from the nose and throat is swallowed.) In some fallout "hot spots" a secondary
danger would be breathing extremely small, "hot" fallout particles into one's lungs, after a rain-out of tiny fallout particles from
fallout clouds produced by today's typical kiloton-range Soviet warheads. In some areas "hot" particles would be dried and
blown about by the winds within hours of their deposition in rain showers.
Making a homemade dust and fallout mask is still not a high priority survival project. In normal times, it is better to buy and
store good masks and goggles. The following instructions for making a homemade mask are an improved design based on a
Russian design (Fig. 15.9). This mask is the best of several
Fig. 15.9. A Russian-type homemade fallout mask. For most Americans this will continue to be a low-priority item as
long as Russian warheads are large. ORNL-DWG 78-11921
Book Page: 131
homemade types, and the following instructions for making and using it have been field-tested.
AN INDIVIDUALLY-FITTED FALLOUT MASK
Materials Needed:
1. Three rectangular pieces of fluffy toweling (terry cloth preferred), each piece approximately 12X 15 inches (or use 10
men's handkerchiefs).
2. Elastic. (The best expedient elastic is from the waistband of a man's undershorts.)
3. Clear plastic (from a photo album, billfold, plastic storm window, etc.).
4. Sewing materials.
Measurements:
1. Tie a string vertically around your head and face, passing it 1/2 inch in front of each of your ears and making it quite
tight.
2. Tie a second string horizontally around your head, crossing your forehead 11/4 inches above the top of your eye
sockets. These two strings should cross each other at points X and X1, over your temples.
3. Measure the distance X-to-X1 across your forehead and the distance X-to-X1 going under your chin (around your
lower jaw and next to your throat), as indicated by Fig. 15.9.
Construction:
1. Cut out 3 pieces of terry cloth, making the width of each piece equal to X-to-X1 (the curved distance across your
forehead), and the height of each piece equal to the distance X-to-Y plus 1/2 inch -- that is, equal to half the distance
X-to-X1 (measured under your chin) plus 1/4 inch. See Fig. 15.9.
2. Cut the lower edge of each piece as illustrated.
3. Stitch the 3 pieces of terry cloth together, one on top of the other, thus making the mask three layers thick. Stitch
around all four edges of the cloth rectangle and down the centerline.
4. Mark and cut out the eye holes, as illustrated. Make the mask's dimensions smaller for children.
5. Cut one rectangle of clear plastic measuring s\;2 X 21/4 inches, and sew this plastic over the outside of the eye holes,
stitching the plastic around its edges and down the centerline.
6. Fold the three pieces along their vertical centerline and stitch the lower side together, along the upper stitch line
Y-to-Y1. Stitch /2 inch from the lower edge. Then sew a second row of stitches.
7. Sew on the elastic head bands, making them short enough to hold the mask tightly around your face. If the elastic is
from the waistband of a man's undershorts, use a doubled elastic both over the top of your head and around the back of
your head. Make these elastic pieces so short that you can just put all your fingers comfortably between the elastic and
your head when the pieces are fully stretched. If using a weaker elastic, be sure to adjust the lengths to a tight fit, to
prevent air leaks under the edges of the mask. Because of the thickness of material where the elastics are connected to
the upper corners of the mask, it may be necessary to do this stitching by hand.
8. To keep fallout particles off your head and neck, sew a loose-fitting piece of bedsheet cloth (not illustrated) to the
edges of the mask that fit around your face. This cloth should extend back over your head and down over your collar,
over which it can be tied.
Use:
Put on the mask by first placing it over your chin, then pulling the back elastic down to fit around the back of your head.
CAUTION:
To avoid spreading infections, each mask should be labeled and worn by only one person.
Book Page: 132
Chapter 16
Minimum Pre-Crisis Preparations
Your chances of surviving a nuclear attack will be improved if you make the following low-cost preparations before a serious
crisis arises. Once many Americans become convinced that a nuclear attack is a near certainty, they will rush to stores and buy
all available survival supplies. If you wait to prepare until a crisis does arise, you are likely to be among the majority who will
have to make-do with inadequate supplies of water containers, food, and materials. Furthermore, even if you have the
necessary materials and instructions to make the most needed survival items, you and your family are not likely to have time to
make all of them during a few days of tense crisis.
The following recommendations are intended primarily for the majority who live in areas likely to be subjected to blast, fire, or
extremely heavy fallout. These people should plan to evacuate to a safer area. (Many citizens living outside high-risk areas,
especially homeowners with yards, can and should make better pre-crisis preparations. These would include building
high-protection-factor permanent shelters covered with earth.)
SHELTER
Keep on hand the tools and materials your family or group will need to build or improve a high- protection-factor expedient
shelter: One or more shovels, a pick (if in a hard-soil area), a bow-saw with an extra blade, a hammer, and 4-mil polyethylene
film for rainproofing your planned shelter. Also store the necessary nails, wire, etc. needed for the kind of shelter you plan to
build.
Keep instructions for shelter-building and other survival essentials in a safe and convenient place.
VENTILATION-COOLING
Make a homemade shelter-ventilating pump, a KAP, of the size required for the shelter you plan to build or use.
WATER
Keep on hand water containers (including at least four 30-gallon untreated polyethylene trash bags and two sacks or
pillowcases for each person), a pliable garden hose or other tube for siphoning, and a plastic bottle of sodium hypochlorite
bleach (such as Clorox) for disinfecting water and utensils.
FALLOUT METER
Make one or two KFMs and learn how to use this simple instrument.
FOOD
Store at least a 2-week supply of compact, nonperishable food. The balanced ration of basic dry foods described in Chapter
9, Food, satisfies requirements for adults and larger children at minimum cost. If your family includes babies or small children,
be sure to store more milk powder, vegetable oil, and sugar.
Continuing to breast-feed babies born during an impending crisis would greatly simplify their care should the crisis develop and
worsen
For preparing and cooking basic foods:
° Make a 3-Pipe Grain Mill like the one described in Chapter 9, Food, or buy a small hand-cranked grain mill, which
grinds more efficiently than other expedient devices.
Book Page: 133
° Make a Bucket-Stove as described in Chapter 9. During evacuation, the stove can be used as a container. Store some
kitchen-type wooden matches in a waterproof container.
° Keep essential containers and utensils on hand for storing and transporting food and for cooking and serving in a
shelter.
SANITATION
A hose-vented 5-gallon can, with heavy plastic bags for liners, for use as a toilet. Includesome smaller plastic bags and
toilet paper with these supplies. Tampons.
Insect screen or mosquito netting, and fly bait. See Chapter 12.
MEDICINES
° Any special medications needed by family members.
° Potassium iodide, a 2-oz bottle, and a medicine- dropper, for prophylactic protection of the thyroid gland against
radioactive iodines. (Described in the last section of Chapter 13, Survival Without Doctors.)
° A first-aid kit and a tube of antibiotic ointment.
LIGHT
° Long-burning candles (with small wicks) sufficient for at least 14 nights.
° An expedient lamp, with extra cotton-string, wicks, and cooking oil as described in Chapter 11.
° A flashlight and extra batteries.
RADIO
A transistor radio with extra batteries and a metal box in which to protect it.
OTHER ESSENTIALS
Review the EVACUATION CHECKLIST (developed primarily for persons who make no preparations before a crisis) and
add items that are special requirements of your family.
Book Page: 134
Copyright 2000 Nuclear War Survival Skills
Nuclear War Survival Skills
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Home
http://www.oism.org/nwss
Ch. 16: Minimum Pre-Crisis Preparations
Your chances of surviving a nuclear attack will be improved if you make the following low-cost
preparations before a serious crisis arises. Once many Americans become convinced that a nuclear
attack is a near certainty, they will rush to stores and buy all available survival supplies. If you wait to
prepare until a crisis does arise, you are likely to be among the majority who will have to make-do with
inadequate supplies of water containers, food, and materials. Furthermore, even if you have the
necessary materials and instructions to make the most needed survival items, you and your family are
not likely to have time to make all of them during a few days of tense crisis.
The following recommendations are intended primarily for the majority who live in areas likely to be
subjected to blast, fire, or extremely heavy fallout. These people should plan to evacuate to a safer
area. (Many citizens living outside high-risk areas, especially homeowners with yards, can and should
make better pre-crisis preparations. These would include building high-protection-factor permanent
shelters covered with earth.)
SHELTER
Keep on hand the tools and materials your family or group will need to build or improve a high-
protection-factor expedient shelter: One or more shovels, a pick (if in a hard-soil area), a bow-saw
with an extra blade, a hammer, and 4-mil polyethylene film for rainproofing your planned shelter. Also
store the necessary nails, wire, etc. needed for the kind of shelter you plan to build.
Keep instructions for shelter-building and other survival essentials in a safe and convenient place.
VENTILATION-COOLING
Make a homemade shelter-ventilating pump, a KAP, of the size required for the shelter you plan to
build or use.
WATER
Keep on hand water containers (including at least four 30-gallon untreated polyethylene trash bags and two sacks or
pillowcases for each person), a pliable garden hose or other tube for siphoning, and a plastic bottle of sodium hypochlorite
bleach (such as Clorox) for disinfecting water and utensils.
FALLOUT METER
Make one or two KFMs and learn how to use this simple instrument.
FOOD
Store at least a 2-week supply of compact, nonperishable food. The balanced ration of basic dry foods described in Chapter
9, Food, satisfies requirements for adults and larger children at minimum cost. If your family includes babies or small children,
be sure to store more milk powder, vegetable oil, and sugar.
Continuing to breast-feed babies born during an impending crisis would greatly simplify their care should the crisis develop and
worsen
For preparing and cooking basic foods:
° Make a 3-Pipe Grain Mill like the one described in Chapter 9, Food, or buy a small hand-cranked grain mill, which
grinds more efficiently than other expedient devices.
Book Page: 133
° Make a Bucket-Stove as described in Chapter 9. During evacuation, the stove can be used as a container. Store some
kitchen-type wooden matches in a waterproof container.
° Keep essential containers and utensils on hand for storing and transporting food and for cooking and serving in a
shelter.
SANITATION
A hose-vented 5-gallon can, with heavy plastic bags for liners, for use as a toilet. Includesome smaller plastic bags and
toilet paper with these supplies. Tampons.
Insect screen or mosquito netting, and fly bait. See Chapter 12.
MEDICINES
° Any special medications needed by family members.
° Potassium iodide, a 2-oz bottle, and a medicine- dropper, for prophylactic protection of the thyroid gland against
radioactive iodines. (Described in the last section of Chapter 13, Survival Without Doctors.)
° A first-aid kit and a tube of antibiotic ointment.
LIGHT
° Long-burning candles (with small wicks) sufficient for at least 14 nights.
° An expedient lamp, with extra cotton-string, wicks, and cooking oil as described in Chapter 11.
° A flashlight and extra batteries.
RADIO
A transistor radio with extra batteries and a metal box in which to protect it.
OTHER ESSENTIALS
Review the EVACUATION CHECKLIST (developed primarily for persons who make no preparations before a crisis) and
add items that are special requirements of your family.
Book Page: 134
Copyright 2000 Nuclear War Survival Skills
Nuclear War Survival Skills
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Home
http://www.oism.org/nwss
Ch. 17: Permanent Family Fallout Shelters for Dual
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THE NEED
Having a permanent, ready-to-use, well supplied fallout shelter would
greatly improve millions of American families' chances of surviving a nuclear
attack. Dual use family shelters - shelters that also are useful in peacetime -
are the ones that Americans are most likely to build in normal peacetime and
to maintain for years in good condition for use in a nuclear war.
The longer nuclear peace lasts, the more difficult it will be, even during a
recognized crisis, to believe that the unthinkable war is about to strike us and
that we should build expedient shelters and immediately take other
protective actions. The lifesaving potential of permanent, ready-to-use family
shelters will increase with the years.
Americans who decide to build permanent shelters need better instructions
than can be obtained from official sources or from most contractors. This
chapter brings together fallout shelter requirements, based on shelters and
shelter components that have been built and tested in several states and
nations. The emphasis is on permanent fallout shelters that many Americans can build for themselves.
The author believes that millions of Americans can build good permanent fallout shelters or have local
contractors build them - if they learn the shelter requirements outlined in the following sections of this
chapter and the facts about nuclear weapon effects and protective measures given in preceding
chapters. Builders can use their skills and available local resources to construct permanent, dependable
fallout shelters at affordable cost.
Requirements for a permanent, dual-use family fallout shelter follow.
A HIGH PROTECTION FACTOR, AT AFFORDABLE COST
A permanent fallout shelter should be built - and can easily be built - to have a high enough protection factor to prevent its
occupants from receiving fatal or incapacitating radiation doses, and also from receiving doses large enough to seriously worsen
their risks of developing cancer in the years following an attack. Shelters with a protection factor of 40 (PF 40) meet the
minimum standard of protection for public shelters throughout the United States, and permanent family fallout shelters described
in official pamphlets provide at least PF 40 protection. In almost all fallout areas, PF-40 shelters would prevent occupants from
receiving fatal or incapacitating radiation doses while inside these shelters. However, in areas of heavy fallout the occupants of
PF-40 shelters could receive radiation doses large enough to significantly contribute to the risk of contracting cancer years later.
Furthermore, the larger the dose you receive while in a shelter, the smaller the dose you can receive after you leave shelter
without being incapacitated or killed by your total dose.
If you build a permanent shelter, you would be foolish to build a shelter with a PF of only 40 when additional protection is so
easy to obtain. By making a shelter with a 6-inch-thick concrete roof covered by 30 inches of shielding earth, and with other
easily attained design features shown in Figs. 17.1 and 17.2, you can have a shelter with a protection factor of about 1000. (An
occupant of a PF 1000 shelter will receive a radiation dose only 1/1000th as large as he would receive if he were standing
outside in an open field during the same time interval.)
Book Page: 135
Fig. 17.1. Permanent Family Fallout Shelter for Dual Use.
Book Page: 136
Fig. 17.2. Permanent Family Fallout Shelter for Dual Use.
Book Page: 137
To attain PF 1000 protection near the inner door of the illustrated shelter, its occupants must place containers full of water
and/or other good shielding material against the door. They can do this easily and quickly if the shelter is supplied with filled
water containers such as described in the Water section of this chapter.
The illustrated shelter room has 106 square feet of floor space - room enough for 5 adults and the survival essentials they will
need for long occupancy, if shelter furnishings like those described in this chapter are provided. For each additional occupant,
increase this shelter's length by 2 feet. To increase room size, increase length and not width. This retains maximum roof strength
at minimum cost.
Note in Figs. 17.1 and 17.2 the 12-inch-thick concrete wall between the landing at the foot of the stairs and the end of the
shelter room. Only a very small fraction of the radiation coming through the outer doors and down the stairs will make the 90
degree turn through the inner door, and most of this radiation will not strike shelter occupants if they place containers filled with
water and other shielding material against the door.
Also note the homemakeable, low cost Double-Action Piston Pump and filter, shown in Fig. 17.1, that even in a heat wave will
supply adequate air through the 5-inch-diameter air- intake pipe - all described in Appendix E.
Few survival-minded Americans, before a recognized international crisis arises, either can afford or believe that they can afford
to build a permanent family fallout shelter costing around $10,000 in 1987. A small reinforced concrete, below-ground shelter
of the type specified in official Federal Emergency Management Agency pamphlets costs about $100 per square foot of floor
space, if built by a contractor in a typical suburban area. Those with the needed skills and time can save about half of this cost
by doing their own work. Also, at many building sites where gravity drainage of the earth around a shelter's walls can be
assured and hydrostatic earth pressure against the walls thus prevented, no steel reinforcement in the poured concrete or
concrete block walls is needed - unless required by the local building code.
Caution: Steel reinforcement in the walls and floor is needed in some clay soils that swell when wet and exert sufficient inward
and upward pressure to crack unreinforced walls and floor slabs. Consult local builders who have learned from experience
whether wall and floor reinforcement is needed in the type of soil where you plan to build. If needed, a grid of 1/2-inch rebars,
spaced at 12 inches, usually is adequate.
To save money on steel reinforcement, check prices in salvage yards for used rebars and substitute reinforcing materials such as
junked cable and small pipes.
How to safely pour a shelter's concrete roof slab without using a contractor's usual forms and equipment is indicated by Figs.
17.1 and 17.2. These drawings show 8-ft.-long sheets of 3/4-inch plywood supported at their ends on shelter walls 7 feet-6
inches apart. Preparatory to pouring the concrete, the plywood sheets should be supported along the centerline of the shelter
by 4"x4"s and other lumber, which can be used later to build seats and overhead bunks. Plywood left on the ceiling reduces
condensation and heating problems in cold weather, but increases the volume of outdoor air that must be pumped through the
shelter to maintain tolerable temperatures when it is occupied in hot weather. This was clearly demonstrated in the summer of
1963 when the author used SIMOCS (simulated occupants that produce heat and water vapor like people) to determine the
habitability of a six-roomlet below ground group shelter, with a reinforced concrete roof that had been built in this manner by
six New Jersey farm families. They had left ordinary 3/4-inch exterior plywood on the ceiling. Because the hollow concrete
wall-blocks and the well drained gravel under the floor also kept heat from escaping into the surrounding soil, and because only
natural ventilation was provided, the temperature/humidity became dangerously high within a few hours.
Insulating a shelter's walls and ceiling can be disadvantageous, because insulation makes unavailable the "heat sink" of the
shelter and its surrounding earth. In hot weather insulation reduces the time during which ventilation can be stopped or restricted
without disastrously overheating the occupants.
Today, for such a shelter it would be better to use pressure-treated, rot-proof plywood and lumber, approved by leading
building codes. For information, write to the American Plywood Association, P.O. Box 11700, Tacoma, WA 98411, inquiring
about rot-proof plywood, dimensional lumber, and other material used in building the All-Weather Wood Foundation. Most
lumber yards will obtain treated plywood on order, and sell it for about 50% more than ordinary exterior grade plywood.
Big savings in shelter construction costs are made by using salvaged and/or used materials. Manufacturers of pre-cast
reinforced concrete beams and floor sections often sell rejects for very little.
Book Page: 138
Most salvage yards have steel beams and other material that make excellent roofing for earth-covered shelters. (Shortly before
the Cuban Missile Crisis, when living near New York, I built for myself at modest cost a very small shelter on a well drained
hillside. I made it almost entirely of steel channels bought and cut to order at a salvage yard.) Used cylindrical steel tanks with
closed ends often make good low-cost permanent shelters. One of the best low-cost family shelters that I ever went into was
on a hillside overlooking San Francisco Bay. It was made of a salvaged steel brewing tank that had been installed after a
vertical cylindrical entrance with a door had been welded on it. The tank's exterior had been protected with a bituminous
coating. Its survival-minded owner was a brilliant Hungarian refugee who, as a boy, had survived in a deep wine cellar
throughout the Russian siege and shelling of Budapest. Nothing equals war experience to teach the lifesaving value of shelters.
MINIMIZATION OF FIRE AND CARBON MONOXIDE DANGERS
Many shelter designers and builders do not realize the probable extent of fires after a major nuclear attack. Nor do the big
majority of them provide shelters built under or close to a house with adequate protection against the entry of deadly amounts
of carbon monoxide if the house burns. Although the areas of fires resulting from a nuclear explosion generally will be about as
extensive as the areas of significant blast damage,6 on a clear day a house up to about 8 miles from ground zero can be ignited
by the thermal pulse of a 1-megaton airburst.6 Figure 7.2 in Chapter 7 is a photograph of a car set on fire by a nuclear
explosion so far away that the car was not even dented by the blast. This photograph indicates how a thermal pulse can go
through window glass and ignite curtains, upholstery, or dry paper, even if flammable material outdoors is too damp to be
ignited. Furthermore, fires from any cause can spread, especially in fallout areas following a nuclear attack when firefighters may
be unable or unwilling to expose themselves outdoors to radiation.
Good protection against carbon monoxide is provided by a permanent earth-covered shelter, built with its entry outdoors and
well separated from a house and other flammable structures, and constructed so that it can be closed gas-tight. Both the
air-intake and the air-exhaust pipes should be installed so that they can be quickly closed air-tight, as with screw-on fittings.
Such closures should be kept well greased and securely attached close to where they would be used. If a shelter's entry is
through a passageway from a house, a gasketted steel firedoor, insulated on the shelter side, should be installed near the house
end of the passageway. The shelter should be further protected by a second gas.tight door, to prevent the entry of carbon
monoxide and smoke if heat from the burning house destroys the gasket on the firedoor. If special firedoor gaskets are not
available, rubber weather-stripping will serve. To lessen the risk of carbon monoxide being pumped into the shelter if the house
burns and air must be pumped into the shelter while the fire still is smoldering, the air-intake and pump should be at the far end
of the shelter, and the air-exhaust pipe and emergency exit should be near the passageway from the house.
Be sure to seal electrical conduits leading from a basement to a connected shelter, so that if the house burns carbon monoxide
can not flow through the conduits into the shelter when fresh outdoor air is not being pumped into the shelter. The author, while
conducting ventilation and habitability tests of an earth-covered blast shelter connected through a tunnel to a house's basement,
observed air flowing out through unsealed conduits, the reverse of such a possible life-endangering flow of carbon monoxide.
When the shelter was being maintained at a slight overpressure by cranking its blower to pump in outdoor air, a little air flowed
through the unsealed conduit into the basement.
For ways to minimize carbon monoxide dangers arising from cooking, heating, lighting, and smoking, see following sections in
this chapter.
Remember that air contaminated with only 0.16% carbon monoxide can kill you in 2 to 3 hours, and 0.04% carbon monoxide
causes frontal headaches and nausea in 2 to 3 hours. The Navy sets its safe allowable carbon monoxide concentration in air at
0.01%. (Shelter Habitability Studies - The Effect of Oxygen Depletion and Fire Gasses on Occupants of Shelters, by J. 5.
Muraoka, Report NCEL-TR-144, July 1961.)
PREVENTION OF CRACKS AND WET SHELTER PROBLEMS
If wet basements are a problem in your locality, below ground shelters are likely to be wet and unsatisfactory unless
appropriate preventative measures are taken during their design and construction. When making plans, you should consult local
builders of satisfactory basements. You also should question persons who at various times of the year have observed
excavations, holes, and/or basements in your immediate vicinity, or have noted seasonal swampy places or springs.
The most difficult type of shelter to keep dry for decades is one that is wholly or partially below the water table for part or all of
the year. Concrete is not completely watertight. Waterproof coatings and coverings often are damaged during construction, or
deteriorate with age.
Book Page: 139
Shelter walls sometimes crack due to settling and earth movements. Metal shelters usually develop small leaks long before they
become dangerously weakened.
A 100-occupant, below ground shelter, built in 1984 near Dallas, Texas as a prototype blast shelter for industrial workers, was
flooded when the water table rose. The poorly sealed opening of this shelter's emergency exit was below ground level, and
after heavy rains was below the water table. A prudently designed shelter has the top of its emergency exit slightly above the
surface of the surrounding earth, as illustrated in Fig. 17.2. All underground electric conduits leading down into a shelter must
be well sealed to prevent entry of water.
To prevent a wholly or partially below water-table shelter from becoming wet inside sooner or later, it should have a sump and
an automatic sump pump to discharge water to the ground outside. If at any time you find that the sump pump is discharging an
appreciable amount of water, you may have a serious wet- shelter problem if electric power fails after an attack.
A manually operated bilge pump and a sufficiently long discharge hose can be bought for about $20.00 from marine supply mail
order firms, including West Marine Products, Box 5189, Santa Cruz, California 95063, and Defender Industries, Inc., P.O.
Box 820, New Rochelle, New York 10802-0820. (Long established marine supply companies also are good sources of use-
proven chemical toilets, first aid kits, lights, rope, etc.)
Shelter roof surfaces should be gently sloped, no matter how good a waterproof coating is to be applied. By making a concrete
shelter roof as little as 1 inch thicker along its centerline than along its sides, so that it slopes to both sides, the prospects are
improved for having an earth-covered coated roof that will not leak for decades.
Figures 17.1 and 17.2 illustrate the following ways to prevent having a wet shelter:
* Put a layer of gravel or crushed rock in the bottom of the excavation, and install perforated drainage pipes if gravity drainage
is practical.
* Cover the gravel or crushed rock in the floor area with a plastic vapor barrier before pouring a concrete floor.
* Coat the outer surfaces of roof and walls withbituminous waterproofing or other coating that has proved to be most effective
in your locality.
Backfill with gravel or crushed rock against the walls, to keep the soil from possibly becoming saturated. Saturated soil exerts
hydrostatic pressure against walls, and may crack them and cause them to leak. In some areas it is more economical to cover a
shelter's coated walls with a subsurface drainage matting (such as Enkadrain, manufactured and sold by BASF Corporation,
Fibers Division, Enka, North Carolina 28728). This will eliminate the costs of backfilling with gravel or crushed rock.
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NON-FLOATABLE SHELTERS
In most localities the water table usually is below the depth of excavation needed to build or install a belowground shelter. In
some areas, however, after rainy periods the water table may rise until it is only a foot or two below the surface. Then a
watertight shelter may float upward through the surrounding saturated soil, unless its weight plus the weight of its covering earth
is sufficient to withstand its buoyancy. (In many places swimming pools are kept full to prevent them from being cracked by
uneven buoyant forces if the water table rises.)
Dramatic examples of floating shelters were steel blast shelters, guaranteed by contractors to be watertight, that were installed
under the lawns of some Houston, Texas homes shortly after the Cuban Missile Crisis. When the water table rose after heavy
rains, these shelters came up to the surface like giant mushrooms, to the frustrated dismay of their owners and the satisfaction of
anti-defense newspaper feature writers.
The most expensive permanent family fallout shelter described in a Federal Emergency Management Agency free handout
(pamphlet H-12-1) is floatable. Itis designed to be built of reinforced concrete covered by a flagstone patio only about 3 inches
above the ground. Its 6-inch- thick concrete roof is covered by a total thickness of only 6 inches of sand and flagstone. Like
the rest of FEMA's permanent shelters, no prototype of this approximately PF-40 shelter was built, nor is there any record of
anyone actually having built this shelter. In contrast, the belowground shelter illustrated by Figs. 17.1 and 17.2 would not float
even if it did not have assured gravity drainage of the surrounding soil through the perforated drain pipes in the gravel on which
it rests, because this shelter is weighted down by the thick earth berm on its roof.
ADEQUATE, DEPENDABLE VENTILATION/COOLING
Book Page: 140
Basic facts that you need to provide adequate, dependable ventilation for a small or medium sized shelter are given in Chapter
6, Ventilation and Cooling of Shelters. A good permanent shelter has two ventilation systems:
° The primary ventilation system of a small permanent shelter should utilize a manually operated centrifugal blower, or a
homemade Plywood Double-Action Piston Pump. (See Appendix E.) A satisfactory air pump must be capable of supplying
adequate outdoor air through an air-intake pipe, a filter, and an air exhaust pipe. (See Figs. 17.1 and 17.2.) "Adequate outdoor
air" for a small shelter means at least 15 cubic feet per minute per occupant for the cooler parts of the United States, and at
least 30 cfm per occupant in most of the country. Most permanent shelters have centrifugal blowers that can not deliver an
adequate volume of air in hot weather for each planned occupant.
For a medium sized permanent shelter, installing two or more manually powered air pumps is both more dependable and more
economical than providing an emergency generator and its engine to supply power to an electric blower. The Swiss, who have
made the world's best and most expensive per capita preparations to survive a war, use one or more hand-cranked centrifugal
blowers to ventilate most of their shelters.
° The multi-week and/or emergency ventilation system of a permanent shelter that has an emergency exit should depend
on a homemade KAP, made before a crisis and kept ready to use. (See Appendix B, How to Make and Use a Homemade
Shelter-Ventilating Pump, the KAP.) By opening both the entrance and the emergency exit, the shelter is provided with two
large, low- resistance openings through which a KAP can pump large volumes of air with minimum work.
Warning: Keep screen doors and/or screen panels ready to protect all openings against the swarms of flies and mosquitoes
likely to become dangerous pests in fallout areas. Use your KAP to pump adequate air through screens. Insect screens greatly
reduce natural ventilation, as the author first noted in Calcutta while a bedridden patient in a stifling hot ward of a hastily
constructed Army hospital. Because there were no fans or blowers to pump in outdoor air or circulate the air inside, window
screens were opened in the daytime when malaria mosquitoes were not flying. The doctors correctly concluded that the
temperature reduction when the screens were opened helped the patients more than they were endangered by the entering filthy
flies. Adequate ventilation is more important than protection from flies, but with a KAP and insect screens you can have both.
Flies, mosquitoes, and other insects can be killed very effectively by occasionally spraying or painting screens and other
alighting surfaces with water solutions of insecticides containing permithin and sold in many farm stores.
ADVICE ON VENTILATION OPENINGS AND FITTINGS
° Install ventilation pipes large enough to reduce resistance to airflow, thus increasing the volume of air that the shelter's pump
can deliver. A shelter with a 200-cfm pump (such as the homemakeable Plywood Double-Action Piston Pump described in
Appendix E) should have 5-inch galvanized steel pipe. The pumps that are installed in most family shelters deliver only about
100 cfm or less. Four-inch pipe is adequate for use with pumps this small, provided that the pipes have no more than two
right-angle turns below each gooseneck. (A 90- degree L gives about as much resistance to airflow as 12 feet of straight pipe.)
° Make and install a gooseneck with its mouth about twice the diameter of the pipe, as indicated in Fig. 17.1. The purpose of
such a gooseneck is to prevent more of the larger descending fallout particles from being pumped or blown into the shelter. For
example, if 200 cfm of air is being pumped into a shelter through a gooseneck of 5-inch-diameter pipe with its mouth also 5
inches in diameter, the velocity of the air up into the mouth of the gooseneck is about 1,440 feet per minute, and sand-like
spherical particles smaller than approximately 500 microns in diameter also are "sucked" up.6 But if the 5-inch gooseneck's
mouth is 10 inches across, then the upward air velocity is reduced to about 360 feet per minute, and only particles smaller than
approximately 180 microns across are "sucked" up. Particles in the 180 to 500 micron-diameter range are relatively large and
fall to earth in about 40 to 70 minutes from 35,000 feet, the base of the mushroom cloud of a 1-megaton explosion. (See Fig.
6.4.) These particles are very dangerous because their radioactivity has had little time to decay, and should be kept out of a
shelter's ventilation system. Furthermore, large particles retained in a shelter's filter restrict airflow sooner than do small ones. (If
an appropriately curved piece of 5-inch steel pipe cannot be found in a salvage yard or elsewhere, a good welder can use
5-inch steel pipe to make a substitute gooseneck with two 90-degree turns.)
° Do not use air intake hoods on a permanent shelter's pipes, because hoods are not as effective as goosenecks in preventing
fallout particles from entering ventilation pipes.
Book Page: 141
Also, pumping a given volume of air through a hood is more work than pumping the same volume through a gooseneck with
equal cross-sectional areas.
° Never install any screen inside a gooseneck or air intake hood, because spider webs and the debris that sticks to webs will
greatly reduce airflow. The author saw a gooseneck with a blast valve built inside it; spider webs and attached trash on this
blast valve had consequentially reduced the volume of air that this shelter's pump could deliver. Of course a screen is much
more easily obstructed than a blast valve. Yet FEMA's widely distributed pamphlets on a permanent Home Fallout Shelter
(H-12-1) and on a Home Blast Shelter (H-12-3) continue in successive editions to give detailed instructions for making an air
intake hood with a screen soldered inside it. But these shelters that never have been built have much more serious weaknesses,
including the likelihood that the aboveground parts of the ventilation pipes of the blast shelter would be bent over or broken off
by blast-wind-hurled parts of buildings and trees, even in suburbia. (350 mph is the maximum velocity of the blast wind where
the blast overpressure is 15 psi from a 1-megaton air burst.6 The ventilation openings of the blast- tested expedient blast
shelters described in Appendix D are much more likely to remain serviceable after being subjected to severe blast effects,
because blast-protector logs are placed around their openings, that are only a few inches above ground level.)
PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF CONDENSATION
A shelter can be watertight, yet at certain seasons of the year its walls, ceiling, and floor can be dripping wet with water
condensed from entering outdoor air. (This is a serious problem, except in arid parts of the West.) During the winter months a
shelter and its surrounding earth get cold; then especially on some spring days the dew point of entering outdoor air is higher
than the temperature of the shelter's interior surfaces. As a result, condensation occurs on those surfaces that are cooler than
the dew point of the pumped-through air.
The most dramatic example that I have observed of the seriousness of this condensation problem was the dripping ceiling and
wet walls of a reinforced-concrete, family-sized shelter that I inspected on an early spring day at the Civil Defence College in
Yorkshire, England.
Such condensation also can occur in above- ground structures. Before World War II I had a
600-year-old bedroom in Queen's College, Oxford University. My bedroom's outer wall was made of solid limestone blocks
about 15 inches thick, simply plastered and painted on the inside. On some spring days moisture condensed on the inside of the
cold outer wall, ran down, and collected in little puddles on the floor. The occasional small coal fire in my adjacent study was
barely sufficient to gradually evaporate the water and reduce my bedroom's humidity enough to prevent mold from forming.
This often-repeated occurrence proves the inadequacy of merely keeping an electric light turned on for heat to prevent
condensation inside an uninsulated shelter built in a cool, frequently humid locality.
Condensation and resultant 100 percent humid air can rust and eat away most steel pipes. Ventilation pipes should be made of
galvanized steel or other materials that are undamaged by seasonal condensation and 100 percent humidity. In Connecticut I
saw shelter ventilation pipes made of steel protected with twocoats of marine paint; they were badly rusted only two years after
installation.
Operating a dehumidifier with automatic controls is the most practical way for most people to prevent condensation and other
dampness problems in a shelter during peacetime. Almost all of the Chinese shelters that I inspected in six cities are dual-use
shelters and typically are equipped with large dehumidifiers. A small dehumidifier adequate for a family shelter can be bought
from a dependable mail order company, such as Sears, for about $250 in 1987.
To save floor space and facilitate removal of water, a dehumidifier should be installed near a shelter's ceiling. Then water from
the dehumidifier can be disposed of most easily through a pipe or tube providing gravity drainage, best to the outdoors, second
best to the sewer. (After a nuclear attack the sewer system may become clogged and sewage may back up and flow into a
belowground room having pipes that normally discharge into the sewer, and that lack check valves.) If the above mentioned
ways of removing water are not possible, a sump and an automatic sump pump discharging water to the ground outdoors can
solve the peacetime water disposal problem.
After an attack, electric power can be expected to fail and shelter humidity will have to be controlled as much as possible by
ventilation with outdoor air. A simple way to learn when to ventilate a shelter to dry it was described in a Russian article on
shelter management: Keep several small cans of water in the shelter.
Book Page: 142
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Ch. 18: Trans-Pacific Fallout
POTENTIAL DANGERS TO AMERICANS
Many strategists believe that if a nuclear war is fought in the next few decades it probably will not
involve nuclear explosions on any of our 50 states. Perhaps the first nuclear war casualties in the United
States will be caused by fallout from an overseas nuclear war in which our country is not a belligerent.
As the number of nations with nuclear weapons increases - especially in the Middle East - this generally
unrecognized danger to Americans will worsen. Trans-Pacific war fallout, carried to an America at
peace by the prevailing west-to-east winds that blow around the world, could be several hundred times
more dangerous to Americans than fallout from the worst possible overseas nuclear power reactor
accident, and many times more dangerous than fallout from a very improbable U.S. nuclear power
reactor accident as lethal as the disastrous Chernobyl accident was to Russians.
Fig. 1 is a map showing fallout from a single above ground Chinese nuclear test explosion ("a few
hundred kilotons") on December 28, 1966.
Fig. 1. The Fifth Chinese Nuclear Test was Detonated on Dec. 28, 1966. It "involved
thermonuclear material," and, according to the AEC press release, was a nuclear test
in the atmosphere at their test site near Lop Nor." As indicated above, by the end of
Dec. 31, 1966 the leading edge of its fallout cloud extended as far east as the dotted
line shown running from Arizona to the Great Lakes. ORNL DWG. 73-4611
Book Page: 152
It produced fallout that by January 1, 1967 resulted in the fallout cloud covering most of the United States. This one Chinese
explosion produced about 15 million curies of iodine- 131 - roughly the same amount as the total release of iodine- 131 into the
atmosphere from the Chernobyl nuclear power plant disaster. (The Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory's preliminary
estimate is that 10-50 million curies of iodine- 131 were released during the several days of the Chernobyl disaster; in contrast,
its estimate of the iodine- 131 released during the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant accident, the worst commercial
nuclear power plant accident in American history, is about 20 curies.)
Fig. 1 is from an Oak Ridge National Laboratory report, Trans-Pacific Fallout and Protective Countermeasures
(ORNL-4900), written by the author of this book in 1970, but not published until 1973. No classified information was used in
any version of this report, that summarized findings of the unclassified Trans-Pacific Fallout Seminar funded by the U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission. This seminar was attended by experts who came from several research organizations and deliberated at
Oak Ridge National Laboratory for two days in March of 1970.
Later in 1970 a final draft of this report was submitted to Washington for approval before publication. It was promptly
classified. Publication without censorship was not permitted until after it was declassified in its entirety in 1973. None of the
recommendations in this pioneering report were acted upon, but many of them are given in this chapter.
The findings and conclusions of the above mentioned 1970 Oak Ridge National Laboratory Trans-Pacific Fallout Seminar,
summarized in the 1973 report, were confirmed by a later, more comprehensive study, Assessment and Control of the
Transoceanic Fallout Threat, by H. Lee and W. E. Strope (1974; 117 pages), Report EGU 2981 of Stanford Research
Institute.
Fallout from the approximately 300 kiloton Chinese test explosion shown in Fig. 1 caused milk from cows that fed on pastures
near Oak Ridge, Tennessee and elsewhere to be contaminated with radioiodine, although not with enough to be hazardous to
health. However, this milk contamination (up to 900 picocuries of radioactive iodine per liter) and the measured dose rates
from the gamma rays emitted from fallout particles deposited in different parts of the United States indicate that trans-Pacific
fallout from even an overseas nuclear war in which "only" two or three hundred megatons would be exploded could result in
tens of thousands of unprepared Americans suffering thyroid injury.
Unprepared Americans do not have potassium iodide, the very effective prophylactic medication to prevent thyroid injury from
radioiodine, and few could get it during the several days that it would take trans-Pacific war fallout to reach the United States.
Fortunately, removal of even a cancerous thyroid rarely is fatal to people blessed with modern medical facilities.
Only about 7,500 Americans (people living within a few miles of a nuclear power plant in Tennessee) have been given
prophylactic potassium iodide to keep in their homes. No government organization has advised even Americans living near
other nuclear facilities to buy and keep any kind of prophylactic medicine to protect their thyroids in case of a peacetime
nuclear accident. As expected, official warnings and advice to the public continue not even to mention preparations that
individual Americans could make to protect themselves and their families against thyroid injury either from trans-Pacific war
fallout deposited on an America at peace, or as a result of war fallout if our country is subjected to a nuclear attack.
The worst danger to Americans from trans- Pacific fallout from a large nuclear war would be the whole-body gamma radiation
doses that millions would receive from fallout particles deposited on the ground, on streets, on and in buildings. Protective
countermeasures would include both sheltering some pregnant women and small children living in "hot spot" areas of abnormally
high rain-out of fallout, and evacuating others. Unless such unavoidably time- consuming and expensive countermeasures were
taken, several thousand additional Americans might die from cancer in the following 20 or 30 years. The largest total doses
would be received by people who would live normal unsheltered lives for the first month or so after fallout deposition, while the
dose rates would be highest.
Several thousand additional cancer deaths would be extremely difficult to detect, if caused by whole-body gamma radiation
from fallout deposited nationwide, with these scattered deaths occurring over the 20 or 30 years following a Trans-Pacific war
fallout disaster. For during these same decades about 15 million Americans normally would die from cancers indistinguishable
from those caused by wholebody radiation from war fallout deposited on an America at peace.
Book Page: 153
An authoritative risk estimate of getting cancer from low doses of radiation is given in Report No. 77 (March 15, 1984) of the
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement, "Exposures from the Uranium Series with Emphasis on Radon and
Its Daughters": "The low dose model for total excess cancer mortality is one hundred cases per million people exposed to one
rem uniform whole body radiation. This would make the overall risk of cancer to the average individual in the population about
one in ten thousand per rem, i.e., if ten thousand persons are exposed to a dose of one rem (one thousand mrem), one excess
fatal cancer would be expected within the lifetime of the group."
Many radiation specialists have concluded from studies of the effects of extremely low doses that the above and similar
conservative estimates of excess cancer deaths overestimate the number of fatalities likely to result from low radiation doses,
such as would be received by millions of Americans from trans-Pacific war fallout.
TO PROTECT YOURSELF AGAINST TRANS-PACIFIC FALLOUT, START BY REALIZING THAT:
° The dangers from trans-Pacific war fallout have been increased by the continuing trend toward deployment of
more accurate, smaller, more numerous nuclear weapons, because:
* A large nuclear explosion (half a megaton, or more) injects most of its fallout particles and gases into the
stratosphere, above the tops of clouds and above the altitudes at which quite prompt removal of
contaminants from the atmosphere by scavenging takes place. Very small particles in the stratosphere do
not reach the ground before they are blown at least several thousand miles. Most of these tiny particles
remain airborne for weeks to years, are very widely dispersed, and are blown around the world several to
many times before being deposited. By then the radioactivity of iodine-131 (that has a half life of only a little
more than 8 days) is so greatly reduced that it is not nearly as dangerous as is radioactive iodine deposited
much sooner with the fallout from smaller weapons of several hundred kilotons, or less, explosive power.
* Nuclear explosions smaller than about half a megaton (500 kilotons) inject all or most of their fallout to
lower altitudes - within the troposphere, below the stratosphere. Most of such fallout is deposited during
the radioactive cloud's first world-circling trip, when even quite rapidly decaying radioiodine still is
dangerously radioactive. This greater danger from smaller nuclear weapons has been proved by numerous
measurements of fallout from many nuclear test explosions, both foreign and American.
° The dangers from trans-Pacific fallout produced by peacetime nuclear accidents are not nearly as serious as
many Americans have been led to believe. For example, the Chernobyl nuclear power reactor accident injected
as much radioactive iodine into the atmosphere as would the explosions of several kiloton-range nuclear weapons
totaling perhaps as much as half a megaton in explosive power. But not nearly as much of the radioactivity caused
by this reactor accident reached the United States as would reach us from several nuclear explosions in the same
area, capable of injecting an equal amount of radioactivity into the atmosphere, because:
* The cloud from the steam explosion that blew off the roof and otherwise damaged the Chernobyl reactor
building, may have risen quite soon to 20,000 feet or more and was partially blown eastward clear across
Asia and the Pacific Ocean. However, the top of the radioactive smoke cloud over the Chernobyl power
plant, that burned for days, rose only about 3,000 feet above the ground. As a result, much of the airborne
Chernobyl radiation stayed at relatively low altitudes where scavenging (removal) of smoke and fallout
particles and gasses is most effective and rapid, due to aggregation on cloud droplets, rain-out, and dry
deposition. In contrast, almost all of the fallout particles and radioactive gasses from a nuclear explosion are
injected much higher, to altitudes where scavenging is less effective; there, the generally prevailing
west-to-east winds promptly start transporting very small particles and radioactive gasses (that originate in
the mid- latitudes of the northern hemisphere) around the world.
* Variable winds for days carried much of the Chernobyl radioactive material northward to Scandinavian
countries, then westward and southward to other European countries. The resultant wide dispersal of this
fallout allowed time for both scavenging and radioactive decay before a small fraction of these invisible
radioactive clouds rose and also were blown eastward by the prevailing high-altitude winds. These west
winds carried an extremely small fraction of the radioactive emissions from the burning Chernobyl plant
clear across Asia and the Pacific to America.
° The media habitually exaggerate dangers from nuclear accidents, and exploited the Chernobyl disaster. For
example, when Dr. Robert Gale, the leading bone marrow transplant specialist who helped save a few Chernobyl
victims, first returned from Russia, an Associated Press article quoted him as saying: "I think we can say there are
at least 50,000 to 100,000 people who have had some dose of radiation which might be of long-term concern.
Book Page: 154
There will, unfortunately, be additional casualties. We hope the number will be small." The Rocky Mountain News
headlined" 100,000 SOVIETS TO SUFFER FROM RADIATION, DOCTOR SAYS". Mary McGrory, the
syndicated liberal columnist, also misinterpreted Dr. Gale's risk estimate and misinformed her readers by writing:
"He [Dr. Gale] estimated that there could be 100,000 cases of radiation sickness . Such dramatic news items give
the impression that 100,000 Russians - not just a small fraction of that number - are likely to suffer sickness or
death from the Chernobyl radiation. So additional typical Americans, reading misinformation of this type and
knowing very little about statistical evaluations of risks based on probabilities, have had their worst nuclear fears
strengthened.
The public's exaggerated fears of extremely small amounts of radiation also are worsened by the media's use without
explanations of very small units of radiation measurement, including the picocurie. (The picocurie is used to express the
radioactive contamination of milk, water, etc., and is only one millionth of a millionth [1/1,000,000,000,000] of a curie.)
One episode in which fears of radiation were thus worsened occurred shortly after the invisible fallout cloud from the Chernobyl
disaster first reached the United States. Some listeners were frightened when a radio announcer merely stated that milk samples
in northwest Oregon showed 118 picocuries per liter of radioactive iodine. Few Americans know that they will not be advised
to stop using fresh milk unless its contamination is 15,000 picocuries or more per liter - as specified in the Food and Drug
Administration's official, very cautious "Protective Action Guidance", published in the Federal Register of October 22, 1982.
The maximum measured radioactive contamination of milk in the United States by iodine-131 from the Chernobyl disaster was
in milk produced by cows grazing on pasture in Washington: 560 picocuries per liter. The much greater potential danger from
trans-Pacific war fallout is brought out by the fact that the approximately 300-kiloton Chinese test explosion of December 28,
1966 resulted in worse iodine- 131 contamination of milk produced by a cow grazing on pasture near Oak Ridge, Tennessee:
900 picocuries per liter. Even asmall overseas nuclear war with only 20 or so kiloton-range nuclear explosions could cause high
enough contamination of milk to result in the Government's warning Americans to refrain from using fresh milk. Most Americans
would heed this warning and would not drink or otherwise use fresh milk for weeks. In addition, a small overseas nuclear war
possibly would cause a few American casualties years to decades later.
TWO SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS
1. Trans-Pacific war fallout deposited on an America at peace surely would be a disaster, but not an
overwhelming one. The economic and psychological impact probably would be more damaging than the losses of
health and life.
2. Prudent individuals should make preparations to enable them to use the low cost protective countermeasures
described in this book, especially those in Chapter 13. Some of the most effective countermeasures, such as
getting enough prophylactic potassium iodide to prevent thyroid damage even if war fallout dangers from
explosions in the United States or overseas were to continue for a couple of months, cannot be accomplished
after even an overseas nuclear war begins.
Book Page: 155
Copyright 2000 Nuclear War Survival Skills
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App. A: Instructions for Six Expedient Fallout
Shelters
SHELTER-BUILDING INSTRUCTIONS
The following step-by-step instructions for building 6 types of earthcovered expedient shelters have
enabled untrained families to build even the most difficult of these shelters in less than 2 days. The only
families who took longer --up to 4 days-- were the few who were delayed by very heavy rains. Each
of these shelters has been built by several different families or groups of families. Only widely available
materials and hand tools are required. They have been built under simulated crisis conditions in
environments typical of large regions of the United States: covered-trench types have been built in
forested clay hills of Tennessee, in a bare Colorado valley in snowy November, in an irrigated Utah
valley in hot August. Most of the aboveground shelters were built by families in Florida, where the
water table is within 18 inches of the surface.
All of these test families used instructions that contained general guidance to help inexperienced persons
build almost any type of earth-covered shelter. In this appendix, general instructions which apply to all
types of shelters will be given first, to avoid repetition. (However, if the instructions for building one
type of shelter are reproduced separately, the pertinent parts of these general instructions should be
given before the step-by-step instructions for building that shelter.
WARNING
Earth-covered shelters built of green poles can become unsafe within a few months, because of fungi
and/or boring insects. In damper parts of the U.S., earth-covered shelters built of dry poles or
untreated lumber can become unsafe after several months. An exception is very dry areas of the West,
where some pioneers lived for years in earth-covered dugouts with pole roofs.
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR BUILDING AN EXPEDIENT SHELTER
1. Read all the instructions and study the drawings before beginning work. (Most families have found it helpful first
to read the instructions aloud and then to discuss problems and work assignments.)
2. Sharpen all tools, including picks and shovels. Dull tools waste time and energy, if no file is available, tools can
be sharpened by rubbing them hard on concrete or a rough stone.
3. Wear gloves from the start. Blisters can lead to serious infections, especially if antibiotics cannot be obtained.
4. Whenever practical select a building site that:
° Will not be flooded if heavy rains occur or if a large dam farther up a major valley is destroyed by a
nuclear explosion.
° Is in the open and at least 50 ft away from a building or woods that might be set afire by the thermal pulse
from an explosion tens of miles away. (Keep well away from even a lone tree; it is hard to dig through
roots.)
° Has earth that is firm and stable, if the planned shelter is to be a trench type with unshored (unsupported)
earth walls To make sure that the earth is firm and stable enough so that the walls will not cave in, make a
"thumb test" by digging an 1 8-in.-deep hole and trying to push your bare thumb into the undisturbed earth
at the bottom. If you can push your thumb no farther than 1 in.. the earth should be safe enough. If the earth
does not pass the thumb-test, move to another location and repeat the test. Or build a below ground shelter
with shored walls, or an aboveground shelter.
° Has a sufficient depth of earth above rock or the water table for a trench to be dug to the depth required.
Book Page: 156
(To find out, try to dig a pit to the required depth before excavating the whole trench. Or, if you are quite sure
there is no water- table problem, try driving down a sharpened rod or pipe to the required depth in several places
along the planned length of the trench.)
5. If the shelter must be built on sloping ground, locate it with its length crosswise to the direction of the slope.
6. Before staking out the shelter, clear the ground of brush, weeds and tall grass over an area extending about 10
ft beyond the planned edges of the excavation. (If loose earth is shoveled onto tall plants, the earth will be difficult
to shovel the second time when covering the completed shelter roof.)
7. Stake out the complete shelter, and then dig by removing layers of earth.
8. When digging earth that is too firm to shovel without first breaking it up, start picking (or breaking with a
shovel) in a line across the center of the trench. Next, shovel out a narrow trench 6 or 8 in. deep all the way
across the width of the trench. Then with pick or shovel break off row after row of earth all the way across the
width of the trench, as illustrated.
(Illustration of pick axe chipping away a layer of dirt) ORNL-DWG 78-16212
9. When digging a trench, to avoid having to move the excavated earth twice more to get it out of the way, first
pile all earth about 8 ft away from the trench. Later, pile additional earth you are excavating at least 3 ft away.
10. Never risk a cave-in by digging into lower parts of an earth wall. It is dangerous to produce even a small
overhanging section of wall or to dig a small, cave-like enlargement of a shelter.
11. When making a "sandbag" of a pillowcase or sack to hold earth shielding in place around the sides of shelter
openings or along the edges of a shelter roof, fill it so that it will be only about two-thirds full after its opening is
tied shut securely. Avoid dropping the sandbag.
12. If sufficient sandbags are not available, make earth-filled "rolls." Bed sheets or any reasonably strong fabric or
plastic film can be used to make these rolls as described below. (To make a longer roll than the one illustrated
below, several persons should make one together, standing side- by-side.)
To make an 8-in.-high earth-filled roll:
(1) Select a piece of cloth at least as strong as a new bed sheet, 2 ft longer than the side of the opening to
be protected, and 5 ft wide.
(2) Place 2 ft of the width of the cloth on the ground, as illustrated.
(Illustration of man placing earthfilled roll.) ORNL-DWG 78-16213
(3) While using both hands to hold up and pull on 3 ft of the width of the cloth and pressing against the
cloth with your body, have another person shovel earth onto and against the cloth.
(4) While still pulling on the cloth, pull the upper part down over the earth that covers the lower part of the
cloth.
157
(5) Cover the upper part of the cloth with earth so as to form an earth-filled 'hook" near the upper edge, as
illustrated.
(Illustration of finished earth-filled roll.) ORNL-DWG 78-16214
(6) If a greater thickness of rolls is needed, level the earth on top of a roll; then make another earth-filled
roll on this level surface.
13. Cut and haul poles and logs more easily by doing the following:
(1) Take time to sharpen your tools before starting to work no matter how rushed you feel.
(2) When sawing green trees that have gummy resin or sap, oil your saw with kerosene or diesel fuel. If you
don't have these, use motor oil, grease, or even soap.
(3) When felling a small tree, the following method will help make a square cut, keep your saw from being
pinched, and help make the tree fall in the desired direction: (a) Saw the tree about one-third through on the
side toward which you want it to fall. (b) Then start sawing the opposite side, while another person pushes
on the tree with a 10-ft push- pole, pressing the end of the push-pole against the tree about 10 ft above the
ground. A push-pole with a forked end or with a big nail on the end is best when you get ready to move it,
or to use it for building your shelter. Make and use a measuring stick to speed up measuring and cutting
poles and logs to the right lengths.
(4) After a tree has been felled, trim off all limbs and knots so that the pole or log is smooth and will require
no additional smoothing
LIMB CUT OFF TO HOOK OVER THE SQUARE-CUT END OF THE ROLE. (ORNL-DWG 78-16210)
(5) It usually is best first to cut the poles exactly two or three times the final length of the poles to be used in
the shelter.
(6) When you are ready to move the poles to the shelter site, drag them rather than trying to carry them on
your shoulders. Shouldering them is more tiring, and you could injure yourself severely if you should trip.
To drag a log or several poles by hand: (a) Cut a stick 2 to 2-1/2 in. in diameter and about 3-1/3 ft long; (b) Tie a short piece
of 1/4-in. (or stronger) rope to the center of the stick; (c) Make a lasso-like loop at the free end of the rope, so that when it is
looped around the log and two people are pulling (see illustration), the front end of the log is raised about 6 in. above the
ground. The loop should be tightened around the log about 2 ft. from its end, so that the end of the log cannot hit the backs of
the legs of the two people pulling it.
(Illustration of 2 men pulling a log.) ORNL-DWG 78-16211
CAUTION: If you drag a log down a steep hill, one person should tie a rope to the rear end of the log, and then follow the
dragger, ready to act as the brake if needed.
(7) When you get the poles or logs to the location where you will build the shelter, cut them to the desired
minimum diameters and specified lengths, and put all those of one specified type together.
Book Page: 158
Be sure that the diameter of the small end of each pole of one type is at least as large as the minimum
diameter specified for its type. Make and use a measuring stick, as previously described.
14. Use snow for shielding material for aboveground shelters if the earth is so deep-frozen that digging is
impractical. For a Ridge-Pole Shelter (see Appendix A.5), cover the entire shelter with 5 ft of wetted or
well-packed snow. For a Crib- Walled Shelter (see Appendix A.6), fill the cribs and then cover and surround the
entire shelter with snow at least 5 ft thick. With wetted or well- packed snow 5 ft thick, the protection factor is
about 50. Families have completed these winter shelters within 2 days.
Several hundred pounds of snow can be moved at a time by sledding it on a piece of canvas or other strong
material 6 to 8 ft wide. Attach a stick across one end of the material and tie a rope to the ends of the stick, so as
to form a 'Y" bridle on which a person can pull.
To keep the occupants of a snow-covered expedient shelter dry and tolerably warm in subfreezing weather,
provide sufficient ventilation openings to maintain inside temperatures at a few degrees below freezing. (See
Chapter 14, Expedient Clothing.)
15. Make a reliable canopy over the shelter entry. By following the instructions given in Fig. A on the following
page, you can make a dependable canopy that ordinary winds will neither tear nor blow down and that will not
catch rainwater even if you have no waterproof material stronger than 4-mil polyethylene film.
16. Take to your shelter enough window screen or mosquito netting to cover its openings. Except in freezing-cold
weather, flies and mosquitoes would soon become a problem in most localities soon after an attack.
17. Work to complete (1) an expedient ventilating- cooling pump (a KAP) and (2) the storage of at least 15
gallons of water per person. This work should be accomplished by the time your shelter is completed. Especially
in an area of heavy fallout during warm or hot weather, an earth- covered, high-protection-factor shelter when full
of people would be useless unless adequately ventilated and cooled and provided with enough water.
18. In cold weather, restrict air flow through the shelter by hanging curtains of plastic or tightly woven fabric, or by
otherwise partially obstructing its two openings. Always be sure to leave at least a few square inches open at the
floor level of one opening and at the ceiling height of the other, to provide enough ventilation to prevent a harmful
concentration of exhaled carbon dioxide. To prevent exhaled water vapor from wetting clothing and bedding and
reducing its insulating value, keep the ventilation openings as wide open as possible without causing shelter
temperatures to be intolerably cold.
Book Page: 159
Fig. A. A dependable canopy to keep fallout and rain out of a vertical entry. ORNL-DWG 77-20140R
Book Page: 160
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App. A.1: Door-Covered Trench Shelter
(See illustration at the end of Appendix A. 1)
PROTECTION PROVIDED
Against fallout radiation: Protection Factor 250 (PF 250) a person in the open outside this shelter
would receive 250 times as much fallout radiation as he would if inside.
Against blast: Better protection than most homes, if built in very stable earth. Blast tests have
indicated that this shelter would be undamaged up to at least the 5-psi overpressure range from large
explosions. Without blast doors, the shelter's occupants could be injured at this overpressure range,
although probably not fatally.
Against fire: Excellent, if sufficiently distant from fires producing carbon monoxide and toxic smoke.
WHERE PRACTICAL
In a location where at least one hollow-core door per occupant is available, and where the earth is very
stable and a dry hole or trench 41/2 feet deep can be dug without difficulty. (A family evacuating in a
pickup truck or large station wagon can carry enough doors, with doorknobs removed. Strong boards
at least 6 feet long and at least one full inch thick, or plywood at least 3/i-inch thick, also can be used to
roof this 36-inch-wide trench and to support its overhead earth shielding.)
Warning: Some doors with single-thickness panels if loaded with earth will break before they bend
enough to result in protective earth arching.
FOR WHOM PRACTICAL
For a typical family or other group with two or more members able to work hard for most of 36 hours. (Stronger-than-average
families with most members able to work hard have completed this type of shelter is less than 24 hours after receiving
step-by-step, well illustrated instructions.)
CAPACITY
The shelter illustrated is roofed with 3 doors and is the minimum length for 3 persons. (If you have additional doors, or
boards and sticks at least 3 ft long, make the entryway trenches 3 or 4 ft longer than illustrated if not pressed for time.)
For each additional person, add an additional door. (If more than about 7 persons are to be sheltered, build two or more
separate shelters.)
BUILDING INSTRUCTIONS
1. Before beginning work, study the drawings and read ALL of the following instructions.
2. Divide the work; CHECK OFF EACH STEP WHEN COMPLETED.
3. By the time the shelter is finished, plan to have completed (1) a ventilating pump (a KAP 16 in. wide and 28 in.
high), essential for this shelter except in cool weather, and (2) the storage of at least 15 gallons of water per
occupant (see Appendix B and Chapter 8).
4. Start to assemble materials and tools that are listed for the illustrated 3-person shelter.
A. Essential Materials and Tools for a 3-Person Shelter
° Three hollow-core doors.
° A shovel (and a pick, if the earth is very hard).
° Two to three square yards per person of waterproof materials for rainproofing the roof. Use materials
such as 4-mil polyethylene film, shower curtains, plastic table-cloths, plastic mattress covers, or canvas.
° Two pieces of plastic or tightly woven cloth (each about 6-1/2 X 6-1/2 ft) to make canopies over the two
shelter openings. Also sticks and cords or strips of cloth to support the canopies as described in Fig. A of
the introductory section of this appendix.
Book Page: 161
° Materials and tools for building a simple shelter-ventilating pump, a KAP 16 in. wide and 28 in. high.
(See Appendix B.) Only in cold or continuously breezy, cool weather can tolerable temperatures and
humidities be maintained in a crowded underground shelter without an air pump.
° Containers for storing adequate water. (See Chapter 8.)
B. Useful Materials and Tools
° Large cans, buckets, and; or pots with bail handles in which to carry earth and later to store drinking
water or human wastes.
° Two pillowcases and one bedsheet per person-to make "sandbags" around shelter openings and to cover
trench walls. (If available, large sheets of 4-mil polyethylene are better than bedsheets, because they keep
earth walls damp and stable. They also help keep shelter occupants dry and clean and prevent earth from
falling into their eyes.)
° File, knife, pliers, hammer.
° Measuring tape, yardstick, or ruler.
° Expedient life-support items.
5. To save time and work, SHARPEN ALL TOOLS AND KEEP THEM SHARP.
6. Wear gloves from the start even tough hands can blister and become painful and infected after hours of digging.
7. Check to be sure the earth is stable and firm enough so that a trench shelter with unshored (unsupported),
vertical earth walls will be safe from cave-ins. (Interior doors are not strong enough to roof an earth-covered
trench wider than 3 ft.)
As a test of the stability of earth, dig a small hole about 18 in. deep. Remove all loose earth from the bottom of the
hole. Then make a "thumb test" by pushing your bare thumb into the undisturbed surface at the bottom of the hole.
If you can push your thumb into the earth no farther than one inch, the earth should be suitable for this type of
shelter. If the earth does not pass the "thumb test," move to another location and try the test again. Continue to
relocate and repeat until suitable earth is found, or build a shored-trench or aboveground shelter.
8. Prepare to dig a vertical-walled trench 4-1/2 ft deep and 3 ft wide. To determine the length of the trench, add
together the widths of all the doors to be used for roofing it, then subtract 8 in. from the sum. (To avoid
arithmetical errors, it is best to lay all the doors side by side on the ground.)
9. Clear any brush, grass, or weeds that are more than a few inches high from the area where the trench will be
dug. Also clear the ground around all sides of the trench, to a distance of about 8 ft from the sides and ends of the
trench.
10. Stake out a rectangular trench 36 in. wide, with its length as determined above. Also stake out the entrance at
one end, as illustrated in Fig. A. 1 at the end of Appendix A.l, and the ventilation trench and opening at the other.
11. Dig the main trench, the entryway trench, and the ventilation trench. Place the excavated earth along both
lengthwise sides of the trench, starting at the outside edges of the cleared space. Be sure that no earth is piled
closer than 3 ft to the sides of the trench.
12. To be sure that unstable, unsafe earth is not encountered at depths below 18 in., repeat the "thumb test" each
time the trench is deepened an additional foot. If the earth does not pass the test, do not dig the trench any
deeper; try another location.
13. To keep each trench its full width as it is dug, cut a stick 36 in. long and another 18 in. long; use them
repeatedly from the start to check the widths of the main trench and the entry trenches. Keeping the trenches
full width will save much work and time later.
14. Carefully level and smooth the ground to a distance of 2-1/2 ft from the sides of the trench, so that the doors
will lie flat on the ground up to the edges of the trench.
15. If plenty of sheets, bedspreads, plastic, and: or other materials are available, cover the trench walls with them.
Wall coverings should stop one inch from the floor of the trench to prevent their being stepped on and pulled
down. Plastic wall coverings keep some types of damp earth walls from drying out and crumbling.
Book Page: 162
16. To be able to place an adequate thickness of shielding earth all the way to and around the entryway and
ventilation hole, stack improvised 'sandbags" around these two openings before placing the earth on the roof. Or
use cloth or plastic material to make rolls" of earth, as illustrated in the introductory section of Appendix A.
17. Shovel earth around the rolls, sandbags, or other means used to raise the level of the earth around the two
shelter openings. Slope this earth outward, and pack it, so that rainwater on the ground cannot run into the shelter.
18. To rainproof the shelter and to prevent the roofing doors from being dampened and weakened, use available
waterproof materials as follows:
a. If the earth is dry, the easiest and best way to make a rainproof roof is to place the doors directly on the
ground, with each of the end doors overlapping an end of the main trench by 4 or 5 in. (Be sure again to
level the ground surface as you place each door, so that each lies flat against the ground all the way to the
edges of the trench.) Next, mound dry earth over the doors. First place a few inches of earth on the doors
near their ends: then mound it about 12 in. deep above the centerline of the trench. Slope the earth to both
sides so as to just cover the ends of the doors. Next, smooth off the earth mound, being careful to remove
sharp stones that might puncture rainproof materials. Then place waterproof material over the smooth
mound, making the "buried roof" shown in Fig. A. 1. Finally, carefully mound an additional 12 to 15 in. of
earth on top of the buried roof, again placing it first over the doors near their ends. The earth over the
trench should be at least 2 ft thick, so that effective earth arching will support most of the weight of the
earth covering and will provide considerable protection if struck by blast.
b. If the earth is wet, place the waterproof material directly on top of the doors, to keep them dry and
strong. To make water run off this waterproof covering and to keep water from collecting on a horizontal
surface and leaking through, slope the doors toward one side of the trench by first making one side of the
trench about 3 in. higher than the other side. A way to raise one side without increasing the distance the
doors must span is to place an earth-filled roll" of bed sheets or other material along one edge of the trench.
To keep the waterproof material used to cover the doors from sliding down the slope of the doors when
earth is shoveled on, tuck the upper edge of the material under the higher ends of the doors. Finally, mound
earth over the doors, first placing it near their ends. The mound should be at least 2 ft deep above the
centerline of the roof and about 3 or 4 in. deep over both ends of the doors.
If more waterproof material is available than is required to make a buried roof (or to cover the doors) and
to make the illustrated canopies over the two shelter openings, use this excess material to cover the wet
ground on which the doors are placed.
19. Dig small drainage ditches around the completed shelter, to lead runoff water away.
20. To keep rain and/or sand-like fallout particles from falling into the shelter openings, build an open-sided
canopy over each opening, as illustrated in Fig. A, shown in the introduction section of Appendix A.
21 Install the air pump (a KAP) in the shelter opening into which air is already naturally moving.
22. If the shelter has a KAP, protection against radiation can be increased by placing containers of water and of
heavy foods, or bags of earth, so as to partially block the openings. This would still permit adequate air to be
pumped through the shelter, except in very hot weather.
23. For seats, place water and food containers bedding, etc. along the side of the trench that is farther from the
off-center entry trenches. If the trench floor is damp, covering it with a waterproof material, tree limbs, or brush
will help.
24. Fill all available water containers, including pits which have been dug and lined with plastic, then roofed with
available materials. If possible, disinfect all water stored in expedient containers, using one scant teaspoon of a
chlorine bleach, such as Clorox, for each 10 gallons of water. Even if only muddy water is available, store it. If
you do not have a disinfectant, it may be possible to boil water when needed.
Book Page: 163
25. Put at least your most useful emergency tools inside your shelter.
26. As time and materials permit, continue to improve your chances of surviving by doing as many of the following
things as possible:
(1) Make a homemade fallout meter, as described in Appendix C, and expedient lights. (Prudent people
will have made these extremely useful items well ahead of time.)
(2) Install screens or mosquito netting over the two openings, if mosquitoes or flies are a problem.
Remember, however, that screen or netting reduces the air flow through a shelter -- even when the air is
pumped through with a KAP.
(3) Dig a stand-up hole near the far end of the shelter. Make the hole about 15 in. in diameter and deep
enough to permit the tallest of the shelter occupants to stand erect occasionally.
Fig. A. 1. Door-Covered Trench Shelter. ORNL DWG 73-11769R
Book Page: 164
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App. A.2: Pole-Covered Trench Shelter
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PROTECTION PROVIDED
Against fallout radiation: Protection Factor 300 (PF 300) a person in the open outside this shelter
would receive 300 times more fallout radiation than he would if he were inside.
Against blast: Quite good protection if built in stable earth. Blast tests have indicated that this shelter,
if built in stable earth, would not be seriously damaged by blast effects of large explosions at least up to
the 7-psi overpressure range. (At 7 psi, most buildings would be demolished.) Without blast doors,
occupants of the shelter could be injured, although probably not fatally at this overpressure.
Against fire: Excellent, if sufficiently distant from fires producing carbon monoxide and toxic smoke.
WHERE PRACTICAL
In wooded areas with small trees, for builders who have an ax or a bow saw, crosscut or chain saw,
and digging tools. Or in any location where the necessary poles may be obtained.
In stable earth, where the water table or rock is more than 4-1/2 ft below the surface.
FOR WHOM PRACTICAL
For a typical family or other group with two or more members able to work hard for most of 48 hours.
(Stronger-than-average families with almost all members able to work hard have completed this type of
shelter is about 24 hours after receiving step-by-step, well illustrated instructions, before traveling to the
wooded building site and beginning to cut trees and haul poles.)
CAPACITY
The shelter illustrated is the minimum length recommended for 4 persons. For each additional person, add at least 2-3/4 ft to
the length of the shelter room. If more than about 10 persons are to be sheltered, build 2 or more separate shelters.
BUILDING INSTRUCTIONS
1. Before beginning work, study the drawings and read ALL of the following instructions. Divide the work so that some
people will be digging while others are cutting and hauling poles. CHECK OFF EACH STEP WHEN COMPLETED.
2. By the time the shelter is finished, plan to have completed: (1) a ventilating pump, and (2) the storage of at least 15
gallons of drinking water per occupant (see Appendix B and Chapter 8).
3. Start to assemble materials and tools. Those listed are for the illustrated 4-person shelter with a room 11 ft long.
A. Essential Materials and Tools
° Saw (bow saw or crosscut preferred) and or ax for cutting poles to the lengths and diameters illustrated.
° Shovels (one for each two workers).
° Pick (if the ground is hard).
° Rainproof roof materials (very important in rainy, cold weather). At least 2 square yards of such material per
person would be required; 3 square yards per person would be better. Shower curtains, plastic tablecloths,
plastic mattress covers, canvas, and the like can be used. Also needed are 2 pieces of plastic or tightly woven
cloth, each about 6 $2 X 61.2 ft, to make canopies over the two shelter openings.
° Materials and tools for building a simple shelter-ventilating pump, a KAP 22 in. wide and 36 in. long. (See
Appendix B.) Only in cold or continuously breezy, cool weather can tolerable temperatures and humidities be
maintained for days in a crowded underground shelter that lacks an air pump.
Book Page: 165
° Containers for storing adequate water. (See Chapter 8.)
B. Useful Materials and Tools
° Large cans, buckets, and / or pots with bail handles in which to carry earth and later to store drinking water and
human wastes.
° Two bedsheets and two pillowcases per person for covering cracks between roofing logs, making "sandbags,"
and improvising bedsheet-hammocks and bedsheet-chairs.
° A file.
° A measuring tape, yardstick, or ruler.
° Rope, or strong wire (100 ft) to make earth-retaining pole walls close to the shelter openings (as explained in
step 19) and for hammock supports, etc.
° Chain saw, pick-mattock, hammer, hatchet, pliers.
° Kerosene, turpentine, or oil to keep hand saws from sticking in gummy wood.
° Expedient life-support items recommended in this book.
° Mosquito netting or window screen to cover the openings, if mosquitoes or flies are likely to be a problem.
4. To save time and work, SHARPEN ALL TOOLS AND KEEP THEM SHARP.
5. Wear gloves from the start even tough hands can blister after hours of chopping and digging, and become painful and
infected.
6. If possible, select a location for the shelter that is in the open and at least 50 ft from a building 9r woods. Remember
that on a clear day the thermal pulse (flash of heat rays) from a very large nuclear explosion may cause fires as far away
as 25 miles.
7. If the site chosen is on a steep slope, locate the shelter with its length crosswise to the direction of the slope.
8. Stake out the outlines of the trench, driving stakes as indicated in Fig. A.2.l at the end of Appendix A.2. If more than
4 persons are to be sheltered, increase the length of the shelter room by 2 ft 9 in. for each additional person.
9. Clear the ground of saplings and tall grass within 10 ft of the staked outlines so that later the excavated earth can be
easily shoveled back onto the completed shelter roof.
10. Start digging, throwing the first earth about 10 ft beyond the staked outlines of the trench. Less able members of the
family should do the easier digging, near the surface. Those members who can use an ax and saw should cut and haul
poles. See the introductory section of this appendix for the know-how to make this hard work easier.
11. Pile all excavated earth at least 2 ft beyond the edges of the trench, so roofing poles can be laid directly on the
ground. To make sure that the trenches are dug to the specified full widths at the bottoms, cut and use two sticks one 42
in. long and the other 22 in. long to check trench widths repeatedly.
12. At the far end of-the shelter dig the ventilation trench-emergency exit, making it 22 in. wide and 40 in. deep. This will
help provide essential ventilation and cooling. In cold weather or when fallout is descending, canvas or plastic curtains
should be hung in the two openings to control the air flow.
13. Make and install threshold boards, to keep the edges of earth steps and earth ledges from being broken off. (In
damp earth, it is best to install threshold boards before roofing the shelter.) If boards are lacking, use small poles.
14. Unless the weather is cold, build a shelter- ventilating pump a KAP 20 in. wide X 36 in. high. (If the weather is cold,
building a KAP can be safely delayed until after the shelter is completed.) A KAP should be made before a crisis, or, if
possible, before leaving home.
15. Obtain fresh-cut green poles, or, as a second choice, sound, dry, untreated poles. Use no poles smaller in diameter
than those specified in the accompanying drawings. For ease in hauling, select poles no more than 50% larger in diameter
than those specified.
Book Page: 166
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16. Lay the poles side by side over the trench. Alternate the large and small ends to keep the poles straight across
the trench. If roof poles 9 ft long are being used to roof a 5-ft-wide trench, be sure to place the roof poles so that
their ends extend 2 ft farther beyond one side of the trench than beyond the other side. This will enable shelter
occupants, after the stoop-in shelter is completed, to widen the shelter room 2 ft on one side. First, it can be
widened to provide a 2-ft- wide sleeping ledge. Later, it can be further deepened to make space for additional
expedient hammocks or for double-bunk beds of poles or boards built on each side of the shelter.
17. For ease and safety later when hanging expedient bedsheet-hammocks and bed sheet-chairs in the completed
shelter, place loose loops around roof poles in the approximate locations given by the diagram on the second shelter
drawing, Fig. A.2.2. Make these loose loops of rope, or strong wire, or 16-in-wide strips of strong cloth, such as 50cv
polyester bedsheet rolled up to form a "rope". (For making hammocks and seats, see Chapter 14. These are not
essential, although decidedly useful.)
18. Cover the cracks between the logs with cloth, leaves, clay, or any other material that will keep dirt from falling down
between the cracks. CAUTION: DO NOT try to rainproof this flat roof, and then simply cover it with earth. Water will
seep through the loose earth cover, puddle on the flat roofing material, and leak through the joints between pieces of
roofing material or through small holes.
19. Place 6-ft-long poles, one on top of the other, next to the entrances. This will keep earth to be placed on top of the
entryway trenches from falling into the openings. Secure these poles with wire or rope. (See View A-A1 in Fig. A.2.l.) If
wire or rope is not available, make earth-filled "rolls" to hold the earth nearly vertical on the trench roof next to each
opening. (See the introductory section of this appendix.)
20. Mound earth to a center depth of about 18 in. over the shelter roof (as shown in View B-B1 in Fig. A.2.1.) to form
the surface of the future "buried roof." Be sure to slope both sides of the mound. Then smooth its surface and remove
sharp roots and stones that might puncture thin rain proofing materials to be placed upon it.
21. Place the waterproofing material on the "buried roof." If small pieces must be used, lay them in shingle-like fashion,
starting at the lower sides of the mounded earth.
22. Cover the buried roof with another 18 in. of mounded earth, and smooth this final earth surface.
23. Finish the entrances by placing some shorter poles between the two longer poles next to each entryway. Bank and
pack earth at least 6 in. deep around the sides of the entrances, so that .rainwater on the ground cannot run into the
shelter entrances.
24. Dig surface drainage ditches around the outside of the mounded earth and around the entrances.
25. Place a piece of water-shedding material over each of the entrances, forming an open-ended canopy to keep fallout
and rain from the shelter openings. (See Fig. A in the introductory section of Appendix A.) Almost all fallout would settle
on these suspended canopies, rather than falling into shelter openings or would fall off their edges and onto the ground
like sand.
26. Hang the KAP from the roof of the trench opening into which outdoor air can be felt flowing, so that air will be
pumped in the direction of the natural flow of air. (If you have no KAP, make and use a small Directional Fan.)
27. Fill all available water containers, including pits which have been dug and lined with plastic, then roofed with available
materials. If possible, disinfect all water stored in expedient containers, using one scant teaspoon of a chlorine bleach,
such as Clorox, for each 10 gallons of water. Even if only muddy water is available, store it. If you do not have a
disinfectant, it may be possible to boil water when needed.
28. Put all of your emergency tools inside your shelter.
29. As time and materials permit, continue to improve your chances of surviving by doing as many of the following things
as possible:
(1) Make a homemade fallout meter, as described in Appendix C, and expedient lights. (Prudent people will have
made these extremely useful items well ahead of time.)
(2) Make and hang expedient bedsheet-hammocks and bedsheet-chairs, following the installation diagram shown
in Fig. A.2.2.
(3) Install screens or mosquito netting over the two openings, if mosquitoes or flies are a problem. Remember,
however, that screen or netting reduces the air flow through a shelter even when the air is pumped through with a
KAP.
(4) Dig a stand-up hole near the far end of the shelter. Make the hole about 15 in. in diameter and deep enough to
permit the tallest of the shelter occupants to stand erect occasionally.
Book Page: 167
Fig. A.2.1. Pole-Covered Trench Shelter. ORNL DWG 74-11755R
Book Page: 168
Fig.. A.2.2. Pole-Covered Trench Shelter ORNL DWG 74-11756R
Book Page: 169
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App. A.3: Small-Pole Shelter
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PROTECTION PROVIDED
Against fallout radiation: Protection Factor 1000 (PF 1000), if the shelter is covered with at least 3
ft of earth. That is, a person in the open outside this shelter will receive a gamma ray dose 1000 times
greater than he will receive inside the shelter. See drawings at the end of Appendix A.3.
Against blast: This shelter is excellent for preventing fatalities if it is built with strong expedient blast
doors; it is still quite good ifbuilt without them. (These instructions are for fallout shelters. The
instructions for making blast doors and other essentials for adequate blast protection are given in
Appendix D. Without blast doors, occupants are likely to suffer serious injuries above 7 psi.)
Against fire: Excellent, if sufficiently distant from fires that produce carbon monoxide and toxic
smoke.
WHERE PRACTICAL
In wooded areas with small trees, for builders who have a saw (bow saw, crosscut, or chain saw) and
digging tools. Any location is suitable if the necessary poles may be obtained there. Try to avoid roots.
For belowground, semiburied, or aboveground construction. (However, aboveground construction
requires the excavation and movement of so much earth that it is not practical for 2-day construction by
families with only hand tools.)
FOR WHOM PRACTICAL
For families or other groups with most members able to work hard 12 hours a day for 2 days. (Most people do not realize how
hard and long they can work if given a strong incentive.)
CAPACITY
The drawings and lists of materials given in these instructions are for a 12-person shelter. For each additional occupant beyond
12, add 1 ft to the length of the shelter room.
This shelter requires less work and materials per occupant if its room is sized for about 24 persons, because the entrances are
the same regardless of the length of the room. (To make the shelter room twice as long, each of the horizontal, ladder-like
braces on the floor and near the ceiling of the room can be made with two poles on a side, rather than one long pole on a side.)
If the room is sized for more than 24 people, management and hygiene problems become more difficult when it is occupied.
For 12 people to live for many days in this shelter without serious hardship, the benches and bunks must be built with the
dimensions and spacings given in the illustration. Or, materials must be available for making and suspending 12 expedient
bedsheet hammocks that can be converted each day into 12 bedsheet-chairs.
BUILDING INSTRUCTIONS
1. Study both of the two drawings (Fig. A.3.1 and A.3.2 at the end of Appendix A.3) and read all of these instructions
before beginning work. CHECK OFF EACH STEP WHEN COMPLETED.
2. By the time the shelter is finished, plan to have completed (1) a ventilating pump (a KAP 24 in wide and 36 in. high),
essential except in cold weather, and (2) the storage of at least 15 gallons of water per occupant.
Book Page: 170
3. Start to assemble the required materials. For building a 12-person Small-Pole Shelter, the materials are:
° Green poles. No pole should have a small end of less diameter than the minimum diameter specified for its use
by Figs. A.3.1 and A.3.2. The table below lists the number and sizes of poles needed to build a 12-person
Small-Pole Shelter.
Pole Length
Minimum
Diameter of
Small End
Number of
Poles
Required
Widthb
6 ft 2 in.
5 in.
2
-
3 ft 1 in.
5 in.
12
-
2 ft 4 in.a
5 in.
12
-
10 ft 8 in.
5 in.
-
7 ft.
8 ft 8 in.
5 in.
-
7 ft.
10 ft 6 in.
4 in.
4
-
7 ft 2 in.
4 in.
-
47 ft.
5 ft 6 in.a
4 in.
12
-
6 ft 10 in.
4 in.
-
3 ft.
6 ft 3 in.
4 in.
8
-
2 ft 6 in.a
4 in.
16
-
2 ft 3 in.
4 in.
4
-
5 ft 2 in.
3-1/2 in.
-
8 ft.
3 ft 10 in.
3-1/2 in.
-
36 ft.
10 ftc
2 in.
12
-
a To be shortened to fit for crossbraces.
b Width equals the distance measured across a single layer of poles when a sufficient number of poles are laid on the
ground side by side and touching, to cover a rectangular area.
c For supports during construction.
NOTE: The above list does not include flooring materials, to be placed between the poles of the ladder-like braces on
the earth floor.
° Rainproofing materials: Preferably one 100-ft roll, 12 ft wide, of 6-mil polyethylene. The minimum amount
needed is 200 sq. ft. of 4-mil polyethylene, or 200 sq. ft of other waterproof plastic such as tablecloths, shower
curtains, and or vinyl floor covering. Also include 100 ft. of sticks for use in drainage ditch drains (1/2-in.
diameter, any lengths).
° Nails, wire, and; or cord: Ten pounds of 40-penny nails plus 4 pounds of 16-penny nails are ideal. However, 7
pounds of 16-penny nails can serve.
° Boards for benches and overhead bunks, if bedsheet-hammocks are not to be used. (Boards are desirable, but
not essential; small poles can be used instead.) 2 X 4-in. boards 70 feet for frames (or use 3-in.-diameter poles).
1 X 8-in. boards 100 feet (or use 1-to 2-in-diameter poles).
° Materials to build a homemade ventilating pump (a KAP 24 in. wide and 36 in. high see Appendix B) and to
store at least 15 gallons of water per occupant (see Chapter 8).
4. Desirable muscle-powered tools for building a 12-person, Small-Pole Shelter are listed below. (Most builders have
succeeded without having this many tools. A backhoe, chain saws, and other mechanized equipment would be helpful,
but not essential.)
Tools
Quantity
Ax, long-handle
2
Bow-saw, 28-in.
2
(or 2-man crosscut saw)
1
Pick
2
Shovel, long-handle
3
Claw hammer
2
File, 10-in.
1
Steel tape, l0-ft
1
(Also useful: a 50-ft steel tape and 2 hatchets)
5. To help drain the floor, locate the shelter so that the original ground level at the entrance is about 12 inches lower than
the original ground level at the far end of the shelter unless the location is in a very flat area.
6. Stake out the trench for the entire shelter. Even in very firm ground, if the illustrated 12-person shelter is being built,
make the excavation at the surface 9 ft 8 in. wide and 18 ft long (3 ft longer than the entire length of the wooden shelter).
The sloping sides of the excavation are necessary, even in very firm earth, to provide adequate space for backfilling and
tamping. (The trench illustrated in Fig. A.3.l is 6 ft 4 in. deep, to minimize work when providing only for excellent fallout
protection. For improved blast protection, the trench should be at least 7 ft deep.)
7. Check the squareness of the staked trench outline by making its diagonals equal.
8. Clear all brush, tall grass, and the like from the ground, to a distance of 10 ft all around the staked location so that
later you can easily shovel loose earth back onto the roof.
9. If the ground is unstable, excavate with sides that are appropriately less steep.
10. When digging the trench for the shelter, use a measuring stick 7 ft 8 in. long (the minimum bottom width) to
repeatedly check the excavation width.
Book Page: 171
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11. When digging with a shovel, pile the earth dug from near ground level about 10 ft. away from the edges of the
excavation. Earth dug from 5 or 6 ft below ground level then can easily be piled on the surface only 1 to 5 ft from the
edge of the excavation.
12. Finish the bottom of the excavation so that it slopes vertically 1/2 in. per foot of length toward the entrance, and also
slopes toward the central drain ditch. (Later, sticks covered with porous fabric should be placed in the ditches, to serve
like a crushed-rock drain leading to a sump.)
13. While some persons are excavating, others should be cutting green poles and hauling them to the site. Cut poles that
have tops no smaller than the specified diameters for each type of pole (not including the bark).
14. For ease in handling poles, select wall and roof poles with top diameters no more than 50% larger than the specified
minimum diameters.
15. Sort the poles by size and lay all poles of the same size together, near the excavation.
16. Before the excavation is completed, start building the ladder-like, horizontal braces of the shelter frame. Construct
these braces on smooth ground near the excavation. Place two straight poles, each 10 ft 6 in. long (with small-end
diameters of 4 in.), on smooth ground, parallel and 6 ft 2 in. apart. Hold these poles securely so that their outer sides are
exactly 6 ft 2 in. apart, by driving two pairs of stakes into the ground so that they just touch the outsides of the two long
poles. Each of the four stakes should be located about one foot from the end of a pole. To keep the 10 ft 6 in. poles
from being rotated during the next step, nail two boards or small poles across them perpendicularly as temporary'
braces, about 4 ft apart.
Then with an ax or hatchet, slightly flatten the inner sides of the two poles at the spots where the ends of the 6
cross-brace poles will be nailed. Next, saw each cross-brace pole to the length required to fit snugly into its place.
Finally, toenail each cross-brace pole in place, preferably with two 40-penny nails in each end.
17. Place the lower, ladder-like horizontal brace of the main room on the floor of the completed excavation.
18. Build the frame of the main room. Near the four corners of the room, secure four of its wall poles in their final vertical
positions by nailing, wiring, or tying temporary brace-poles to the inner sides of these 4 wall poles and to the inner sides
of the two long poles of the ladder-like horizontal brace on the bottom of the excavation. To keep the two pairs of
vertical wall poles exactly 6 ft 2 in. apart until the upper ladder-like horizontal brace is secured in its place, nail a
temporary horizontal brace across each pair of vertical poles, about 1 ft below their tops.
19. To support the upper ladder-like horizontal brace, nail blocks to the inner sides of the four vertical wall poles, as
shown in the lower right- hand corner of the pictorial view, Fig. A.3.2. If you have large nails, use a block about 3 in.
thick and 6 in. long, preferably cut from a green, 4-in.- diameter pole.
20. In the finished shelter, DO NOT leave any vertical support poles under the long poles of the upper ladder-like
horizontal brace; to do so would seriously reduce the usable space along the walls for benches, bunks, and occupants.
21. While some workers are building the frame of the main room, other workers should make the four ladder-like
horizontal braces for the two entrances, then make the complete entrances. To keep the ladder-like horizontal braces
square during construction and back-filling, nail a temporary diagonal brace across each one.
22. When the four wall poles and the two ladder-like horizontal braces of the main room are in place, put the remaining
vertical wall poles in place, touching each other, until all walls are completed. When placing the wall poles, keep them
vertical by alternately putting a butt and a top end uppermost. Wall poles can be held in position by backfilling and
tamping about a foot of earth against their lower ends, or they can be wired in position until backfilled.
23. Be sure to use the two 5-in.-diameter poles (6 ft 2 in. long) by placing one next to the top and the other next to the
bottom of each of the main doorways to the room. Study the drawings. Use braces, each 2 ft 3 in. long, to hold apart the
top and bottom of each doorway thus making sure that a 24-in.-wide air pump can swing in either doorway.
24. To prevent earth from coming through the cracks between wall poles, cover the walls with cloth, plastic, rugs,
roofing, or even cardboard. If none of these are available, use sticks, twigs, or grass to cover the wider cracks.
Book Page: 172
25. After all horizontal bracing and vertical wall poles are in place, begin backfilling, putting earth between the walls and
trench sides. Pay particular attention to the order of filling. The earth fill behind all the walls must be brought up quite
evenly, so that the earth fill behind one side is no more than 12 in. higher at any one time than the earth on the opposite
side. Lightly tamp the earth fill in 6-in. layers. A pole makes a good tamper; do not use a mechanical tamper.
26. Next, lay the roof poles side by side, touching each other on top of the wall poles. Cover at least the larger cracks
with plastic, roofing, boards, or sticks to keep earth from falling through. If the earth is sandy, cover the whole roof with
some material such as bedsheets or plastic to keep sand from running through the cracks.
CAUTION: Donot try to rainproof this flat roof and simply cover it with earth. If you do, water will seep straight
through the loose earth cover, puddle on the flat roofing material, and leak through the joints between pieces of roofing
material or through small holes.
27. Mound earth over the shelter, piling it about 15 in. deep along the centerline of the roof and sloping it toward the
sides of the roof, so that the earth is only about 2 in. deep over the ends of the roof poles. (Preparatory to mounding
earth onto the roof, place grade stakes in position so you will be able to know the locations and depths of roof poles as
you cover them.) Continue these slopes to two side drainage ditches. Smooth this mounded earth with a rake or stick
and remove any sticks or rocks likely to puncture the rainproof roofing material to be laid on it.
28. Place rainproofing material on top of the smooth, mounded earth as shown in sections of the drawings in Fig. A.3.l to
make a "buried roof." Plastic film, such as 4-mil polyethylene, is preferable. Roofing material, plastic shower curtains and
tablecloths, or canvas can also be used. Be sure to overlap adjoining pieces.
29. Place the rest of the earth cover over the shelter, being sure that the corners of the shelter have at least 2-1/2 ft of
earth over them. Mound the dirt, smoothing its surface so that water will tend to run off to the surface drainage ditches
which should be dug all around the edges of the mounded earth..
30. Build the benches and overhead bunks. If boards are available, use them; if not, use small, straight poles. On each
side, build a row of benches and bunks 9 ft long, centered in the shelter. In order to use the shelter space to the greatest
advantage, make the heights and widths of the benches and bunks the same as the thoroughly tested heights (14 in. and 4
ft 5 in.) and widths (16 in. and 24 in.) given by Fig. A.3.2. Also be sure to space their vertical supports 3 ft apart so two
adults can sit between each pair of vertical bunk supports.
31. Narrow the ends of the overhead bunks so that the aisle between them is about 28 in. wide for a distance of 38 in.
from each doorway. This allows room for installation and operation of an expedient air pump (a KAP) for prevention of
dangerous overheating in warm weather.
32. Place a canopy (open on all sides) over each entrance, to minimize the entry of sand-like fallout particles or rain.
33. To improve the floor, lay small poles between the lower brace poles, so that the floor is approximately level. Or, use
sticks covered with scrap boards.
34. Fill all available water containers, including pits which have been dug and lined with plastic, then roofed with available
materials. If possible, disinfect all water stored in expedient containers, using one scant teaspoon of a chlorine bleach,
such as Clorox, for each 10 gallons of water. Even if only muddy water is available, store it. If you do not have a
disinfectant, it may be possible to boil water when needed.
35. Put all of your emergency tools inside your shelter.
36. As time and materials permit, continue to improve your chances of surviving by doing as many of the following things
as possible:
(1) Make a homemade fallout meter, as described in Appendix C, and expedient lights. (Prudent people will have
made these extremely useful items well ahead of time.)
(2) Install screens or mosquito netting over the two openings, if mosquitoes or flies are a problem. Remember,
however, that screen or netting reduces the air flow through a shelter -- even when the air is pumped through with
a KAP.
Book Page: 173
EXPEDIENT VENTILATION AND COOLING
(Those workers who are to work only on the shelter itself, if pushed for time, need not read this section before beginning their
work.)
Install a KAP (one that is 24 in. wide and 36 in. high) near the top of the doorway through which you can feel air naturally
flowing into the shelter room at that time. (If the direction of the natural air flow changes, move the KAP to the other opening.)
To enable the KAP to efficiently pump fresh air from the outdoors all the way through the shelter, block the lower half of the
doorway in which the KAP is installed with a quickly removable covering, such as a plastic-covered frame made of sticks. Be
sure to connect the KAP's pullcord only 11 in. below its hinge line. This prevents excessive arm motions which would cause
unnecessary fatigue.
If short of time or materials, make a small Directional Fan.
In windy or cold weather, control the natural flow of air through the shelter by hanging adjustable curtains in the doorways at
both ends, and or by making and using trapdoors on the tops of the vertical entryways. For adjustable curtains, use pieces of
plastic, each with a supporting stick attached to its upper edge. This allows for different sized openings in the doorways: (1) an
opening under the lower edge of the adjustable curtain at the air intake end of the room, and (2) an opening over the top of the
curtain at the air-exhaust end of the room. In cold weather, this arrangement usually will provide adequate chimney-type
ventilation for the shelter without using an air pump.
Book Page: 174
Fig. A.3.1. Plan and Elevation of Small-Pole Shelter (ORNL-DWG 71-3428 R4)
Book Page: 175
Fig. A.3.2. Pictorial View of Small-Pole Shelter (ORNL-DWG 71-3429 R3)
Book Page: 176
Copyright 2000 Nuclear War Survival Skills
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App. A.4: Aboveground, Door-Covered Shelter
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PROTECTION PROVIDED
Against fallout radiation: Protection Factor about 200 (PF 200) if
covered with 30 in. of earth. (A person in the open outside this shelter would receive about 200 times
more fallout radiation than if he were inside.) The drawing at the end of Appendix A.4 shows the earth
cover only 20 in. thick, resulting in a PF of about 100.
Against blast: Better protection than most homes. Blast tests have indicated that this shelter would be
undamaged at least up to the 5-psi overpressure range from large explosions. Without blast doors the
shelter's occupants could be injured at this overpressure range, although probably not fatally.
Against fire: Fair, ifthe cloth in the entries is covered with mud and if the shelter is sufficiently distant
from fires producing carbon monoxide and toxic smoke.
WHERE PRACTICAL
In a location where at least one hollow-core door per occupant is available, where a dry trench at least
14 inches deep can be dug without difficulty, but the water table or rock is too close to the surface for
a covered-trench shelter to be practical. (A family evacuating in a pickup truck or large station wagon
can carry enough doors, with doorknobs removed. Strong boards at least 6 feet long and at least one
full inch thick, or plywood at least 3/4-inch thick, also can be used to roof this shelter and to support its
overhead earth shielding.
Warning: Some doors with single-thickness panels if loaded with earth will break before they bend
enough to result in protective earth arching.
FOR WHOM PRACTICAL
For a typical family or other group with two or more members able to work hard for most of 36 hours. Very little building skill
is needed. (An urban family of six, with 14- and 12-year-old sons and 13- and 9-year-old daughters, completed this shelter,
sized for six persons, in one long working day: 13 hours and 43 minutes after receiving the step-by-step, will illustrated
instructions at their Florida home 10 miles from the rural building site. This family used its pickup truck to carry them, the
interior doors, and other survival items.)
CAPACITY
The shelter illustrated in Fig. A.4 is the minimum length for 4 persons. It is roofed with 6 doors.
For each additional person, add another door. (If more than about 7 persons are to be sheltered, build 2 or more separate
shelters.)
BUILDING INSTRUCTIONS
1. Before beginning work, study the drawing and read ALL of the following instructions. Divide the work so that some
will be digging while others are building an air pump, storing water, etc. CHECK OFF EACH STEP WHEN
COMPLETED.
2. By the time the shelter is finished, plan to have completed a ventilating pump (a 16-in.-wide by 24- in.-high KAP
essential except in cold weather) and the storage of 15 gallons of water per occupant. (See Appendix B and Chapter 8.)
3. Start to assemble the materials and tools needed. For the illustrated 4-person shelter, these are:
A. Essential Materials and Tools
° Six doors. Boards or plywood at least 5/8-in. thick can be used to replace one or more of the doors.
° At least 4 double-bed sheets for each of the first four persons, and 3 double-bed sheets for each
additional person to be sheltered or enough pieces of fabric and or of plastic to cover at least as large an
area as the sheets would cover. (This material is for making aboveground shelter walls, to serve as sand
bags.)
° Rainproofing materials (plastic film, shower curtains, plastic tablecloths, mattress protectors, etc.) 15
square yards for the first 4 persons and 2-1/2 square yards for each additional person.
Book Page: 177
° A shovel (one shovel for each two workers is desirable). A pick or mattock if the ground is very hard.
° A knife (the only essential tool for making a small shelter-ventilating KAP) and materials for a KAP 16 in.
wide and 24 in. high. (See Appendix B.)
° Containers for storing water. (See Chapter 8.)
B. Useful Materials and Tools
° Two or more buckets, large cans and or large pots with bail handles to carry earth, and later to store
water or wastes.
° Saw (or ax or hatchet) to cut a few boards or small poles.
° Hammer and at least 15 small nails (at least 2-1/2 in. long).
° Tape measure, yardstick, or ruler.
° Additional cloth and/ or plastic equivalent in size to 2 more double-bed sheets for each person.
° Additional waterproof material 2 more square yards per person.
° Pillowcases, or cloth or plastic bags to serve as earth-filled sand bags. The more, the better.
4. To save time and work, sharpen all tools and keep them sharp.
5. Wear gloves from the start, to help prevent blisters and infections.
6. Select a building site where there is little or no chance of the ground being covered with water, and where the water
table (groundwater level) is not likely to rise closer than 18 inches to the surface.
7. To avoid the extra work of digging among roots, select a site away from trees, if practical.
8. To lessen the dangers of fire and smoke from nearby houses or trees that might catch fire, locate your shelter as far as
is practical from houses and flammable vegetation.
9. Before staking out your shelter, provide one door per person to roof the main room plus one additional door for each
of the two entries. Be sure the door knobs have been removed. Use the two widest doors to roof the entries.
10. To be sure that all the walls will be in the proper positions to be roofed with the available doors, lay all the doors on
the ground, touching each other and in the same relative positions they will have when used to roof the shelter. When all
the roof doors are on the ground, side by side, determine the exact length of the shelter room. (Note that Fig. A.4
illustrates a shelter sized for only 4 persons.)
11. Stake out the shelter
12. Make the earth-filled "rolls" that will form the aboveground walls of your shelter. To make walls out of the rolls:
(1) Use doors as vertical forms to hold the earth-filled rolls in place until the walls are completed. (These
are the same doors that you will use later to roof the shelter.)
(2) Brace the door-forms with 36-in.-long braces (boards or sticks) that press against the doors, as shown
in Fig. A.4. Nail only the upper braces, using only very small nails.
(3) After the forms for the two inner sides of the shelter have been finished, put parts of the long sides of
bedsheets on the ground, as illustrated. (Or use other equally wide, strong cloth or plastic material.) About
a 2- ft width of cloth should be on the ground, and the rest of each sheet should be folded up out of the
way, over the outsides of the door-forms. Adjacent sheets should overlap about 1 ft when making a roll
than is longer than one sheet.
(4) Shovel earth onto the parts of the sheet on the ground to the height of the rolls you are making, as
shown. Note that the roll to be made on one side is 2 in. higher than the roll on the other side.
(5) Shape the surface of the shoveled-on earth as illustrated, to hold the hooks" of cloth to be formed when
the exposed sides of the sheets are folded down.
(6) Fold down the upper side of each sheet while pulling on it to keep it tight and without wrinkles. It
should lie on the prepared earth surface, including the small narrow trench, as illustrated in the first section
of this appendix.
Book Page: 178
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(7) Pack earth onto the part of the folded-down sheet that is in the narrow, shallow trench. Then, as shown
in the sketches at the bottom of the accompanying drawing, fold back the loose edge over this small
amount of packed earth to form a "hook." (The hook keeps the weight of the earth inside a roll from pulling
the cloth out of its proper position.)
(8) Make a roll first on one side of the shelter, then on the other, to keep the heights of the earth on both
sides of the shelter about equal. This will keep the unequal heights of earth from pushing the door-forms out
of their vertical positions.
(9) Add additional earth on top of the rolls so that the height of the level earth surface, out to the full width
of a roll, is the same as the height of the cloth-covered part of the roll that is against the door-form.
(10) When the roll walls have been raised to their planned heights on both sides of the shelter, remove the
braces and the doorforms - being careful to keep the brace nails from damaging the doors.
(11) The door-forms of the side-walls of the shelter can be removed before building the end-walls.
13. When smoothing the earth surfaces of the final tops of the roll walls on both sides, check to see that they have the
same slope as the lower sides of the roof doors will have after they are placed on the roll walls. (A slope is necessary so
that rainwater reaching the waterproof covering to be placed over the doors will run off the lower side.) Study Fig. A.4.
14. After the side-walls have been completed (except for their ends that form the sides of an entry) and after the
door-forms have been removed, use the same doors for forms to build the two 22-in.-wide entries.
15. Use earth-filled "sand bags" (made of pillowcases or sacks, and/ or the tucked-in ends of earth- filled rolls) to make
the outer ends of each entryway.
16. Make the two doorway frames if lumber, nails, and a saw are available. Make each frame as high as the wall on
each side of it, and slope the top board of each frame so that it will press flat against the door to be supported. (If
materials for a frame are lacking, place a single 2 by 4-in. board or a pole about 6 ft. long across the top of the entry, in
the position shown in Fig. A.4 for the top of the doorway frame.)
17. After carefully removing all the temporary braces from the door-forms and the doors themselves, improve the slopes
of the tops of all supporting walls so that the doors will be supported evenly and, without being twisted, will make
contact with the smooth, sloping earth or cloth upon which they will rest.
18. If more than enough waterproof plastic or similarmaterial is available to cover all the roof doors, also cover the tops
of the walls on which the roof doors will rest. This will keep the doors from absorbing water from damp earth.
19. Dig the illustrated 14-in.-deep, 36-in.-wide trench inside the shelter. (If the water table is too high to dig down 14
in.., in some locations the walls can be raised to a height of 38 in. by cutting turf sods and laying them on top of the walls.
Another way the wall height can be increased is by making additional rolls.)
20. Place the roof doors in their final positions, and cover them with waterproof material (if available). Be sure the
waterproof material is folded under the higher edges of the doors to keep the material from slipping downward on the
sloping doors as earth is shoveled onto the roof.
21. Extend the waterproof material on top of the doors a couple of feet beyond the lower ends of the doors if enough
material is available to cover all of the roof doors.
22. When shoveling the first layer of earth onto the rainproof material protecting the doors, avoid hitting and possibly
puncturing it with rocks or sharp pointed roots in the earth.
23. To make earth arching more effective in supporting most of the earth to be placed on the roof doors, first mound
earth on and near the ends of the doors.
24. Cover the roof with at least 20 in. of earth. Make sure that there also is a thickness of at least 20 in. of earth at the
corners of both the room and entries.
Book Page: 179
25. To prevent surface water from running into the shelter if it rains hard, mound packed earth about 5 in. high just inside
the two entries. Rain can be kept out by a small canopy or awning that extends 2 or 3 ft in front of the outermost edge of
a doorway that roofs an entry.
26. If any waterproof material remains, use it to cover the floor of the shelter.
27. If the weather is warm or hot, install a 16-in.-wide by 24-in.-high air pump (a KAP). Attach its hinges to the board
across the roof of the entry into which outside air is moving naturally at the time. (If short of time or materials for a KAP,
make a small Directional Fan.)
28. Cover all exposed combustible material with mud, earth, or other fireproof material, to reduce the chance of
exposed cloth being ignited from a nuclear explosion or heat from a nearby fire.
29. Fill all available water containers, including pits which have been dug and lined with plastic, then roofed with available
materials. If possible, disinfect allwater stored in expedient containers, using one scant teaspoon of a chlorine bleach,
such as Clorox, for each 10 gallons of water. Even if only muddy water is available, store it. If you do not have a
disinfectant, it may be possible to boil water when needed.
30. Put at least your most useful emergency tools inside your shelter.
31. As time and materials permit, continue to improve your chances of surviving by doing as many of the following things
as possible:
(1) Make a homemade fallout meter, as described in Appendix C, and expedient lights. (Prudent people
will have made these extremely useful items well ahead of time.)
(2) Install screens or mosquito netting over the two openings, if mosquitoes or flies are a problem.
Remember, however, that screen or netting reduces the air flow through a shelter even when the air is
pumped through with a KAP.
Book Page: 180
Fig. A.4. Aboveground, Door-Covered Shelter. (ORNL-DWG 74-8132R)
Book Page: 181
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App. A.5: Aboveground, Ridgepole Shelter
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PROTECTION PROVIDED
Against fallout radiation: Protection Factor 300 (PF 300) if covered with 24 in. of earth. (A person
in the open outside this shelter would receive about 300 times more fallout radiation than if he were
inside.) See the accompanying drawing at the end of Appendix A.5.
Against blast: Better protection than most homes. Blast tests have indicated that this shelter would be
undamaged at least up to the 5-psi overpressure range from large explosions. Without blast doors, the
shelter's occupants could be injured at this overpressure range, although probably not fatally.
Against fire: Good, if the shelter is sufficiently distant from fires producing carbon monoxide and toxic
smoke.
WHERE PRACTICAL
In many wooded areas and wherever enough poles are available.
In locations where belowground expedient shelters are impractical because the water table or rock is
too close to the surface for a covered-trench shelter.
FOR WHOM PRACTICAL
For a family or other group with five or more members able to work hard for most of 48 hours, with at
least one member able to saw and fit poles and use the hand tools listed on the following page. (A
group of rural Florida families, with 12 of the 15 members able to work, completed a shelter like this
23 hours and 40 minutes after receiving the step-by-step, well illustrated instructions 12 miles from the wooded building site.
They used only muscle-powered tools, and moved over 50 tons of sandy shielding earth.)
CAPACITY
The shelter illustrated in Fig. A.5 is the minimum length for 5 persons. For each additional person, add 1 ft to the length of the
ridgepole and shelter room. (If more than about 15 persons are to be sheltered, build 2 or more separate shelters.)
BUILDING INSTRUCTIONS
1. Before beginning work, study Fig. A.5 and read ALL of the following instructions.
2. Divide the work. CHECK OFF EACH STEP WHEN COMPLETED.
3. By the time the shelter is finished, plan to have completed a ventilating pump (a KAP 20 in. wide and 26 in high,
essential for this shelter except in cool weather) and the storage of at least 15 gallons of water per occupant. (See
Appendix B and Chapter 8.)
4. Start to assemble the materials. For the illustrated 5-person shelter, these are:
A. Essential Materials and Tools
° Poles. (Fresh-cut, green poles are best, sound, untreated poles are satisfactory.) See the following list for
the number of poles required for a 5-person shelter.
Book Page: 182
Use
Pole Length
Minimum
Diameter of
Small End
Number of
Poles
Required
Width When
All Are Laid
on the Ground
For main room:
Ridgepole
4 ft 9
in.
6 in.
1
Column-posts
4 ft 3
in.
5 in.
2
Footing log
8 ft 0
in.
6 in.
1
Cross braces
6 ft 2
in.
3 in.
2
Roof poles
9 ft 0
in.
4 in.
-
5 ft a
Vertical end-wall poles
5 ft 0
in.
3-1/2 in.
-
14 ft b
Slanting end-wall poles
and extras
6 ft 6
in.
3-1/2 in.
-
18 ft b
For outer sections of
entryways:
Horizontal poles
8 ft 0
in.
3-1/2 in.
4
Cross braces (material for
16)
5 ft 0
in.
3 1/2 in.
6
Wall poles
3 ft 4
in.
3 in.
-
32 ft b
Roof poles
2 ft 8
in.
2-1/2 in.
-
12 ft b
For inner sections of
entryways:
Long, sloping poles
14 ft 0
in.
4 in.
4
Cross braces
1 ft 8
in. c
4 in.
8
Vertical support poles
4 ft 0
in. c
4 in.
8
Roof poles
3 ft 0
in.
2-1/2 in.
-
13 ft b
a This width equals the distance measured across the tops of a single layer of poles when a sufficient number of poles are
laid on the ground side by side with all the same ends in a straight line and touching. (These poles will be placed
butt-ends down to form the walls of the shelter room.)
b This width equals the distance measured across a single layer of poles when a sufficient number of poles are laid on the
ground side by side and touching, with large ends and small ends alternating so to cover a rectangular area.
c To be cut into the various lengths needed to close the ends of the main room and also to close a part of each entryway.
° A saw and an ax or hatchet, to cut green poles. (A bow saw or crosscut saw serves well and often is more
dependable than a chain saw. Having an extra blade for a bow saw may be essential.)
° Two shovels (one shovel for each two workers is desirable). A pick will also be needed, if the earth is hard.
° Large buckets, cans, or pots with bail handles in which to carry earth, and later to store water or wastes.
° A knife.
° A hammer and at least 80 nails (3 in. or longer). If these are not at hand, rope, wire, or strips of cloth can be
used to lash poles together. At least 200 ft. of rope or strong wire will be needed, or two additional bedsheets for
each person to be sheltered. (Other fabric of equal strength can be used.) The cloth can be cut or torn into
foot-wide strips and twisted slightly to make rope."
° Three double-bed sheets for the illustrated 5-person shelter or a piece of strong fabric or plastic of about the
same size. One additional sheet for each additional 2 occupants. (If sufficient sheets or other material are not
available, use many sticks and small poles, placed across the 9-ft side poles.)
° At least 2 square yards per person of rainproofing material (shower curtains, plastic tablecloths, plastic mattress
covers, or the like) essential in rainy, cold weather.
° Materials for building a ventilating pump, a KAP 20 in. wide and 26 in. high. (See Appendix B.)
° Containers for storing 15 gallons of water per occupant. (See Chapter 8.)
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B. Useful Tools and Materials
° Additional saws, axes, hatchets, shovels, and large buckets or cans.
Book Page: 183
° A chain saw if there is a person in the group who is skilled at operating one.
° Kerosene, turpentine, or oil to keep a handsaw from sticking in green, gummy wood.
° A measuring tape, yardstick, or ruler.
° One bed sheet for each person to be sheltered, or a piece of strong fabric or plastic of about the same
size.
° A total of 40 square yards of rainproofing materials for the illustrated 5-person shelter and 3-1/2 square
yards for each additional person. (Even thin plastic will serve for the "buried roof.")
5. To save time and work, SHARPEN ALL TOOLS AND KEEP THEM SHARP.
6. Wear gloves from the start even tough hands can blister after hours of digging and chopping and can become
painful and infected.
7. Select a shelter location where there is little chance of the ground being covered with water if it rains hard. (If
you are sure the water table will not rise to cover the floor of a shallow excavation, you can save work by first
lowering the area of the planned main room by a foot or two. After the shelter is roofed, the excavated earth can
be shoveled back to help cover the completed pole roof.) To avoid the extra work of cutting roots when
excavating earth, select a site at least as far away from a tree as the tree is tall.
8. For a shelter that is completely aboveground, clear grass, weeds, etc. from the area where the shelter is to be
built. (This reduces the possible problem of chiggers, ticks, etc.) Do not remove any earth at this stage.
9. Stake out the entire shelter. Check the squareness of the shelter room by making its diagonals equal. Then drive
two lines of stakes to mark the outside edges of the completed earth covering. Place these stakes 4 ft outside the
future positions of the lower ends of the roof poles.
10. Check the squareness of the future floor area inside the two lines marking where the two V-shaped,
4-in.-deep trenches will be dug, to secure the lower ends of the sloping side-poles of the room. These two parallel
lines are 14 ft 6 in. apart. When the two diagonals joining the ends of these two parallel lines are equal in length,
the area between them has square corners.
11. While some persons are staking out the shelters, others should be cutting green poles and hauling them to the
site. Cut poles that have tops with diameters (excluding bark) no smaller than the diameters specified on the
illustration for each type of pole.
12. To make the hauling and handling of the longer poles easier, select poles with top diameters no more than
50% larger than the specified minimum diameters.
13. Sort the poles by length and diameter and lay all poles of each size together, near the excavation.
14. AS SOON AS POLES ARE BROUGHT TO THE SITE, SOME WORKERS SHOULD START
BUILDING THE FOUR LADDER- LIKE HORIZONTAL BRACES FOR THE ENTRYWAYS TO AVOID
DELAYS LATER. Study the drawing. Then construct these braces on smooth ground near the excavation. Place
two straight poles, each 8 ft long (with small-end diameters of 3-1/2 in.), on smooth ground, parallel and so that
their outer sides are 3 ft apart. Hold these poles securely so that their outer sides are exactly 3 ft apart, by driving
two pairs of stakes into the ground so that they just touch the outsides of the two long poles. Each of the four
stakes should be located about one foot from the end of a pole. To keep the 8-ft poles from beingrotated during
the next step, nail two boards or small poles across them perpendicularly, as temporary braces, about 4 ft apart.
Then with an ax or hatchet, slightly flatten the inner sides of the two poles at the spots where the ends of the 4
cross-brace poles will be nailed. Next, saw each cross-brace pole to the length required to fit snugly into its place.
Finally, toenail each cross-brace pole in place, preferably with two large nails in each end.
15. If more than 5 persons are to be sheltered, use 3 column-posts for 6 to 9 persons, and 4 column- posts for
10 to 14 persons.
16. For each additional person beyond 5, make the ridgepole and the footing log each 1 foot longer than shown in
Fig. A.5.
Book Page: 184
17. After notching the footing log (see drawing), place it in a trench dug deep enough so that the bottoms of its
notches are about 4 inches below the surface of the ground.
18. Carefully dig the 4-in.-deep, V-shaped, straight trenches in which the lower ends of the 9-ft wall poles will
rest. Dig each of these two parallel trenches 7 ft 3 in. from the center line of the footing log.
19. Carefully notch a "V" only about 1/4-in. deep in the top of each of the two outer column-posts. Then saw off
the other ends so that each is 4 ft 3 in. long. (When they are placed on the notched footing log and the ridgepole is
placed on them, the upper side of the ridgepole will be about 4 ft 4 in. above the ground.)
20. Place the two outer column-posts in their notches in the footing log, and secure the base of each column-post
against sideways movement by placing two small-diameter, 4-ft horizontal poles just below the ground level on
both sides, as illustrated. Then temporarily place and brace the ridgepole in position.
21. For shelters sized for more than 5 occupants, make and place the inner column-post, or posts. To avoid
cutting a "V"-notched column-post too short, first carefully "V"-notch each remaining column-post, cut it about 1
in. too long, and trim it off to fit in its final position under the ridgepole.
22. If nails at least 4 in. long are available, nail sloping cross-braces to the inner sides of the column-posts. If nails
are not available, notch slightly bowed cross-braces and the column-post as illustrated; then lash or wire them in
position. (Strips of ordinary bedsheets, torn about a foot wide and twisted together slightly, can be made to serve
as lashing rope.") To hold the tops of the column-posts securely against the upper ends of the cross-braces, a
tightened rope" loop that encircles the tops of the column-posts can be used.
23. Next put four of the larger-diameter, 9-ft roof- poles in position, with the outsides of the outermost two roof
poles each only about 1 in. from an end of the ridge pole.
24. Place the rest of the 9-ft roof-poles in position, making sure that all their small ends are uppermost, and that
they are pressed together and overlap on the ridgepole at least as far as illustrated. Pack earth between their
lower ends. If the earth is clay, put small spacers of wood between the ends.
25. At each end of the shelter room, build extra shelter space and an entryway. First position two 14-ft poles with
their upper ends resting on the outermost wall poles. Study Fig. A.5. Place the two 14-ft poles 20 in. apart,
parallel, and equally distant from the centerline of the ridgepole. Nail four 20-in.-long spacer-poles between each
pair of 14-ft poles, as illustrated. To make sure that the upper ends do not move before earth pressure holds them
in place, tie the upper ends of the 1 4-ft poles together. Drive a stake against the lower end of each 14-ft pole, to
keep it from slipping outward. Under the center of each 14-ft pole, place two supporting, vertical posts.
26. Dig. 4-in.-deep trenches for the lower ends of the sloping end-wall poles of the main room. These poles must
be cut to length so that their upper ends will be about 4 in. above the outermost 9-ft roof pole against which they
lean. Dig narrow, vertical trenches, about 8 in. deep, for all vertical wall poles that do not press against horizontal
brace poles near the ground.
27. Start placing the sloping end-wall poles. First place the longest pole, then the shorter poles all touching.
28. Across the open spaces between the 9-ft roof poles, place limbs and/ or sticks roughly horizontally, as shown
in the lower left-hand drawing. Be sure to use limbs or sticks that have diameters of at least 1/2 in. and put them
no farther apart than 6 in. Leave needles and leaves on the limbs. Do not leave sharp ends sticking upward. Do
not place more than a 6-in.-thick mass of limbs and leaves over the side-poles. The thickness of the earth cover
necessary for excellent fallout protection might be unintentionally reduced by making the limb cover too thick.
29. Place bedsheets (or 4-mil-thick polyethylene film or equally sturdy material) over the limbs and sticks to keep
earth from falling through the roof.
30. To prevent sand or dry earth from falling between the cracks where the poles are side by side, cover these
parts of the roof with cloth, plastic, or paper. If these materials are not available, use sticks, leaves, and grass. (In
tick or chigger season, avoid using grass, or leaves from on or near the ground.)
Book Page: 185
31 After the entryways are completed, begin to cover the shelter with earth. Starting from the ground up, put
on a full l-ft thickness of earth cover. First raise its height about a foot on one side or end of the shelter, and then
on the other repeatedly. This is to prevent unequal loading from tipping the shelter or pushing it over. (Do not
excavate any earth closer than 3 ft to the line of stakes marking the final outer edge of the completed, 2-ft-thick
earth cover.)
32. Fill the spaces between the entryways and the main room only with earth. (An equal thickness of wood or
other light material provides much less protection against radiation.)
33. Before placing the rainproofing material for the 'buried roof," smooth the surface of the l-ft thick earth cover.
This will prevent sharp rocks or sticks from puncturing the plastic or other rainproofing material. If you do not
have sufficient waterproofing materials to cover the whole roof, use what is available to rainproof the central part,
on both sides of the ridgepole.
34. To prevent rainwater on the ground outside from running into the entryways, make mounds of packed earth
about 4 inches high across the entryway floors, about 2 ft from their outer ends. Dig a shallow drainage ditch
completely around the earth mounded over the shelter.
35. Unless the weather is cold, install your shelter ventilating KAP in the entry into which you can feel air moving
naturally. (If short of time or materials, make a small Directional Fan.)
36. Complete the storage of water and other essentials.
37. To prevent fallout or rain from falling onto the floor of the outer entryways, place a small awning (not
illustrated) over each opening.
38. Fill all available water containers, including pits which have been dug and lined with plastic, then roofed with
available materials. If possible, disinfect all water stored in expedient containers, using one scant teaspoon of a
chlorine bleach, such as Clorox, for each 10 gallons of water. Even if only muddy water is available, store it. If
you do not have a disinfectant, it may be possible to boil water when needed.
39. Put all of your emergency tools inside your shelter.
40. As time and materials permit, continue to improve your chances of surviving by doing as many of the following
things as possible:
(1) Make a homemade fallout meter, as described in Appendix C, and expedient lights. (Prudent people
will have made these extremely useful items well ahead of time.)
(2) Make and hang expedient bedsheet-hammocks.
(3) Install screens or mosquito netting over the two openings, if mosquitoes or flies are a problem.
Remember, however, that screen or netting reduces the air flow through a shelter even when the air is
pumped through with a KAP.
(4) Dig a stand-up hole near the far end of the shelter. Make the hole about 15 in. in diameter and deep
enough to permit the tallest of the shelter occupants to stand erect occasionally.
Book Page: 186
Fig. 5.A. Aboveground, Ridgepole Shelter.
Book Page: 187
Copyright 2000 Nuclear War Survival Skills
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App. A.6: Above ground, Crib-Walled Shelter
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PROTECTION PROVIDED
Against fallout radiation: Protection Factor 200 (PF 200) if the
earth-filled cribs are built to the full width of 3 ft, as illustrated in Fig. A.6 at the end of these
instructions. (A person in the open outside this shelter would receive about 200 times as much fallout
radiation as he would if inside.) If earth is mounded to the top of the walls and 3 ft deep over the roof,
the protection factor can be raised to PF 500 or better. See the accompanying drawing at the end of
Appendix A.6.
Against blast: Better protection than most homes. Without blast doors, occupants could be injured
although probably not fatally at lower overpressure ranges than those that would destroy this shelter.
Against fire: Poor, if the shelter is built as illustrated. The cloth and outer poles would be unprotected
from thermal pulse and other possible sources of intense heat. However, if earth is mounded around the
walls so as to cover all exposed cloth and wood, good fire protection would be provided.
WHERE PRACTICAL
The crib-walled shelter is practical in many wooded areas and whenever enough poles are available, or
in locations where belowground expedient shelters are impractical because the water table or rock is
too close to the surface for a covered- trench shelter.
FOR WHOM PRACTICAL
For a family or group with three or more members able to work very hard for most of 48 hours. An unskilled family with an ax
or saw and materials found in most American homes can build this shelter. No nails are required. (Groups with the nails, tools,
skill, and the number of workers required to build a Ridgepole Shelter are advised to do so; a Crib-Walled Shelter requires
almost twice the total length of poles and more work to provide shelter for a given number of persons.)
CAPACITY
The shelter illustrated in Fig. 6. 1 is the minimum length for 5 persons. For each additional person, add 1-1/2 ft to the length of
the room. (If more than about 12 persons are to be sheltered, build 2 or more separate shelters.)
BUILDING INSTRUCTIONS
1. Before beginning work, study the drawing and read ALL of the following instructions.
2. Divide the work. CHECK OFF EACH STEP WHEN COMPLETED.
3. By the time the shelter is finished, plan to have completed a ventilating pump (a KAP 20 in. wide and 26 in. high,
essential for this shelter except in cool weather) and the storage of at least 15 gallons of water per occupant. (See
Appendix B and Chapter 8.)
4. Start to assemble materials and tools.
A. Essential Materials and Tools
° Poles. (Fresh-cut, green poles are best; sound, untreated poles are satisfactory.) For the illustrated
5-person shelter, the required poles are listed on the following page.
Book Page: 188
Use
Pole Length
Minimum
Diameter of
Small End
Number of
Poles
Required
Width When
All Are Laid on
the Ground a
Sides of longest crib
12-1/2 ft
3 in.
7 ft
Sides of middle-sized
crib
10 ft
3 in.
7 ft
Sides of shortest crib
7 ft
3 in.
7 ft
Ends of all cribs
3-1/2 ft
3 in.
21 ft
Vertical poles at the
corners of all cribs
3-1/2 ft
2 in.
56
Main roof
9 ft
3-1/2 in.
12 ft
Entryway roofs
5 ft.
2-1/2 in.
22 ft
a This width is the distance measured across a single layer laid on the ground side by side and touching,
with large ends of poles when a sufficient number of them are and small ends alternating so as to cover a
rectangular area.
° A saw (preferably a bow saw with an extra blade, or a crosscut saw) and/ or an ax for cutting green
poles.
° Containers for storing 15 gallons of water per occupant. (See Chapter 8.)
° A shovel (one for each two workers is desirable).
° A pick (if the ground is very hard).
° Two to five large cans, buckets, and/ or pots with bail handles, in which to carry earth and to store water
or wastes later.
° A knife.
° A minimum of 300 ft of wire at least as strong as clothesline wire. Second choice would be 300 ft of
rope, or (third choice) 8 double-bed sheets that could be torn into 1-ft wide strips and twisted slightly to
serve as rope. For each additional person beyond 5, supply 20 ft of wire or rope or half a double- bed
sheet.
° Rainproof roofing materials at least 2 square yards per person. Such materials as plastic film, shower
curtains, plastic tablecloths or plastic mattress covers can be used. These materials are essential for
prolonged shelter occupancy in rainy, cold weather.
° Fifteen double-bed sheets (or equal square-yardage of other strong cloth or plastic).
° Materials for building a ventilating pump, a KAP 20 inches wide and 30 in. high. (See Appendix B.)
B. Useful Materials and Tools
° Additional saws and shovels, chain saw, pick-mattock, hammer, hatchet.
° Kerosene, turpentine, or oil to keep a hand-saw from sticking in gummy wood.
° A file.
° Two additional double-bed sheets per person, or equivalent square-yardage of other equally strong fabric
or plastic.
° A measuring tape, yardstick, or ruler.
° Old newspapers (about 15 pounds).
° A total of 30 square yards of rainproofing materials for the illustrated 5-person shelter, and 3 square
yards for each additional person to be sheltered. (Even thin plastic will serve to make a rainproof "buried
roof.")
5. To save time and work, SHARPEN ALL TOOLS AND KEEP THEM SHARP.
6. Wear gloves from the start. Even tough hands can blister and become painful and infected after hours of digging
and chopping.
7. Select a shelter location where there is little or no chance of the ground being covered with water by a hard
rain.
Book Page: 189
8. If the building site is near the edge of a woods, pick a site at least 40 ft from the nearest trees to avoid roots.
9. Clear off grass, weeds, etc., from the area where you plan to build the shelter this also will help to avoid
chiggers or ticks. Do not remove any earth.
10. Stake out the entire shelter, locating the 6 required cribs. BE SURE TO MAKE THE INSIDE LENGTH OF
THE MAIN ROOM EQUAL TO THE NUMBER OF PERSONS TO BE SHELTERED MULTIPLIED BY
1-1/2 FT. The illustrated shelter is sized for 5 persons, and the poles listed are those required for this 5-person
shelter.
11. While some persons are staking out the shelter, others should be cutting green poles and hauling them to the
site. Cut poles with tops no smaller than the diameters specified. (Note: the specified diameters do not include
bark.)
12. Select poles with small-end diameters no more than 50% larger than the specified minimum diameters, to
make handling of the long wall and roof poles easier.
13. Sort the poles by length and diameter and lay all poles of each size together, near the excavation.
14. Use larger trees and poles, up to 6 in. in diameter, to make the 3-1/2-ft-long end-poles of the cribs (Fig.
A.6). Do not use poles with small-end diameters of less than 3 in. for the side-wall poles of the cribs. For vertical
brace-poles, use poles with diameters of at least 2 in., cut off at the height of the upper side of the uppermost
horizontal poles against which they are tied.
15. Be sure to cut off all limbs so that the poles are quite smooth. Usually it is easier to drag smoothed poles to
the building site before cutting them into the required lengths. Pull them by the small, lighter ends.
16. Determine if there are enough long poles to make the side-poles of the two cribs forming the sides of the
shelter room without splicing two shorter poles together. If the shelter is being built for more than 7 persons, it will
require side poles that are longer than 15-1/2 ft. Therefore, if a shelter for more than 7 persons is being built, it
would be best to use 2 cribs placed end-to-end on each side of the shelter room, instead of a single crib as
illustrated by Fig. A.6.
17. Place the lowermost four poles of each of the cribs in their final positions, so that all the bases of the crib-walls
are in position on the ground. Use the thicker, heavier poles at and near the bottom of each crib. BE SURE THE
ROOM IS LONG ENOUGH TO PROVIDE 1-1/2 FT OF ROOM LENGTH FOR EACH PERSON TO BE
SHELTERED.
18. To build each crib:
(1) Place two 3-1/2-ft end-poles on the ground. Put two of the side-poles on top of the two end-poles so
that the ends of all four poles extend 3 in. (no more) beyond where they cross. The thicker poles should be
used first to add stability.
(2) Stack additional pairs of end-poles and side- poles to form the crib, keeping each wall of the crib
vertical, until the tops of the uppermost side-poles are at least 42 in. above the ground. To keep the
uppermost poles of the crib about level while the crib is being raised, alternate the large ends and small
ends of poles.
(3) Place a pair of small, vertical brace-poles in each of the four corners of the crib. The tops of the vertical
brace-poles should be no higher above the ground than the upper sides of the crib's uppermost horizontal
poles.
(4) Tie each pair of vertical brace-poles together tightly at bottom, middle, and top. For tying, use 3-ft
lengths of strong wire, rope, or slightly twisted, foot-wide strips of cloth at least as strong as cotton bed
sheeting. Square knots with back-up overhand knots are best, but three overhand knots one on top oft he
other will hold.
(5) If the crib is more than 8 ft long, place an additional pair of vertical brace-poles, with one in position at
the outside center of each long crib-wall. Tie this pair of vertical brace- poles together permanently just
above the ground, but not yet in the middle or near the top of the crib. Temporarily tie each of these center
vertical brace-poles to the uppermost side-pole of the wall it touches.
(6) Line the crib with cloth or plastic film, making sure that several inches of the lining hangs over the
uppermost poles. So that the lining will not be pulled down when the crib is being filled with earth, tie the
upper edge of the lining to the uppermost wall pole about every 2 ft. First cut a small hole through which to
thread a tie-string or a 2-in.-wide tie-strip of cloth. (If plenty of cloth and/ or plastic is available for lining
the cribs, secure the lining by simply wrapping a greater width of the upper edge of the lining around the
uppermost crib wall-pole.)
Book Page: 190
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(7) Permanently tie together the pair of vertical center brace-poles, using horizontal ties at their centers and just
below the uppermost horizontal wall-poles of the crib. Use the strongest material you have for these horizontal ties
across the center of the crib.
(8) Excavate earth 10 ft or so beyond the outer sides of the cribs. To save work, carry it in buckets and dump it
inside the cribs. (Two children can carry a heavy bucket of earth by running a strong, 4-ft stick through the bail or
handle of the bucket and tying the bail to the center of the stick before lifting.) Save earth closer to the cribs to put
on the roof.
(9) Fill the lined crib with earth from which almost all grass, roots, and the like have been removed. Avoid placing
hard lumps of earth in contact with the lining. Fill the crib so that the surface of the earth inside it is about 4 in.
above the upper sides of the uppermost horizontal poles.
19. Line the narrow spaces between adjacent cribs with cloth or plastic; then fill these spaces with earth a little at a
time, tamping repeatedly so as to avoid leaving air spaces.
20. Place the 9-ft roof poles over the main room. (If poles are unavailable and boards 1-1/2 in. thick are available, use
two thicknesses of boards.) Use the strongest roof poles (or double-thickness boards nailed together) nearest the
entryways. Then put shorter, 5- or 6-ft poles or boards over the entryways.
21 To keep earth from falling through the cracks between the roof poles, put sticks in the larger cracks and cover the
roof with two or more thicknesses of cloth, plastic, or other material. Newspapers will do, if better materials are lacking.
22. Put earth on the roof to the depths shown for the illustrated "buried roof." Be sure to slope all sides and smooth this
gently mounded earth surface so that the buried roof will shed water.
23. So that the earth cover near the outer edges of the roof will be a full 2 ft thick, make the earth cover slope steeply
near the edges. Steep earth slopes can be made and kept stable by using large lumps of turf to make a steep bank, or by
using earth-filled "rolls" of cloth or other material along the edges of a roof.
24. Put in place the waterproof material of the buried roof.
25. Pile on the rest of the earth cover, as illustrated, to at least a full 2-ft thickness.
26. Smooth the surface of the earth cover, including the sides, so that rain will run off. Do not walk on the finished roof.
27. To prevent rainwater on the ground outside from running into the entryways, make mounds of packed earth about 4
in. high across the entryway floors. Make the mounds about 2 ft from the outer ends of the floors. Dig a shallow drainage
ditch completely around the shelter.
28. Unless the weather is cold, install your shelter ventilating KAP in the entry into which you can feel air moving
naturally. (If short of time or materials, make a small Directional Fan.)
29. To prevent fallout or rain from falling onto the floor of the outer entryways, place small awnings (not illustrated) over
the openings.
30. If time and energy are available, mound earth all around the shelter. Doing so will reduce fire hazards by covering
flammable materials; it also will increase fallout protection.
31. Fill all available water containers, including pits which have been dug and lined with plastic, then roofed with available
materials. If possible, disinfect all water stored in expedient containers, using one scant teaspoon of a chlorine bleach,
such as Clorox, for each 10 gallons of water. Even if only muddy water is available, store it. If you do not have a
disinfectant, it may be possible to boil water when needed.
32. Put all of your emergency tools inside your shelter.
33. As timeand materials permit, continue to improve your chances of surviving by doing as many of the following things
as possible:
(1) Make a homemade fallout meter, as described in Appendix C, and expedient lights. (Prudent people will have
made these extremely useful items well ahead of time.)
(2) Make and hang expedient bedsheet-hammocks.
(3) Install screens or mosquito netting over the two openings, if mosquitoes or flies are a problem. Remember,
however, that screen or netting reduces the air flow through a shelter even when the air is pumped through with a
KAP.
(4) Dig a stand-up hole near the far end of the shelter. Make the hole about 15 in. in diameter and deep enough to
permit the tallest of the shelter occupants to stand erect occasionally.
Book Page: 191
Fig. A.6. Aboveground, Crib-Walled Shelter (ORNL-DWG 74-8130R)
Book Page: 193
Copyright 2000 Nuclear War Survival Skills
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App. B: How to Make and Use a Homemade
Shelter-Ventilating Pump
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I. THE NEED FOR SHELTER AIR PUMPS
In warm weather, large volumes of outside air MUST be pumped through most fallout or blast shelters
if they are crowded and occupied for a day or more. Otherwise, the shelter occupants' body heat and
water vapor will raise the temperature-humidity conditions to DANGEROUSLY high levels. If
adequate volumes of outdoor air are pumped through typical belowground shelters in hot weather,
many times the number of persons could survive the heat than otherwise could survive in these same
shelters without adequate forced ventilation. Even in cold weather, about 3 cubic feet per minute (3
cfm) of outdoor air usually should be pumped through shelters, primarily to keep the carbon dioxide
exhaled by shelter occupants from rising to harmful concentrations.
The KAP (Kearny Air Pump) is a practical, do- it-yourself device for pumping adequate volumes of
cooling air through shelters with minimum work. The following instructions have been improved
repeatedly after being used by dozens of small groups to build KAPs including families, pairs of
housewives, and children. None of these inexpert builders had previously heard of this kind of pump,
yet almost all groups succeeded in making one in less than 4 hours after assembling the materials. Their
successes prove that almost anyone, if given these detailed and thoroughly tested instructions, can build
a serviceable, large-volume air pump of this simple type, using only materials and tools found in most
American homes.
If possible, build a KAP large enough to pump through your shelter at least 40 cubic feet per minute
(40 cfm) of outdoor air for each shelter occupant. If 40 cfm of outdoor air is pumped through a shelter
and distributed within it as specified below, even under heat-wave conditions the effective temperature of the shelter air will not
be more than 20 F higher than the effective temperature outdoors. (The effective temperature is a measure of air's effects on
people due to its heat, humidity, and velocity.) The 36-inch-high by 29-inch-wide KAP described in these instructions, if used
as specified, will pump at least 1000 cfm of outside air through a shelter that has the airflow characteristics outlined in these
instructions.
If more than 25 persons might be expected to occupy a shelter during hot weather, then it is advisable to build a larger KAP.
The 72-inch-high by 29-inch-wide model described can pump between 4000 and 5000 cfm.
To maintain tolerable temperature-humidity conditions for people in your shelter during hot weather, you must:
° Pump enough outdoor air all the way through the shelter (40 cfm for each occupant in very hot, humid weather).
° Distribute the air evenly within the shelter. If the KAP that pumps air through the shelter does not create air
movement that can be felt in all parts of the shelter in hot weather, one or more additional KAPs will be needed to
circulate the air and gently fan the occupants.
° Encourage the shelter occupants to wear as little clothing as practical when they are hot. (Sweat evaporates and
cools best on bare skin.)
Book Page: 194
° Supply the occupants with adequate water and salt. For prolonged shelter occupancy under heat- wave
conditions in a hot part of the country, about 4 quarts of drinking water and 1/3 ounce (1 tablespoon) of salt per
person are required every 24 hours, including salt in food that is eaten. Normal American meals supply about 1/4
ounce of salt daily. Salt taken in addition to that in food should be dissolved in the drinking water.
° Pump outdoor air through your shelter day and night in warm weather, so that both the occupants and the shelter
are cooled off at night.
Almost all of the danger from fallout is caused by radiation from visible fallout particles of heavy, sand- like or flaky material.
The air does not become radioactive due to the radiation continuously given off by fallout particles.
The visible fallout particles rapidly "fall out" of slow moving air. The air that a KAP pumps through a shelter moves at a low
speed and could carry into the shelter only a very small fraction of the fallout particles that cause the radiation hazard outside.
This fraction, usually not dangerous, can be further reduced if occupants take the simple precautions described in these
instructions.
CAUTION
Before anyone starts to build this unusual type of air pump, ALL WORKERS SHOULD READ THESE INSTRUCTIONS
AT LEAST UP TO SECTION V, INSTALLATION. Otherwise mistakes may be made and work may be divided
inefficiently.
When getting ready to build this pump, all workers should spend the first half-hour studying these instructions and getting
organized. Then, after materials are assembled, two inexperienced persons working together should be able to complete the
3-foot model described in the following pages in less than 4 hours. To speed up completion, divide the work; for example, one
person can start making the flaps while another begins work on the pump frame.
II. HOW A KAP WORKS
As can be seen in Figs. 1 and 2, a KAP operates by being swung like a pendulum. It is hinged at the top of its swinging frame.
When this air pump is pulled by a cord as illustrated, its flaps are closed by air pressure and it pushes air in front of it and
"sucks"air in back of it. Thus a KAP pumps air through the opening in which it swings. This is the power stroke. During its
power stroke, the pump's flaps are closed against its flap-stop wires or strings, which are fastened across the face of the frame.
Fig. 1. Section through the upper part of a doorway, showing operation of a KAP. (ORNL-DWG 66-12320A)
Fig. 2. KAP in doorway (with flaps open during its return stroke). (ORNL-DWG 66-12319A)
Book Page: 195
When a KAP swings freely back as a pendulum on its return stroke, all its flaps are opened by air pressure. The pumped air
stream continues to flow in the direction in which it has been accelerated by the power stroke, while the pump itself swings in
the opposite direction (see Fig. 2). Thus the flaps are one-way valves that operate to force air to flow in one direction, where
desired.
The KAP can be used: (1) to supply outdoor air to a shelter, (2) to distribute air within a shelter, and/or to fan the occupants.
1. To force outdoor air through a shelter, an air- supply KAP usually is operated as an air-intake pump by pulling it
with a cord (see Fig. 1). (Only rarely is it necessary to operate a KAP as an air- exhaust pump by pushing it with a pole,
as described in the last section of these instructions.)
2. To distribute air within a shelter and/or to fan the occupants, air-distribution KAPs may be hung overhead and
operated as described later.
III. INSTRUCTIONS FOR BUILDING A KAP
In this section, instructions are given for making a KAP 36 inches high and 29 inches wide, to operate efficiently when swinging
in a typical home basement doorway 30 inches wide. If your doorway or other ventilation opening is narrower or wider than 30
inches, you should make your KAP 1 inch narrower than the narrowest opening in which you plan to install it. Regardless of the
size of the KAP you plan to build, first study the instructions for making the 36 X 29-inch model.
In Section VII you will find brief instructions for making a narrower and even simpler KAP, one more suitable for the narrow
openings of small trench shelters and other small expedient shelters. Section VIII covers large KAPs, for large shelters.
A. Materials Needed for a KAP 36 inches High by 29 inches Wide
The preferred material is listed as first (1st) choice, and the less-preferred materials are listed as (2nd), (3rd), and (4th) choices.
It is best to assemble, spread out, and check all your materials before beginning to build.
1. The pump frame and its fixed support:
° Boards for the frame:
(1st) 22 ft of 1 X 2-in. boards. (A nominal 1 X 2-in. board actually measures about 3/4 x l-3/4 in., but the
usual, nominal dimensions will be given throughout these instructions.) Also, 6 ft of 1 X 1-in. boards. Soft
wood is better.
(2nd) Boards of the same length that have approximately the same dimensions as 1 X 2- in. and 1 X 1-in.
lumber.
(3rd) Straight sticks or metal strips that can be cut and fitted to make a flat-faced KAP frame.
° Hinges: (1st) Door or cabinet butt-hinges; (2nd) metal strap-hinges; (3rd) improvised hinges made of
leather, woven straps, cords, or 4 eyescrews which can be joined to make 2 hinges. (Screws are best for
attaching hinges. If nails are used, they should go through the board and their ends should be bent over and
clinched flattened against the surface of the board.)
° A board for the fixed horizontal support: (1st) A 1 X 4-in. board that is at least 1 ft longer than the width
of the opening in which you plan to swing your pump; (2nd) A wider board.
° Small nails (at least 24): (1st) No. 6 box nails, about 1/2 in. longer than the thickness of the two boards,
so their pointed ends can be bent over and clinched); (2nd) other small nails.
2. The flaps (See Figs. 1, 2, 6, 7, and 8):
° Plastic film or other very light, flexible material -- 12 square feet in pieces that can be cut into 9
rectangular strips, each 30 X 5-1/2 in.: (1st) polyethylene film 3 or 4 mils thick (3 or 4 one-thousandths of
an inch); (2nd) 2-mil polyethylene from large trash bags; (3rd) tough paper.
° Pressure-sensitive waterproof tape, enough to make 30 ft of tape 3/4 in. to 1 in. wide, for securing the
hem-tunnels of the flaps: (1st) cloth duct tape (silver tape); (2nd) glass tape; (3rd) scotch tape; (4th) freezer
or masking tape, or sew the hem tunnels. (Do not use a tape that stretches: it may shrink afterward and
cause the flaps to wrinkle.)
3. The flap pivot-wires:
(1st) 30 ft of smooth wire at least as heavy and springy as coat hanger wire, that can be made into very
straight pieces each 29 in. long (nine all-wire coat hangers will supply enough); (2nd) 35 ft of somewhat
thinner wire, including light, flexible insulated wire; (3rd) 35 ft of smooth string, preferably nylon string about
the diameter of coat hanger wire.
Book Page: 196
4. The pull cord:
° (1st) At least 10 ft of cord; (2nd) strong string; (3rd) flexible, light wire.
5. The flap-stops:
° (1st) 150 ft of light string; (2nd) 150 ft of light, smooth wire; (3rd) 150 ft of very strong thread; (4th) 600
ft of ordinary thread, to provide 4 threads for each stop-flap.
° (1st) 90 tacks (not thumbtacks); (2nd) 90 small nails. (Tacks or nails are desirable but not essential, since
the flap-stops can be tied to the frame.)
B. Tools
A hammer, saw, wirecutter pliers, screwdriver, scissors, knife, yardstick, and pencil are desirable. However, only a strong,
sharp knife is essential for making some models.
C. Building a KAP 36 inches High by 29 inches Wide
A 36 X 29-in. KAP is most effective if operated in an air-intake or exhaust opening about 40 in. high and 30 in. wide. (If your
shelter might have more than 25 occupants in hot weather, read all these instructions so you will understand how to build a
larger pump, briefly described in Section VIII.)
NOTE THAT THE WIDTHS AND THICKNESSES OF ALL FRAME PIECES ARE EXAGGERATED IN ALL
ILLUSTRATIONS.
1. The frame
a. Cut two pieces of 1 X 2-in. boards, each 36 in. long, and two pieces of 1 X 2-in. boards, each 29 in.
long; then nail them together (see Fig. 3). Use nails that do not split the wood, preferably long enough to go
through the boards and stick out about 1/2 in. on the other side. (To nail in this manner, first put blocks
under the frame so that the nail points will not strike the floor.) Bend over nail points which go through.
Next, cut and nail to the frame a piece of 1 X 1-in. lumber 36 in. long, for a center vertical brace. (If you
lack time to make or to find a 1 X 1-in. board, use a 1 X 2-in. board.) Figure 3 shows the back side of the
frame; the flap valves will be attached on the front (the opposite) side.
Fig. 3. KAP frame (looking at the back side of the frame). ORNL 71-7003
b. To make the front side smooth and flat so that the flaps will close tightly, fill in the spaces as follows: Cut
two pieces of 1 X 2-in. boards long enough to fill in the spaces on top of the 36-in. sides of the frame
between the top and bottom horizontal boards, and nail these filler boards in place. Do the same thing with
a 1 X 1-in. board (or a board the size of that used for the center brace) as a filler board for the center
brace (see Fig. 4).
If the frame is made of only one thickness of board 3/4 in. to 1 in. thick, it will not be sufficiently heavy to
swing back far enough on its free-swinging return stroke.
Book Page: 197
2. The hinges
Ordinary door butt-hinges are best. So that the pump can swing past the horizontal position, the hinges should be screwed onto
the front of the frame, at its top, in the positions shown in Fig. 4. (Pick one of the 29-in. boards and call it the top.) If you do
not have a drill for drilling a screw hole, you can make a hole by driving a nail and then pulling it out. Screw the screw' into the
nail hole.
Fig. 4. Completing the frame. ORNL- DWG 66-12322A
3. The pivot-wires and flaps
a. Make 9 flap pivot-wires. If you have smooth, straight wire as springy and thick as coat hanger wire, use
it to make nine 29-in.-long straight lengths of wire. If not, use wire from all-wire coat hangers or use
strings. First cut off all of the hook portion of each coat hanger, including the twisted part. If you have only
ordinary pliers, use the cutter to "bite" the wire all around; it will break at this point if bent there. Next,
straighten each wire carefully. Straighten all the bends so that each wire is straight within 1/4 in., as
compared to a straight line. Proper straightening takes 1 to 5 minutes per wire. To straighten, repeatedly
grasp the bent part of the wire with pliers in slightly different spots, each time bending the wire a little with
your other hand. Then cut each wire to a 29-in. length. Finally, bend no more than 1/2 in. of each end at a
right angle and in the same plane that is, in directions so that all parts of the bent wire will lie flat against a
smooth surface. The bent ends are for secure attachment later (see Fig. 8).
b. Make 9 polyethylene flaps that will be the hinged valves of the KAP. First cut 9 strips, making each strip
30 in. long by 5-1/2 in. wide (see Fig. 5). To cut plastic flaps quickly and accurately, cut a long strip of
plastic 30 in. wide. Then cut off a flap in this way: (1) draw a cutting guideline on a wide board 5-1/2 in.
from an edge; (2) place the 30-in.-wide plastic strip so that it lies on this board, with one of the strip's side
edges just reaching the edge of the board; (3) place a second board over the plastic on the first board, with
a straight edge of this second upper board over the guideline on the lower board; and finally (4) cut off a
flap by running a sharp knife along the straight edge of the upper board.
Fig. 5. ORNL DWG 71-7004A
Book Page: 198
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To form a hem along one of the 30-in. sides of a 5-1/2 X 30-in. rectangular strip, fold in a 1-in. hem. This makes the finished
flap 4-1/2 in. wide.
To hold the folded hem while taping it, paper clips or another pair of hands are helpful. For each hem, use two pieces of
pressure-sensitive tape, each about 1 in. wide and 16 in. long. Or make the hem by sewing it very close to the cut edge to form
a hem-tunnel (see Fig. 5).
After the hem has been made, cut a notch with scissors in each hemmed corner of the flap (Figs. 6 and 8). Avoid cutting the
tape holding the hem. Each notch should extend downward about 1/2 in. and should extend horizontally from the outer edge of
the flap to 1/4 in. inside the inner side of the frame, when the flap is positioned on the frames as shown in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6. Sizes of notches in flaps. ORNL-DWG 66-12324
Also cut a notch in the center of the flap (along the hem line) extending 1/2 in. downward and extending
horizontally 1/4 in. beyond each of the two sides of the vertical brace (see Fig. 6). The notch MUST be wider
than the brace. [However, if you are building a pump using wire netting for flap-stops (see Fig. 13), then do NOT
cut a notch in the center of each flap.]/P>
c. Take the 9 pieces of straightened wire and insert one of them into and through the hem-tunnel of each flap, like
a curtain rod running through the hem of a curtain. Check to see that each flap swings freely on its pivot-wire, as
illustrated by Fig. 7. Also see Fig. 8.
Fig. 7. End view. ORNL-DWG 66-12325
Fig. 8. Flap. ORNL DWG 71-7005A
Book Page: 199
Ruler for Marking Positions of Flap Pivot - Wires and Flap-Stops
d. Put aside the flaps and their pivot-wires for use after you have attached the flap-stops and the hinges to
the frame, as described below.
e. Using the ruler printed on the edge of this page, mark the positions of each pivot-wire (the arrowheads
numbered 0, 3-5/8, 7-1/4 in.) and the position of each flap-stop (the four marks between each pair of
numbered arrowheads on this ruler). All of these positions should be marked both on the vertical sides of
the 36-in.-long boards of the frame and on the vertical brace. Mark the position of the uppermost
pivot-wire (the "0" arrowhead on this ruler) 1/4 in. below the top board to which the hinges have been
attached (see Figs. 9 and 10).
Fig. 9. (Frame 3/4 View) ORNL DWG 71-7006A
Fig. 10. (Top of Frame Straight on View) ORNL-DWG 66-12328A
4. The flap-stops
So that the flaps may swing open on only one side of the frame (on its front, or face), you must attach horizontal flap-stops
made of strings or wires across the face of the frame. (See Figs. 10 and 11.) Nail or tie four of these flap-stops between the
marked points where each pair of the horizontal pivot-wires for the flaps will be placed. Be careful not to connect any
flap-stops in such a way that they cross the horizontal open spaces in which you later will attach the flap pivot-wires.
Fig. 11. Positions of pivot-wires and flap-stops. ORNL -DWG 71-7007A
If you have tacks (NOT thumbtacks) or very small nails, drive three in a horizontal line to attach each flap-stop-one in each of
the two vertical 36-in. sides of the frame and one in the vertical center brace (see Fig. 11). First, drive all of these horizontal
lines of tacks about three-quarters of the way into the boards. Then, to secure the flap-stop string or thin wire quickly to a tack,
wind the string around the tack and immediately drive the tack tightly into the frame to grip the string (see Fig. 11).
If you have no tacks or nails, cut notches or slots where the flap-stops are to be attached. Cut these notches in the edges of the
vertical sides of the frame and in an edge of the center brace. Next, secure the flap-stops (strings or wires) by tying each one in
its notched position. This tying should include wrapping each horizontal flap-stop once around the vertical center brace. The
stops should be in line with (in the same plane as) the front of the frame. Do not stretch flap-stops too tightly, or you may bend
the frame.
Book Page: 200
5. Final assembly
a. Staple, nail, or tie the 9 flap pivot-wires or pivot-strings (each with its flap attached) in their positions at
the marked 3-5/8 in. spacings. Start with the lowest flap and work upward (see Fig. 11). Connect each
pivot-wire at both ends to the 36-in. vertical sides of the frame. Also connect it to the vertical brace. BE
CAREFUL TO NAIL THE PIVOT-WIRES ONLY TO THE FRAME AND THE BRACE. DO NOT
NAIL ANY PLASTIC DIRECTLY TO THE WOOD. All flaps must turn freely on their pivot-wires.
If any flap, when closed, overlaps the flap below it by more than 1 in.. trim off the excess so that it overlaps
by only 1 in.
b. Screw (or nail, if screws are not available) the upper halves of the hinges onto the horizontal support
board on which the KAP will swing. (A l-in.-thick board is best, 3-1/2 in. wide and at least 12 in. longer
than the width of the doorway or other opening in which this KAP is to be installed.)
Be careful to attach the hinges in the UNusual, OUT-OF-LINE POSITION shown in Fig. 12.
CAUTIONS: Do NOT attach a KAP's hinges directly to the door frame. If you do, the hinges will be torn
loose on its return stroke or on its power stroke.
If you are making a KAP to fit into a rectangular opening, make its frame 4 in. SHORTER than the height
of its opening and 1 in. NARROWER than the width of the opening.
c. For this 3-ft model, tie the pull-cord to the center brace about 12-1/2 in. below the hinge line, as
shown in Fig. 12. (If you tie it lower, your arm movements will waste energy.) Use small nails or wire to
keep the tie end from slipping up or down on the center brace. (For a more durable connection, see Fig.
22.)
Cut a slot in the flap above the connection of the pull-cord to the vertical brace, deep enough so that this
flap will close completely when the KAP is being pulled. Tape the end and edges of the slot.
Fig. 12. Hinge is attached so pump can swing 180 degrees. ORNL-DWG 66-12330AR
IV. MORE RAPID CONSTRUCTION
(Skip this section if you cannot easily get chicken wire and 1/4 in.-thick boards.)
If chicken wire and boards about 1/4 in. thick are available, use the chicken wire for flap-stops. By using these materials, the
time required to build a given KAP can be reduced by about 40%. One-inch woven mesh is best. (Hardware cloth has sharp
points and is unsatisfactory.)
Figure 13 illustrates how the mesh wire should be stapled to the KAP frame. Next, unless the KAP is wider than 3 ft, the front
of the whole frame (except for the center brace) should be covered with thin boards approximately 1/2 in. thick, such as laths.
Then the pivot-wires, with their flaps on them, should be stapled onto the 1/4 in.-thick boards. This construction permits the
flaps to turn freely in front of the chicken-wire flap-stops.
With this design, the center of each pivot-wire should NOT be connected to the center brace, nor should the center of the flap
be notched. However, pivot-wires that are attached this way must be made and held straighter than pivot-wires used with
flap-stops made of straight strings or wires.
Book Page: 201
Fig. 13. Flaps attached 1/4 inch in front of chicken wire used for flap-stops. ORNL-DWG 66-12333A
Note in Fig. 13 that each pivot-wire is held firm and straight by 2 staples securing each end. The wire used should be at least as
springy as coat hanger wire. If string is used instead of wire, nylon cord about the diameter of coat hanger wire is best for the
pivot-strings.
If the KAP is wider than 3 ft, its center vertical brace should also be covered with a 1/4 in.-thick board, and each pivot-wire
should be attached to it. Furthermore, the center of each flap should be notched.
V. INSTALLATION AND ACCESSORIES
A. Minimum Open Spaces Around a KAP
To pump its maximum volume, an air-supply KAP with good metal hinges should be installed in its opening so that it swings
only about 1/2 in. above the bottom of the opening and only 1/2 in. to 1 in. from the sides of the opening.
B. Adequately Large Air Passageways
When using a KAP as an air-supply pump to force air through a shelter, it is essential to provide a low-resistance air
passageway all the way through the shelter structure from an outdoor air-intake opening for outdoor air to a separate
air-exhaust opening to the outdoors (see Fig. 14).
Fig. 14. (ORNL-DWG) 66-12331AR2
Book Page: 202
A low-resistance air passageway is one that is no smaller incross-sectional area than half the size of the KAP pumping the air.
For example, a 36 X 29-in. KAP should have a passageway no smaller than about 3-1/2 sq. ft. An air-supply KAP of this size
will force at least 1000 cubic feet per minute (1000 cfm) through a shelter having such openings, if itis installed as illustrated in
Fig. 14.
If smaller air passageways or air-exhaust openings are provided, the volume of air pumped will be greatly reduced. For
example, if the air-exhaust opening is only l-3/4 sq. ft (1/4 the size of this KAP), then this KAP will pump only about 500 cfm.
And if the air-exhaust opening is only a 6 X 6-in. exhaust duct (1/4 sq. ft), then this same 36 X 29-in. KAP will pump only
about 50 cubic feet per minute. This would not provide enough outdoor air for more than one shelter occupant in a
well-insulated shelter under heat-wave conditions in the hottest humid parts of the United States. In contrast, when the weather
is freezing cold and the shelter itself is still cold enough to absorb the heat produced by the shelter occupants, this same 6 X
6-in. exhaust duct and the air-intake doorway will cause about 50 cfm of outdoor air to flow by itself through the shelter
without using any pump. The reason: body heat warms the shelter air, and the warm air rises if cold air can flow in to replace it.
Under these cold conditions provided the air is distributed evenly throughout the shelter by KAP or otherwise -- 50 cfm is
enough outdoor air for about 17 people.
To provide adequately large air passageways for air-supply KAPs used to ventilate shelters in buildings, in addition to opening
and closing doors and windows, it may be necessary to build large ducts (as described below). Breaking holes in windows,
ceilings, or walls is another way to make large, efficient air passageways.
Figure 15 illustrates how a 3-ft KAP can be used as a combined air-supply and air-distribution pump to adequately ventilate a
small underground shelter that has an exhaust opening too small to provide enough ventilation in warm weather. (A similar
installation can be used to ventilate a basement room having only one opening, its doorway.) Note how, by installing a divider in
the doorway and entryway, the single entryway is converted into a large air-intake duct and a separate, large air-exhaust duct.
To obtain the maximum increased volume of fresh outdoor air that can be pumped through the shelter a total of about 1000 cfm
for a 36 X 29-in. KAP the divider should extend about 4 ft horizontally into the shelter room, as shown in Fig. 15. The 6 ft at
the end of the divider (the almost-horizontal part under the KAP) can be made of plywood, provided it is installed so that it can
be taken out of the way in a few seconds.
Fig. 15. Ventilating a shelter when the air- exhaust opening is too small. ORNL DWG 72-6630
Book Page: 203
Note how the entry of fallout into a shelter can be minimized by covering the entryway with a "roof" and by forcing the
slow-moving entering air to rise over an obstruction (the "wall") before it flows into the shelter. The sand-like fallout particles fall
to the ground outside the "wall."
C. Adequate Distribution of Air Within the Shelter
To make sure that each shelter occupant gets a fair share of the outdoor air pumped through the shelter, air distribution
KAPs should be used inside most large shelters. These KAPs are used within the shelter, separate from and in addition to
air-supply KAPs (see Fig. 16). Air-distribution KAPs can serve in place of both air-distribution ducts and cooling fans. For
these purposes, one or more 3-ft-high KAPs hung overhead from the shelter ceiling are usually most practical. If KAPs cannot
readily be hung from the ceiling, they can be supported on light frames made of boards or metal, somewhat like those used for
a small child's swing.
Fig. 16. The use of air distribution KAPs. ORNL DWG 72-7547
You should make and use enough KAPs to cause air movement that can be felt in all parts of your shelter. Remember that if
KAPs are installed near the floor and the shelter is fully occupied, the occupants' bodies will partially block the pumped airflow
more than if the same KAPs were suspended overhead.
As a general rule, for shelters having more than about 20 occupants, provide one 3-ft air-distribution KAP for every 25
occupants. In relatively wide shelters, these interior KAPs should be positioned so that they produce an airflow that circulates
around the shelter, preventing the air that is being pumped into the shelter from flowing directly to the exhaust opening. Figure
16 illustrates how four KAPs can be used in this way to distribute the air within a shelter and to fan the 100 occupants of a
1000-sq.-ft shelter room. Avoid positioning an air-distribution KAP so that it pumps air in a direction greater than a right angle
turn from the direction of airflow to the location of the KAP.
D. Operation with a Pulley
A small KAP especially one with improvised hinges or one installed at head-height or higher can be pulled most efficiently by
running its pull-cord over a pulley or over a greased homemade pulley" such as described in Figs. 17' and 18. A pulley should
be hung at approximately the same height as the hinges of the KAP, as illustrated in Fig. 15. To make
.Fig. 17. IMPROVISED "PULLEY" FROM A WIDE-ANGLED FORKED LIMB. ORNL DWG 71-7242
Book Page: 204
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Fig. 18. IMPROVISED "PULLEY" ORNL DWG 71-7243
a comfortable hand-hold on which to pull down- ward, tie two or three overhand knots in a strip of cloth on the end of the
pull-cord.
(Such a "pulley" can also be used to operate a bail-bucket to remove water or wastes from some shelters, without anyone
having to go outside.)
E. Quick-Removal Brackets
The air-supply KAP that pumps air through your shelter is best held in its pumping position by mounting it in homemade
quick-removal brackets (see Fig. 19) for the following reasons:
° A KAP provided with quick-removal brackets can be taken down easily and kept out of the way of persons passing
through its doorway when it is not in use. It can be kept in a place where people are unlikely to damage it.
° By installing two sets of quick-removal brackets in opposite shelter openings, you can quickly reverse the direction in
which the KAP pumps air, to take advantage of changes in the direction of natural airflow through the shelter.
Fig. 19. Quick-removal bracket for KAP. ORNL DWG 72-6365A
° If the KAP is installed on quick-removal brackets, in an emergency a person standing beside the KAP could
grasp its frame with both hands, lift it upward a few inches to detach it, and carry it out of the way all in 3 to 5
seconds. Being able to move the KAP quickly could prevent blast winds from wrecking the pump, which might
also be blown into your shelter possibly injuring occupants. In extensive areas where fallout shelters and their
occupants would survive the blast effects of typical large warheads, more than 4 seconds would elapse between
the time shelter occupants would see the extremely bright light from the explosion and the arrival of a blast wave
strong enough to wreck a KAP or other pumps left exposed in a ventilation opening.
Note in Fig. 19 that the KAP's "fixed" support- board (a 3-1/2 in.-wide board to which its hinges are attached) is held in a
bracket only 2 inches deep. To prevent too tight a fit in the bracket, be sure to place a 1/32-in. shim or spacer (the cardboard
back of a writing tablet will do) between two boards of the bracket, as illustrated. Also, make spaces about 1/16 inches wide
between the lower inner corners of the stop-blocks and the sides of the outer board. To prevent your hands from being cut,
you should put tape over the exposed ends of wires near the frame's outer edges of a KAP that you want to be able to remove
rapidly.
Book Page: 205
In a small expedient shelter, a small KAP can be quickly jerked loose if its "fixed" support-board is attached to the roof with
only a few small nails.
VI. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
A. Pumping
Operate your 3-foot KAP by pulling it with an easy, swinging motion of your arm. To pump the maximum volume of air, you
should pull the KAP toward you until its frame swings out to an almost- horizontal position. Then quickly move your hand so
that the pull-cord is kept slack during the entire, free-swinging return stroke. Figure 24 in Section VIII, LARGE KAPs,
illustrates this necessary motion.
Be sure to provide a comfortable hand-hold on the pull-cord (see Fig. 14). Blisters can be serious under unsanitary conditions.
To pull a KAP via an overhead pulley with minimum effort, sit down and pull as if you were tolling a bell-except that you should
raise your hand quickly with the return stroke and keep it raised long enough so that the pull-cord remains slack during the
entire return stroke. Or, if the pulley is not overhead, operate the KAP by swinging your extended arm back and forth from the
shoulder.-
B. Placement to Take Advantage of the Natural Direction of Air Flow
A KAP can pump more air into a shelter if it is installed so that it pumps air through the shelter in the direction in which the air
naturally flows. Since this direction can be reversed by a wind change outdoors, it is desirable to provide a way to quickly
remove your pump and reposition it so that air can be pumped in the opposite direction. This can be done in several ways,
including making one set of quick- removal brackets for one air opening and a second set for the other.
C. Maintenance
To operate your KAP efficiently, keep the flaps in good repair and make sure that there is the minimum practical area of open
spaces in and around the KAP through which air can flow back around the pump frame, opposite to the pumped direction. So
keep at least some extra flap material in your shelter, along with some extra tape and the few tools you may need to make
repairs.
VII. NARROW KAPs AND SMALL KAPs
A. Narrow KAPs
To swing efficiently in an entrance or emergency exit of an expedient trench shelter that is 22 in. wide, a KAP is best made 20
in. wide and 36 in. high. One of less height is not as efficient as a 36-in.-high model and has to be pulled uncomfortably fast.
So, when ventilation openings can be selected or made at least 38 in. high, make your pump 36 in. high.
In a narrow trench shelter, it is best to have the pull-cord run the full length of the trench, along the trench wall that occupants
will face when sitting. Then each occupant can take a turn pulling the pump without having to change seats.
Good metal hinges on a narrow KAP allow it to swing properly if pulled with the pull-cord attached to one side of the frame.
(Pumps with improvised hinges and large pumps must be pulled from a connection point on their center vertical brace to make
them swing properly.) Therefore, if you have small metal hinges and need a KAP no wider than 20 inches, build a rectangular
frame without a vertical center brace. Make two pull-cord attachment points, one on each side of the frame and each 9 inches
below the top of the frame. (For a small KAP, a sat-isfactory attachment point can readily be made by driving two nails so that
their heads cross, and wiring them together.) Then if a change in wind direction outside causes the direction of natural air flow in
the trench to become opposite to the direction in which air is being pumped, you can move your KAP to the opening at the
other end of the trench. The pull-cord can easily be connected to the other side of the frame, and convenient pumping can be
resumed quickly.
Book Page: 206
So that the horizontal support board can be nailed easily to the roofing poles or boards of an entry trench, it is best to use
cabinet hinges. Screw them onto an edge of the support board, in the UNusual, OUT-OF-LINE POSITION shown in Fig.
20. This hinge connection allows the pump to swing a full 180 degrees. To facilitate moving the horizontal support board,
connect it to the roof with a few small nails, so that it can be pulled loose easily and quickly.
Fig. 20. ROOF POLES. HORIZONTAL SUPPORT BOARD. ORNL-DWG 78-10358
B. Small KAPs
If the only available opening in which a KAP can be installed is small, build a KAP to fit it. Use narrower boards to make the
frame and make the flaps of thinner material, such as the polyethylene of large plastic trash bags. For pumps 24 inches or less in
height, make the finished flaps only 3-1/2 inches wide and space their pivot-wires 3 inches apart. The flaps should overlap no
more than inch. A KAP 24 inches high will pump enough outdoor air for only a few people, except in cold weather.
Small, yet efficient KAPs can be made even if the only materials available are straight sticks about 1-1/4 inches in diameter,
strips of cloth to tie the frame together and to make the hinges and the pull cord, polyethylene film from large trash bags for the
flaps, freezer or duct tape (or needle and thread) to make the flap hems, coat hanger wire or string for the pivot- wire, and
string or ordinary thread for the flap-stops. A sharp knife is the only essential tool. Figure 21 shows a way to easily tie sticks
securely together and to attach strings or threads for stop-flaps, when small nails and tacks are not available. The flap-stop
strings or threads should be secured by wrapping them several times around each stick to which they are attached, so they will
be gripped by the out-of-line knife cuts.
Fig. 21. Sticks ready to be tied together to make a KAP frame. ORNL-DWG 78-21897
Book Page: 207
VIII. LARGE KAPs
A. Construction
A 6-ft-high by 29-in.-wide model can be constructed in the same way as a 3-ft model except that it should have both horizontal
and vertical center braces (1 X 2-in. boards are best). To increase the strength of a 6-ft KAP, all parts of its double- thickness
frame and its vertical center brace should be made of two thicknesses of 1 X 2-in. softwood boards, securely held together
with clinched nails. Also, to increase the distance that the pump will swing back by itself during its return stroke, it is worthwhile
to attach a 6-ft piece of 1 X 2-in. board (not illustrated) to the back of each side of the frame. Do NOT attach weights to the
bottom of the frame; this would slow down the pumping rate.
This 6-ft-high pump requires 18 flaps, each the same size as those of the 36-in.-high KAP. The flaps on the lower part of a
large KAP must withstand hard use. If 1/2-in.-wide strips of tape are attached along the bottom and side edges of these lower
flaps, then even flaps made of ordinary 4-mil polyethylene will remain serviceable for over 1000 hours of pumping. However,
the lower flaps of large KAPs can advantageously be made of 6-mil polyethylene. The width and spacing of all flaps should be
the same as those of the 36-in.-high model.
The pull-cord should be attached to the vertical center brace of a 6-ft KAP about 16-1/2 in. below the hinge line. A 3/16-in.
nylon cord is ideal.
To adequately ventilate and cool very large and crowded shelters in buildings, mines, or caves, KAPs larger than 72 X 29 in.
should be used. You can take better advantage of large doorways, elevator shaft openings, etc., by "tailor-making" each large
air- supply KAP to the size of its opening that is, by making it as large as is practical. The frame and brace members should be
appropriately strengthened, and one or more "Y" bridles should be provided, as described in the section below. A 7-ft-high X
5-1/2 ft- wide KAP, with a 1/4 in.-diameter pull-cord attached 18 in. below its hinge line, and with two "Y" bridles for its two
operators, pumped air at the rate of over 11,000 cubic ft per minute through a large basement shelter during tests.
To make a durable connection of the pull-cord to the center vertical brace: (1) Attach a wire loop (Fig. 22) about l6-1/2 in.
below the hinge line. This loop can be made of coat hanger wire and should go around the center vertical brace. This fixed loop
should be kept from slipping on the center brace by bending four 6-penny nails over it in front as illustrated, and two smaller
nails in back. (2) Make a free-turning, triple-wire loop connected to the fixed loop. (3) Cover part of the free-turning loop with
tape and tie the pull-cord to this loop. Tie the pull-cord tightly over the taped part.
Fig. 22. (Pull Cord to center vertical brace) ORNL DWG 72-8204
Book Page: 208
B. Operation of Larger KAPs
A larger KAP can be pulled most easily by providing it with a "Y" bridle (see Fig. 23) attached to the end of its pull-cord.
Fig. 23. Y-bridle for pullcord on KAP. ORNL DWG 71-8069
A man of average size and strength can operate a 6 ft X 29 in. KAP by himself, pumping over 4000 cubic feet per minute
through a typical large shelter without working hard; tests have shown that he must deliver only about 1/20 of a horsepower.
However, most people prefer to work in pairs when pulling a 6-ft KAP equipped with a "Y" bridle, when pumping over 3000
cfm.
To pump the maximum volume of air with minimum effort, study Fig. 24 and follow the instructions given below for operating a
large KAP.
Fig. 24. AT END OF ITS FORWARD SWING, PUMP SHOULD JUST TOUCH TIGHTENED PULL-CORD.
ORNL DWG 72-6526
1. Gradually start the pump swinging back and forth, moving your arms and body as illustrated and pulling
mostly with your legs and body.
2. Stand at such a distance from the pump that you can pull the pump toward you until the forward- swinging
pump just touches the tightly stretched pull-cord and at such a distance that you can keep the pull-cord slack
during the whole of the pump's free backswing.
3. To be sure you do not reduce the amount of air pumped, rapidly move your arms forward as soon as the
forward-swinging pump touches the tightened pull-cord. Hold your arms forward until the pump again starts
to swing toward you.
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IX. SOLUTIONS TO SPECIAL PROBLEMS
A. Increasing the Usefulness of Shelters by Supplying 40 cfm per Planned Occupant
If a shelter is fully occupied for days during hot weather and is cooled both day and night by pumping through it and distributing
at least 40 cubic feet per minute of outdoor air for each occupant more than is required to maintain tolerable temperatures at
night these advantages result:
° The shelter occupants will be exposed to effective temperatures less than 2oF higher than the current effective
temperatures outdoors, and at night will get relief from extreme heat.
° The floors, walls, etc. of a shelter so ventilated will be cooled at night to temperatures well below daytime
temperatures. Therefore, during the day a considerable fraction of the occupants' body heat will flow into the floors,
walls, and other parts of the shelter and less body heat will have to be carried out by the exhaust air during the hottest
hours of the day. Thus daytime temperatures will be reduced.
° Since the shelter occupants will be cooler and will sweat less, especially at night, they will need less water than they
would require if the shelter were ventilated at a rate of less than 40 cfm per occupant. (If the outdoor air is very hot and
desert-dry, it usually is better to supply less than 40 cfm per occupant during the hottest hours of the day.)
° If the shelter were to be endangered by the entry of outside smoke, carbon monoxide or other poisonous gases, or
heavy descending fallout under windy conditions, ventilation of the shelter could be temporarily restricted or stopped for
a longer period than would be practical if the shelter itself were warmer at the beginning of such a crisis period.
Book Page: 209
° The shelter could be occupied beyond its rated capacity without problems caused by overcrowding becoming as
serious as would be the case if smaller- capacity air pumps were to be installed and used.
B. Pre-Cooling Shelters
If the shelter itself is cooler than the occupants, more of the body heat of occupants can flow into its cool walls, ceiling, and
floor. Therefore, it would be advantageous to pre-cool a shelter that may soon be occupied, especially during hot weather.
KAPs (or other air pumps or fans) can be used to pre-cool a shelter by forcing the maximum volume of cooling outdoor air
through the shelter and by distributing it within the shelter. A shelter should be pre-cooled at all times when the air temperature
outdoors is lower than the air temperature inside the shelter. Then, if the pre-cooled shelter is used, the occupants will be kept
cooler at a given rate of ventilation than if the shelter had not been pre-cooled, because the air will not have to carry all of their
body heat out of the shelter.
C. Increasing the Effectiveness of a KAP
If you want to increase the volume of air that a KAP with good metal hinges can force through a shelter, install side baffles (see
Fig. 25). Side baffles should be rigidly fixed to form two stationary "walls," one on each side of the swinging pump frame. They
can be made of plywood, boards, doors, table tops, or even well-braced plastic. A space or clearance of 1/2 to 1 in. should
be maintained between the inner side of each baffle and the outer side of the swinging frame.
By installing side baffles you may be able to increase the volume of air your KAP will pump by as much as 20%, if it is in good
repair and the openings around it are small.
Fig. 25. Side baffles. ORNL-DWG 66-12334R
D. Operating a KAP as an Exhaust Pump
In some shelters, a KAP can be operated most effectively by using it as an exhaust pump. This can be done by pushing it with a
push-pole attached to its center vertical brace. Push-pole operation is sometimes the best way to suck" outdoor air into a
shelter by pumping air out of the shelter in the natural direction of air flow; for example, up an elevator shaft or up a stairwell.
This method is especially useful in those basement shelters in which air-intake openings are impractical for installing KAPs. This
would be the case if the air-intake openings are small, exposed windows or holes broken in the ceiling of a shelter in a building.
To pump a large KAP most effectively with a push-pole, stand with your back to the KAP and grasp the push-pole with both
hands. Using mostly your leg muscles, push the KAP by pulling the free end of its push-pole toward you.
Book Page: 210
Figure 26 shows an improvised, flexible connection of a push-pole attached to the center brace of a large KAP 28 in. from the
top of its frame.
Fig. 26. Push-pole flexible connection. ORNL DWG 66-12332R
E. Ventilating a Shelter with Only One Opening
Some basement rooms that may be used as shelters have only one opening, the doorway. A KAP can be used to ventilate such
a shelter room if enough well-mixed and distributed air is moving just outside the doorway, or if air from outdoors can be
pumped in by another KAP and made to flow in a hallway or room and pass just outside this doorway. Figure 27 indicates
how to ventilate such a one-opening room by operating a 3-ft KAP as an air-intake pump in the upper part of the doorway.
Below such a doorway KAP, a "divider" 6 ft to 8 ft long can be installed. The divider permits exhaust air to flow out of the
room without much of it being "sucked" back into the room by the KAP swinging above it. Plywood, reinforced heavy
cardboard, or even well-braced plastic can be used to make a divider. It should be installed so that, in a possible emergency, it
can be jerked out of the way in a few seconds.
When used with a divider, a 36 X 29 in. KAP can pump almost 1000 cubic feet of air per minute into and out of such a shelter
room. Although 1000 cubic feet of well distributed air is sufficient for several times as many as 25 shelter occupants under most
temperate climate conditions, it is enough for only about 25 people in a one-entry room under exceptionally severe heat-wave
conditions. Furthermore, to make it habitable for even 25 people under such conditions, the air in this room must be kept from
rising more than 20 F above the temperature outdoors. This can be done using a second air-supply KAP to pump enough
outdoor air through the building and in some cases also using air-distribution KAPs in spaces outside the one-entry room. The
KAP in the doorway of a one-entry room should supply 40 cfm per occupant of this room.
In order to prevent any of the used, warmed, exhaust air from the one-entry room from being "sucked" by the doorway KAP
back into the room, a stiffened rectangular duct can be built so as to extend the exhaust-opening (in the lower part of the
doorway) several feet outside the room. Such a duct can be built of plastic supported by a frame of small boards. It can be
used to discharge the exhaust air far enough away from the KAP and downstream in the airflow outside the one-opening room
so that no exhausted air can be "sucked" back into the room.
Book Page: 211
Fig. 27. Use of a "divider" to ventilate a shelter with only one opening. ORNL DWG 75-8203
F. Installing a KAP in a Steel-Framed Doorway
If you need to install a KAP in a steel-framed doorway and it is not feasible to screw or otherwise permanently connect it to the
doorway, you can attach the KAP by using a few boards and some cord, as illustrated by Figs. 28 and 29. The two horizontal
boards shown extending across the doorway are squeezed tightly against the two sides of the wall in which the doorway is
located by tightening two loops of cord, one near each side of the doorway. One loop is illustrated. A cord is first tightened
around the two horizontal boards. Then the looped cord is further tightened by binding it in the center with another cord, as
illustrated.
Two large "C" clamps serve even better than two looped cords. However, secure support for a swinging KAP still requires the
use of a vertical support board on each side of the doorway, as illustrated.
Fig. 28. STEEL DOOR FRAME. ORNL DWG 72-6564
Book Page: 212
Figure 29 shows a quick-removal bracket supported by two horizontal boards tightened across the upper part of a doorway
by looped cords, as described above. Also, study Fig. 19 and its accompanying instructions.
Fig. 29. (Quick Removal Bracket on Doorway) ORNL DWG 72-6617
G. Building More Durable KAPs
If you are building KAPs in normal times, you may want to use materials that will make your pumps last longer, even though
these materials are more difficult to obtain and are more expensive.
Durability tests have shown that the KAP parts that wear out first are the flaps and the pulleys. In 6-ft KAPs. the lower flaps
are subject to hard use. Lower flaps made of 6-oz (per sq. yd), clear, nylon- reinforced, plied vinyl have lasted undamaged for
over 1000 hours of full-stroke pumping, without having their edges reinforced. Lower flaps made of 6- mil nylon-reinforced
polyethylene, without edge reinforcements, have lasted for 1000 hours with only minor damage.
The best pulley tested was a marine pulley such as that used on small sailboats, with a Delrin (DuPont) 2-in.-diameter wheel
and 3/16-in. stainless steel shaft. This pulley was undamaged after operating a 6-ft KAP for 324 hours. The pulley appeared to
be good for hundreds of hours of further operation.
The best pulley-cords tested were of braided dacron or nylon.
H. Using Air Filters
To supply shelter occupants with filtered air usually would be of much less importance to their survival and health than to
provide them with adequate volumes of outdoor air to maintain tolerable temperatures. However. filtering the entering air could
prove worthwhile, provided:
° Your shelter is not in an area likely to be subjected to blast, or it is a blast shelter with blast doors and blast
valves protecting everything inside.
° Work on filters is started after you have completed more essential work, including the building of a
high-protection-factor shelter, making, installing, and testing the necessary number of KAPs, storing adequate
water, making a homemade fallout meter, etc.
° You have enough low-resistance filters (such as fiberglass dust filters used in furnaces and air- conditioners) and
other materials for building the necessary large, supported filter in front of your KAP.
° Your KAP can pump an adequate volume of air through the filter and shelter.
° The filter is installed so that it can be easily removed if shelter temperatures rise too high.
To prevent a filter used with a KAP from causing too great a reduction in the volume of air that the KAP can pump through
your shelter, you must use large areas of low-resistance filter material. An example: In one ventilation test, a large
basement shelter was used which had two ordinary doorways at its opposite ends. These served as its air-intake and its
air-exhaust openings. A 72 X 29 in. KAP operating in one doorway pumped almost 5000 cubic feet per minute through the
shelter. But when a filter frame holding 26 square feet of l-in.-thick fiberglass dust filters was placed across the air-intake
stairwell, the KAP could pump only about 3400 cfm through this filter and the shelter.
Book Page: 213
Copyright 2000 Nuclear War Survival Skills
Nuclear War Survival Skills
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App. C: A Homemade Fallout Meter, the KFM
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How to Make and Use It
FOLLOWING THESE INSTRUCTIONS MAY SAVE YOUR LIFE
Fig. (Nuclear Ground Burst Explosion - Drawing)
The complete KFM instructions include patterns to be cut out and used to construct the fallout meter. At the end of the
instructions are extra patterns on 4 unnumbered pages. The reader is urged to use these extra patterns to make KFM's in
normal peacetime and to keep the complete instructions intact for use during a recognized crisis period.
If Xerox copies of the patterns are used, they should be checked against the originals in order to make sure that they are the
same size as the originals. Some older copiers make copies with slightly enlarged dimensions. Even slightly enlarged copies of
all the KFM patterns can be made satisfactory provided: (1) on the PAPER PATTERN TO WRAP AROUND KFM CAN,
the distances between the 4 marks for the HOLES FOR STOP- THREAD are corrected; and (2) the dimensions of the
FINISHED-LEAF PATTERN are corrected.
These instructions, including the heading on this page and the illustrative photos, can be photographed without additional
screening and rapidly reproduced by a newspaper or printer. If you keep the KFM instructions intact, during a worsening crisis
you will be able to use them to help your friends and thousands of your fellow citizens by making them available for
reproduction.
Pg. 1 - (1) LOGO (The reverse sides of these pages are numbered to allow for the creation a booklet format of this appendix.)
Book Page: 214
I. The Need for Accurate and Dependable Fallout Meters
If a nuclear war ever strikes the United States, survivors of the blast and fire effects would need to have reliable means of
knowing when the radiation in the environment around their shelters had dropped enough to let them venture safely outside.
Civil defense teams could use broadcasts of surviving radio stations to give listeners a general idea of the fallout radiation in
some broadcast areas. However, the fallout radiation can vary widely from point to point and the measurements are likely to be
made too far from most shelters to make them accurate enough to use safely. Therefore, each shelter should have some
dependable method of measuring the changing radiation dangers in its own area.
During a possible rapidly worsening nuclear crisis, or after a nuclear attack, most unprepared Americans could not buy or
otherwise obtain a fallout meter -- an Instrument that would greatly improve their chances of surviving a nuclear war. The fact
that the dangers from fallout radiation--best expressed in terms of the radiation dose rate, roentgens per hour (R/hr) -- quite
rapidly decrease during the first few days, and then decrease more and more slowly, makes it very important to have a fallout
meter capable of accurately measuring the unseen, unfelt and changing fallout dangers. Occupants of a fallout shelter should be
able to minimize the radiation doses they receive. In order to effectively minimize the radiation doses, a dependable measuring
instrument is needed to determine the doses they receive while they are in the shelter and while they are outside for emergency
tasks, such as going out to get badly needed water. Also, such an instrument would permit them to determine when it is safe to
leave the shelter for good.
Untrained families, guided only by these written instructions and using only low cost materials and tools found in most homes,
have been able to make a KFM by working 3 or 4 hours. By studying the operating sections of these instructions for about
1-1/2 hours, average untrained families have been able to successfully use this fallout meter to measure dose rates and to
calculate radiation doses received, permissible times of exposure, etc.
The KFM (Kearny Fallout Meter) was developed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. It is understandable, easily repairable,
and as accurate as most civil defense fallout meters. In the United States in 1986 the least expensive commercially available
dose-rate meter that is accurate and dependable and that measures high enough dose rates for wartime use is a British
instrument that retails for $375. Comparable American instruments retail for over $1000.
II. Survival Work priorities During a Crisis
Before a nuclear attack occurs is the best time to build, test and learn how to use a KFM. However, this instrument is so simple
that it could be made even after fallout arrives provided that all the materials and tools needed (see lists given in Sections V, VI,
and VII) and a copy of these instructions have been carried into the shelter.
Before building a KFM, persons expecting a nuclear attack within a few hours or days and already in the place where they
intend to await attack should work with the following priorities: (1) build or improve a high-protection-factor shelter (if possible,
a shelter covered with 2 or 3 feet of earth and separate from flammable buildings). At the same time, make and install a KAP (a
homemade shelter-ventilating pump) - if instructions and materials are available. If not available, at least make a Directional
Fan. Also store at least 15 gallons of water for each shelter occupant-- if containers are available. (2) Assemble all materials for
one or two KFM s. (3) Make and store the drying agent (by healing wallboard gypsum, as later described) for both the KFM
and its dry-bucket. (4) Complete at least one KFM.
III. How to Use These Instructions to Best Advantage
1. Read ALOUD all of these instructions through section VII, "Tools Needed," before doing anything else.
2. Next assemble all of the needed materials and tools.
3. Then read ALOUD ALL of each section following Section VII before beginning to make the part described in
that section.
A FAMILY THAT FAILS TO READ ALOUD ALL OF EACH SECTION DESCRIBING
HOW TO MAKE A PART, BEFORE BEGINNING TO MAKE THAT PART, WILL MAKE
AVOIDABLE MISTAKES AND WILL WASTE TIME.
4. Have different workers, or pairs of workers, make the parts they are best qualified to make. For
example, a less skilled worker should start making the drying agent (as described in Section VIII)
before other workers start making other parts. The most skilled worker should make and install the
aluminum-foil leaves (Sections X and XI).
5. Give workers the sections of the instructions covering the parts they are to build--so they can
follow the step-by-step instructions, checking off with a pencil each step as it is completed.
6. Discuss the problems that arise. The head of the family often can give better answers if he first
discusses the different possible interpretations of some instructions with other family members,
especially teenagers.
7. After completing one KFM and learning to use it, if time permits make a second KFM--that
should be a better instrument.
Book Page: 215
IV. What a KFM IS and How It Works
Fig. 215a. Charged KFM
A KFM is a simple electroscope-ionization chamber fallout meter with which fallout radiation can be measured accurately. To
use a KFM, an electrostatic charge must first be placed on its two separate aluminum-foil leaves. These leaves are insulated by
being suspended separately on clean, dry insulating threads.
To take accurate readings, the air inside a KFM must be kept very dry by means of drying agents such as dehydrated gypsum
(easily made by heating gypsum wallboard, "sheetrock") or silica-gel. (Do not use calcium chloride or other salt.) Pieces of
drying agent are placed on the bottom of the ionization chamber (the housing can) of a KFM.
An electrostatic charge is transferred from a homemade electrostatic charging device to the two aluminum-foil leaves of a KFM
by means of its charging-wire. The charging-wire extends out through the transparent plastic cover of the KFM.
When the two KFM leaves are charged electrostatically, their like charges (both positive or both negative) cause them to be
forced apart. When fallout gamma radiation (that is similar to X rays but more energetic) strikes the air inside the ionization
chamber of a KFM, it produces charged ions in this enclosed air. These charged ions cause part or all of the electrostatic
charge on the aluminum-foil leaves to be discharged. As a result of losing charge, the two KFM leaves move closer together.
A KFM-maker who wants visual proof that his instrument can be partially or wholly discharged by ionizing radiation should
persuade his dentist to place the charged KFM about 20 inches directly below a typical dental X-ray machine. For example,
when a typical 90 kvp machine was set at 15 milliamps and for a 1/20th second pulse, its columnated X-ray beam partially
discharged the KFM's separated aluminum-foil leaves, promptly reducing the initial reading of 15 mm to 9 mm. Other types of
machines will require different settings. Many dental X-ray machines are not accurately calibrated, nor do they produce gamma
rays, so such tests should not be used in an attempt to check the accuracy of a KFM.
Fig. 215b. (How to position yourself to take a reading.)
To read the separation of the lower edges of the two KFM leaves with one eye, look straight down on the leaves and the scale
on the clear plastic cover. Keep the reading eye 12 inches above the SEAT. The KFM should be resting on a horizontal
surface. To be sure the reading eye is always at this exact distance, place the lower end of a 12-inch ruler on the SEAT, while
the upper end of the ruler touches the eyebrow above the reading eye. It is best to hold the KFM can with one hand and the
ruler with the other. Using a flashlight makes the reading more accurate.
If a KFM is made and maintained with the specified dimensions and of the specified materials, ITS ACCURACY IS
AUTOMATICALLY AND PERMANENTLY ESTABLISHED BY UNCHANGING LAWS OF NATURE. Unlike factory
made radiation measuring instruments, A KFM NEVER NEEDS TO BE CALIBRATED OR TESTED WITH A
RADIATION SOURCE. A KFM is used with a watch and the following table that is based on numerous calibrations made at
Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
The millimeter scale is cut out and attached (see photo illustrations on the following page) to the clear plastic cover of the KFM
so that its zero mark is directly above the two leaves in their discharged position when the KFM is resting on a horizontal
surface. A reading of the separation of the leaves is taken by noting the number of millimeters that the lower edge of one leaf
appears to be on, on one side of the zero mark on the scale, and almost at the same time noting the number of millimeters the
lower edge of the other leaf appears to be on, on the other side of the zero mark. The sum of these two apparent positions of
the lower edges of the two leaves is called a KFM reading. The drawing appearing after the photo illustrations shows the lower
edges of the leaves of a K FM appearing to be 9 mm on the right of zero and 10 on the left, giving a KFM reading of 19 mm.
(Usually the lower edges of the leaves are not at the same distance from the zero mark.)
As will be fully explained later, the radiation dose rate is determined by:
1. charging and reading the KFM before exposure;
2. exposing it to radiation for a specified time in the location where measurement of the dose rate is needed --
when outdoors, positioning the KFM about 3 ft. above the ground;
3. reading the KFM after its exposure;
4. calculating, by subtraction, the difference between the reading taken before exposure and the reading taken
after exposure;
5. using this table to find what the dose rate was during the exposure -- as will be described later.
DIFF IN
READ
INGS
TIME
INTERVAL
OF AN
EXPOSURE
Difference
between the
reading
before
exposure and
the reading
after
exposure (8
ply standard
foil leaves)
15 SEC.
R/HR
1 MIN.
R/HR
4 MIN.
R/HR
16 MIN.
R/HR
1 HR.
R/HR
2 mm
6.2
1.6
0.4
0.1
0.03
4 mm
12.
3.1
0.8
0.2
0.06
6 mm
19.
4.6
1.2
0.3
0.08
8 mm
26.
6.2
1.6
0.4
0.10
10 mm
31.
7.7
2.0
0.6
0.13
12 mm
37.
9.2
2.3
0.6
0.15
14 mm
43.
11.0
2.7
0.7
0.18
Instructions on how to use a KFM are given after those detailing how to make and charge this fallout meter.
Book Page: 216
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To get a clearer idea of the construction and use of a KFM, look carefully at the following photos and read their captions.
A. An Uncharged KFM. The charging wire has been pulled to one side by its adjustment-thread. This photo was
taken looking straight down at the upper edges of the two flat, 8-ply aluminum leaves. At this angle the leaves are
barely visible, hanging vertically side by side directly under the zero mark, touching each other and with their ends
even. Their suspension-threads insulate the leaves. These threads are almost parallel and touch (but do not cross)
each other where they extend over the top of the rim of the can.
Fig. 216a (Top Down view of KFM)
B. Charging a KFM by a Spark-Gap Discharge from a Tape That Has Been Electrostatically Charged by Being
Unwound Quickly. Note that the charged tape is moved so that its surface is perpendicular to the charging-wire.
The high-voltage electrostatic charge on the unwound tape (that is an insulator) jumps the spark-gap between the
tape and the upper end of the charging-wire, and then flows down the charging-wire to charge the insulated
aluminum- foil leaves of the KFM. (Since the upper edges of the two leaves are 3A inch below the scale and this
is a photo taken at an angle, both leaves appear to be under the right side of the scale.)
Fig. 216b. (Unwound tape by KFM to produce static charge)
C. A Charged KFM. Note the separation of the upper edges of its two leaves. The charging- wire has been
raised to an almost horizontal position so that its lower end is too far above the aluminum leaves to permit
electrical leakage from the leaves back up the charging-wire and into the outside air.
Also note the SEAT, a piece of pencil taped to the right side of the can, opposite the charging wire.
Fig. 216c. A Charged KFM
D. Reading a KFM. A 12- inch ruler rests on the SEAT and is held vertical, while the reader's eyebrow touches
the upper end of the ruler. The lower edge of the right leaf is under 8 on the scale and the lower edge of the left
leaf is under 6 on the scale, giving a KFM reading of 14.
For accurate radiation measurements, a KFM should be placed on an approximately horizontal surface, but the
charges on its two leaves and their displacements do not have to be equal.
Fig. 216d. Reading a KFM
NOTE: In these photos, the paper scale is taped to the top of the transparent plastic-film cover. It is better to tape
the scale to the under side of the cover, where it is less likely to be damaged.
Book Page: 217
KFM Diagrams (Inside, Top, and Cutaway views)
V. Materials Needed
A. For the KFM: (In the following list, when more than one alternative material is given, the best material is listed
first.)
1. Any type metal can. approximately 2-9/16 inches in diameter inside and 2-7/8 inches high inside, washed clean
with soap. (This is the size of a standard 8-ounce can. Since most soup cans, pop cans, and beer cans also are
about 2-9/16 inches in diameter inside, the required size of can also can he made by cutting down the height of
more widely, available cans as described in Section IX of these instructions.)
2. Standard aluminum foil - 2 square feet. (In 1987, 2 square feet of widely sold U.S. brands of aluminum foil
weighed between 8.0 and 8.5 grams. One gram equals 0.035 ounce.) (If only "Heavy Duty" or "Extra Heavy
Duty" aluminum foil is available, make 5-ply leaves rather than 8-ply leaves of standard foil; the resultant fallout
meter will he almost as accurate.)
3. Doorbell-wire, or other light insulated wire (preferably, but not necessarily) a single-strand wire inside the
insulation -- 6 inches.
4. Any type of clean, fine thread that has not been anti-static treated will serve to suspend a KFM's leaves.
(Almost all kinds of sewing thread and fly-tying thread manufactured in 1987 are anti-static treated, are poor
insulators, and are unsatisfactory.) In 1987 the best widely available excellent insulating thread is unwaxed dental
floss; floss is not anti-static treated. Most unwaxed dental floss is too thick and stiff for properly suspending KFM
leaves, but, since dental floss is not a twisted thread, you can make flexible strand-threads from it. Make each no
more than one- quarter as thick as the floss, and about 12 inches lung. First separate several strands at the end of
the floss outside its dispenser. Then separate strands while pulling one way on the end of the strand-thread that
you want and the other way on the unwanted strands. Use only a clean needle to touch and separate the strands in
the middle 6 inches of the 12-inch-long piece of unwaxed dental floss.
A widely sold dental floss. Johnson and Johnson's Extra Fine Unwaxed, drawn out of its dispenser without
splitting it, makes quite satisfactory leaf-supporting threads. However, better leaf-supporting threads can be made
by first separating any dental floss into thinner, more flexible threads
Very thin monofilament fishing line or leader is an excellent insulator. The 2-pound- test strength, such as Du
Pont's "Stren" monofilament fishing line, is best. "Trilene" 2-pound "nylon leader." a monofilament manufactured by
Berkley and Company, also is excellent. (A 4-pound monofilament line will serve, but is disadvantageously stiff.)
Some modern monofilament lines or leaders such as "Trilene" contain an additive that makes them pliant, but also
makes them poorer insulators for the first several hours after being taken out of their dispenser and used to
suspend the leaves of a KFM. However, in about 6 hours the silica gel or anhydrite drying agent in a KFM
removes this additive and the monofilament becomes as good an insulator as even strands of unwaxed dental
floss.
To minimize the chance of using a piece of monofilament or other thread that has been soiled and thus changed
into a poor insulator, always first remove and discard the outermost layer of thread on any spool that has not been
kept clean in a plastic bag or other packaging after being initially unwrapped.
During a worsening crisis or after an attack, neither thread that has not been anti-static treated, nor unwaxed
dental floss, nor clean 2-pound or 4-pound monofilament line may be available. However, most American homes
have an excellent insulator, very thin polyethylene film - especially clean dry cleaners' bags. A narrow insulating
strip cut only 1/16 inch wide can be used to suspend each KFM leaf, instead of an insulating thread. (Installed
leaves suspended on strips of thin plastic film must be handled with care.)
To cut 1/16-inch-wide strips from very thin polyethylene film, first cut a piece about 6 x 10 inches. Tape only the
two 6-inch-wide ends to a piece of paper (such as a brown grocery bag), so that the film is held flat and smooth
on the paper. Make 10 marks. 1/16-inch apart, on each of the two tapes that are holding the film. Place alight so
that its reflection on the film enables you to see the edge of the film that you are preparing to cut. Then use a very
sharp, clean knife or clean razor blade, guided by the edge of a firmly held ruler, to cut 9 strips, of which you will
select the best two. When cutting, hold the knife almost horizontal, with the plane of its blade perpendicular
to the taped-down film. Throughout this procedure avoid touching the center parts of the strips.
5. A piece of clear plastic film - a 6 x 6 inch square. Clear vinyl (4 mils thick) used for storm-proofing windows is
best, but any reasonably stout and clear plastic will serve. The strong clear plastic used to wrap pieces of cheese,
if washed with hot water and soap, is good. Do not use weak plastic or cellophane. Plastic film made from
cellulose (such as Flex-O-Pane) and roasting bags are too permeable to water vapor.
6. Cloth duct tape ("silver tape"), or masking tape, or freezer tape, or Scotch-type tape -about 10 square inches.
(A roll of Scotch Magic Transparent Tape, if available, should be saved for use in charging the KFM).
7. Band-Aid tape, or masking tape, or freezer tape, or Scotch transparent tape, or other thin and very flexible
tapes -- about 2 square inches.
8. Gypsum wallboard (sheetrock) -- about 1/2 square foot, best about 1/2 inch thick, for a good homemade
drying agent. (Silica gel with dark blue color indicator is an even better drying agent, but is not available in most
communities. Available from chemical supply firms that supply high school chemistry classes. With dark blue silica
gel in the bottom of a KFM, white typing correction fluid or white ink is needed to make the lower edges of a
KFM's aluminum leaves easier to see.)
9. Glue -- not essential, but useful to replace Band-Aid and other thin tapes. "One hour" epoxy is best. Model
airplane cement is satisfactory.
10. An ordinary wooden pencil and a small toothpick (or split a small sliver of wood.)
11. Two strong rubber bands, or string.
12. Several small, transparent plastic bags, such as sandwich bags, to cover the KFM when it is exposed where
fallout particles may get on it and contaminate it. Or pieces of thin, transparent plastic film, such as that from bread
bags. Also small rubber bands or string.
B. For the Charging Devices:
1. Most hard plastic rubbed on dry paper. This is the best method.
a. Plexiglas and most other hard plastics, such as are used in draftsmen's triangles, common smooth plastic
rulers, etc. at least 6 inches long.
b. Dry paper -- Tough paper, such as clean, strong grocery bag or typing paper. Tissue paper,
newspaper, or facial tissue such as Kleenex, or toilet paper are satisfactory for charging, but not as durable.
2. Scotch Magic Transparent tape (3/4 inch width is best), or Scotch Transparent Tape, or PVC. (Polyvinyl
chloride) insulating electrical tapes, or a few of the other common brands of Scotch type tapes. (Some plastic
tapes do not develop sufficiently high voltage electrostatic charges when unrolled quickly.) This method cannot be
used for charging a KFM inside a dry-bucket, needed for charging when the air is very humid..
C. For Determining Dose Rates and Recording Doses Received:
1. A watch with a second hand.
2. A flashlight or other light, for reading the KFM in a dark shelter or at night.
3. Pencil and paper -- preferably a notebook.
D. For the Dry-Bucket: A KFM must be charged inside a dry bucket if the air is very humid, as it often is inside a
crowded, long-occupied shelter lacking adequate forced ventilation.)
1. A large bucket, pot, or can, preferably with a top diameter of at least 11 inches.
2. Clear plastic (best is 4-mil-thick clear plastic used for storm windows). A square piece 5 inches wider on a
side than the diameter of the bucket to be used.
3. Cloth duct tape, one inch wide and 8 feet long (or 4 ft., if 2 inches wide). Or 16 ft. of freezer tape one inch
wide.
Book Page: 219
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4. Two plastic bags 14 to 16 inches in circumference, such as ordinary plastic bread bags. The original length of
these bags should be at least 5 inches greater than the height of the bucket.
5. About one square foot of wall board (sheetrock), to make anhydrite drying agent.
6. Two 1-quart Mason jars or other airtight containers, one in which to store anhydrite and another in which to
keep dry the KFM charging devices.
7. Strong rubber bands -- enough to make a loop around the bucket. Or string.
VI. Useful but not Essential Materials
--Which Could be Obtained Before a Crisis--
1. An airtight container (such as a large peanut butter jar) with a mouth at least 4 inches wide, in which to keep a
KFM, along with some drying agent, when it is not being used. Keeping a KFM very dry greatly extends the time
during which the drying agent Inside the KFM remains effective.
2. Commercial anhydrite with a color indicator, such as the drying agent Drierite. This granular form of anhydrite
remains light blue as long as it is effective as a drying agent; it turns pink when it becomes ineffective. Or use silica
gel with color indicator, that is dark blue when effective and that turns light pink when it becomes ineffective.
Heating in a hot oven or in a can over a fire reactivates them as drying agents and restores their blue color.
Obtainable from laboratory supply sources. Use enough to cover the bottom of the KFM's can no more than 1/2
inch deep.
3. Four square feet of aluminum foil, to make a moisture-proof cover for the dry-bucket.
VII. Tools Needed
Small nail - sharpened
Stick, or a wooden tool handle (best 2-2½ inch diameter and at least 12 inches long)
Hammer
Pliers
Scissors
Needle - quite a large sewing needle, but less than 2½ inches long Knife with a small blade - sharp
Ruler (12 inches)
Desirable but not essential tools: a file and a fine-toothed hacksaw blade.
VIII Make the Drying Agent
-- The Easiest Part to Make, but Time Consuming --
1. For a KFM to measure radiation accurately, the air inside its ionization chamber must be kept very dry. An
excellent drying agent (anhydrite) can be made by heating the gypsum in ordinary gypsum wallboard (sheetrock).
Do NOT use calcium chloride.
2. Take a piece of gypsum wallboard approximately 12 inches by 6 inches, and preferably with its gypsum about
3/8 inches thick. Cut off the paper and glue, easiest done by first wetting the paper. [Since water vapor from
normal air penetrates the plastic cover of a KFM and can dampen the anhydrite and make it ineffective in as short
a time as two days, fresh batches of anhydrite must be made before the attack and kept ready inside the shelter
for replacement. The useful life of the drying agent inside a KFM can be greatly lengthened by keeping the KFM
inside an airtight container (such as a peanut butter jar with a 4-inch-diameter mouth) with some drying agent,
when the KFM is not being used.]
3. Break the white gypsum filling into small pieces and make the largest no more than 1/2 in. across. (The tops of
pieces larger than this may be too close to the aluminum foil leaves.) If the gypsum is dry, using a pair of pliers
makes breaking it easier. Make the largest side of the largest pieces no bigger than this.
Illustration - Simple 1/2 In cube of gypsum.
4. Dry gypsum is not a drying agent. To drive the water out of the gypsum molecules and produce the drying
agent (anhydrite), heat the gypsum in an oven at its highest temperature (which should be above 400 degrees F)
for one hour. Heat the gypsum after placing the small pieces no more than two pieces deep in a pan. Or heat the
pieces over a fire for 20 minutes or more in a pan or can heated to a dull red.
5. If sufficient aluminum foil and time are available, it is best to heat the gypsum and store the anhydrite as follows:
a. So that the right amount of anhydrite can be taken quickly out of its storage jar, put enough pieces of
gypsum in a can with the same diameter as the KFM, measuring out a batch of gypsum that almost covers
the bottom of the can with a single layer.
b. Cut a piece of aluminum foil about 8 in. x 8 in. square, and fold up its edges to form a bowl-like
container in which to heat one batch of gypsum pieces.
c. Measure out 10 or 12 such batches, and put each batch in its aluminum foil "bowl."
d. Heat all of these filled "bowls" of gypsum in hottest oven for one hour.
e. As soon as the aluminum foil is cool enough to touch, fold and crumple the edges of each aluminum foil
"bowl" together, to make a rough aluminum-covered "ball" of each batch of anhydrite.
f. Promptly seal the batches in airtight jars or other airtight containers, and keep containers closed except
when taking out an aluminum-covered "ball."
6. Since anhydrite absorbs water from the air very rapidly, quickly put it in a dry airtight container while it is still
quite hot. A Mason jar is excellent.
7. To place anhydrite in a KFM, drop in the pieces one by one, being careful not to hit the leaves or the
stop-threads. The pieces should almost cover the bottom of the can, with no piece on top of other pieces.
8. To remove anhydrite from a KFM, use a pair of scissors or tweezers as forceps, holding them in a vertical
position and not touching the leaves.
IX. Make the Ionization Chamber of the KFM
(To Avoid Mistakes and Save Time, Read All of This Section ALOUD Before Beginning Work.)
1. Remove the paper label (if any) from an ordinary 8-ounce can from which the top has been smoothly cut.
Wash the can with soap and water and dry it. (An 8-ounce can has an inside diameter of about 2-9/16 inches and
an inside height of about 2-7/8 inches.)
2. Skip to step 3 if an 8-ounce can is available. If an 8-ounce can is not available, reduce the height of any other
can having an inside diameter of about 2-9/16 inches (such as most soup cans, most pop cans, or most beer
cans). To cut off the top part of a can, first measure and mark the line on which to cut. Then to keep from bending
the can while cutting, wrap newspaper tightly around a stick or a round wooden tool handle, so that the wood is
covered with 20 to 30 thicknesses of paper and the diameter (ideally) is only slightly less than the diameter of the
can.
One person should hold the can over the paper-covered stick while a second person cuts the can little by little
along the marked cutting line. If leather gloves are available, wear them. To cut the can off smoothly, use a file, or
use a hacksaw drawn backwards along the cutting line. Or cut the can with a sharp, short blade of a pocketknife
by: (1) repeatedly stabbing downward vertically through the can into the paper, and (2) repeatedly making a cut
about 1/4 inch long by moving the knife into a sloping position, while keeping its point still pressed into the paper
covering the stick.
Next, smooth the cut edge, and cover it with small pieces of freezer tape or other flexible tape.
3. Cut out the PAPER PATTERN TO WRAP AROUND KFM CAN. (Cut one pattern out of Pattern Page A.)
Glue (or tape) this pattern to the can, starting with one of the two short sides of the pattern. Secure this starting
short side directly over the side seam of the can. Wrap the pattern snugly around the can, gluing or taping it
securely as it is being wrapped. (If the pattern is too wide to fit flat between the rims of the can, trim a little off its
lower edge.)
4. Sharpen a small nail, by filing or rubbing on concrete, for use as a punch to make the four holes needed to
install the stop-threads in the ionization chamber (the can). (The stop-threads are insulators that stop the charged
aluminum leaves from touching the can and being discharged.)
5. Have one person hold the can over a horizontal stick or a round wooden tool-handle, that ideally has a
diameter about as large as the diameter of the can. Then a second person can use the sharpened nail and a
hammer to punch four very small holes through the sides of the can at the points shown by the four crosses on the
pattern. Make these holes just large enough to run a needle through them, and then move the needle in the holes
so as to bend back the obstructing points of metal.
(Illustration) Single thread threaded through 4 holes to make 2 stop threads.
6. The stop-threads can be installed by using a needle to thread a single thread through all four holes. Use a very
clean thread, preferably nylon, and do not touch the parts of this thread that will be inside the can and will serve as
the insulating stop-threads. Soiled threads are poor insulators.
(See illustrations.)
Book Page: 221
Pattern to wrap around can (Table to find Dose Rates (R/Hr)
Before threading the thread through the four holes, tie a small toggle (see the preceding sketch) to the long end of the thread.
(This toggle can easily be made of a very small sliver of wood cut about 3/8 in. long.) After the thread has been pulled through
the four holes, attach a second toggle to the thread, about 1/2 inch from the part of the thread that comes out of the fourth hole.
Then the thread can be pulled tightly down the side of the can and the second small toggle can be taped securely in place to the
side of the can. (If the thread is taped down without a toggle, it is likely to move under the tape.)
The first toggle and all of the four holes also should be covered with tape, to prevent air from leaking into the can after it has
been covered and is being used as an ionization chamber.
X. Make Two Separate 8-Ply leaves of Standard [Not Heavy Duty*] Aluminum Foil
Proceed as follows to make each leaf:
Fig. 222a (How to fold aluminum foil -1)
A. For the KFM: (In the following list, when )
1. Cut out a piece of standard aluminum foil approximately 4 inches by 8 inches.
2. Fold the aluminum foil to make a 2-ply (= 2 thicknesses) sheet approximately 4 inches by 4 inches.
3. Fold this 2-ply sheet to make a 4-ply sheet approximately 2 inches by 4 inches.
4. Fold this 4-ply sheet to make an 8-ply sheet (8 sheets thick) approximately 2 inches by 2 inches, being sure
that the two halves of the second-fold edge are exactly together. This third folding makes an 8-ply aluminum foil
sheet with one corner exactly square.
5. Cut out the FINISHED-LEAF PATTERN, found on the following Pattern Page B. Note that this pattern is
NOT a square and that it is smaller than the 8-ply sheet. Flatten the 8 thicknesses of aluminum foil with the fingers
until they appear to be a single thin, flat sheet.
6. Hold the FINISHED-LEAF PATTERN on top of the 8-ply aluminum foil sheet, with the pattern's
THIRD-FOLD EDGE on top of the third-fold edge of the 8-ply aluminum sheet. Be sure that one lower corner of
the FINISHED-LEAF PATTERN is on top of the exactly square corner of the 8-ply aluminum sheet.
Fig. 222b (How to fold aluminum foil -2)
Fig. 222c (How to fold aluminum foil -3)
7. While holding a straight edge along the THREAD LINE of the pattern, press with a sharp pencil so as to make
a shallow groove for the THREAD LINE on the 8-ply aluminum sheet. Also using a sharp pencil, trace around the
top and side of the pattern, so as to indent (groove) the 8-ply foil.
8. Remove the pattern and cut out the 8-ply aluminum foil leaf. Then, in order to prevent possible excessive
electrical discharge from overly sharp points on the lower corners of the leaf, cut about 11/16-inch (triangle) off
each of its two lower corners.
9. While holding a straight edge along the indented THREAD LINE, lift up the OPEN EDGE of the 8-ply sheet
(keeping all 8 plies together) until this edge is vertical, as illustrated. Remove the straight edge, and fold the 8-ply
aluminum along the THREAD LINE so as to make a flat-folded hem.
10. Open the flat-folded hem of the finished leaf until the 8-ply leaf is almost flat again, as shown by the pattern,
from which the FINISHED-LEAF PATTERN has already been cut.
11. Prepare to attach the aluminum-foil leaf to the thread that will suspend it inside the KFM.
*If only heavy duty aluminum foil (sometimes called "extra heavy duty") is available, make 5-ply leaves of the
same size, and use the table for the 8-ply KFM to determine radiation dose rates. To make a 5-ply leaf, start by
cutting out a piece of foil approximately 4 inches by 4 inches. Fold it to make a 4-ply sheet approximately 2
inches by 2 inches, with one corner exactly square. Next from a single thickness of foil cut a square approximately
2 inches by 2 inches. Slip this square into a 4-ply sheet, thus making a 5-ply sheet. Then make the 5-ply leaf,
using the FINISHED-LEAF PATTERN, etc. as described for making an 8-ply leaf.
If no epoxy glue* is available to hold down the hem and prevent the thread from slipping in the hem, cut two
pieces of tape (Band-Aid tape is best; next best is masking or freezer tape; next best, Scotch tape). After first
peeling off the paper backing of Band-Aid tape, cut each piece of tape 1/8 inch by 1 inch long. Attach these two
pieces of tape to the finished 8-ply aluminum leaf with the sticky sides up, except for their ends. As shown by the
pattern on the following pattern page, secure 1/8 inch of one end of a tape strip near one corner of the 8-ply
aluminum foil leaf by first turning under this 1/8-inch end; that is, with this end's sticky side down. Then turn under
the other 1/8-inch-long end, and attach this end below the THREAD LINE. Slant each tape strip as illustrated on
Pattern (C).
Be sure you have read through step 18 before you do anything else.
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12. Cut an 8-1/2 inch piece of fine, unwaxed, very clean thread that has not been anti-static treated. See
INSTRUCTIONS, Page 6 for excellent insulating threads and substitutes. In l986 most sewing threads are
anti-static treated and are too poor insulators for use in a KFM.
Cut out Pattern (C), the guide sheet used when attaching a leaf to its suspending thread. Then tape Pattern (C) to
the top of a work table. Cover the two "TAPE HERE" rectangles on Pattern (C) with pieces of tape, each piece
the size of the rectangle. Then cut two other pieces of tape each the same size and use them to ONTO the thread
ONTO the guide sheet, on top of the 'TAPE HERE" rectangles.
Be very careful not to touch the two 1-inch parts of the thread next to the outline of the finished leaf, since oil and
dirt even on clean fingers will reduce the electrical insulating value of the thread between the leaf and the top rim of
the can.
13. With the thread still taped to the paper pattern and while slightly lifting the thread with a knife tip held under
the center of the thread, slip the finished leaf under the thread and into position exactly on the top of the leaf
outlined on the pattern page. Hold the leaf in this position with two fingers.
14. While keeping the thread straight between its two taped-down ends, lower the thread so that it sticks to the
two plastic strips. Then press the thread against the plastic strips.
15. With the point of the knife, hold down the center of the thread against the center of the THREAD LINE of the
leaf. Then, with two fingers, carefully fold over the hem and press it almost flat. Be sure that the thread comes out
of the corners of the hem. Remove the knife, and press the hem down completely flat against the rest of the leaf.
16. Make small marks on the thread at the two points shown on the pattern page. Use a ball-point pen if
available.
17. Loosen the second two small pieces of tape from the pattern paper, but leave these tapes stuck to the thread.
18. Cut 5 pieces of Band-Aid tape, each approximately 1/8 inch by 1/4 inch, this small.
Fig. Pg. 224a (Shows size of Band -Aid tape)
Use 2 of these pieces of tape to secure the centers of the side edges of the leaf. Place the 5 pieces as illustrated in
the SIDE VIEW sketch below. Or use tiny droplets of epoxy, applied with a needle, to secure the side edges and
to hold down the hem.
Fig. pg. 224b V IEW 8-oz. CAN SHOWING THE TWO LEAVES CHARGED (WHEN NOT CHARGED. THE
LEAVES HANG PERPENDICULAR AND TOUCHING.) ORNL-DWG 76-6542
19. To prevent possible partial discharge from overly sharp lower corners of the leaves, use scissors to cut about
1/16 inch ( L) off each lower corner of the two leaves. (Partial discharge from an overly sharp corner may prevent
a KFM's leaves from being adequately charged and adequately separated.)
20. To make it easier to take accurate readings:
a. Make a black stripe 1/8-inch wide on the hem side of the lower edge of each leaf, if the drying agent to
be used is white anhydrite made from gypsum, or light blue Drierite. It is best to use a waterproof marker,
such as black Marko by Flair.
b. Make a white stripe, if the drying agent to be used is dark blue silica gel. Liquid Paper correction fluid,
or white ink, serves well.
*If using epoxy or other glue, use only a very little to hold down the hem, to attach the thread securely to the leaf and to glue
together any open edges of the plied foil. Most convenient is "one hour" epoxy, applied with a toothpick. Model airplane
cement requires hours to harden when applied between sheets of aluminum foil. To make sure no glue stiffens the free thread
beyond the upper corners of the finished leaf, put no glue within 1/4 inch of a point where thread will go out from the folded
hem of the leaf.
The instructions in step 11 are for persons lacking "one hour" epoxy or the time required to dry other types of glue. Persons
using glue instead of tape to attach the leaf to its thread should make appropriate use of the pattern on the following page and of
some of the procedures detailed in steps 12 through 18.
Book Page: 225
COVER THE TWO "TAPE HERE" RECTANGLES WITH SAME-SIZED PIECES OF TAPE, IN ORDER TO KEEP
FROM TEARING THIS PAPER WHEN REMOVING TWO ADDITIONAL PIECES OF TAPE. THEN, BY PUTTING
TWO OTHER PIECES OF TAPE THIS SAME SIZE ON TOP OF THE FIRST TWO PIECES, TAPE THE THREAD
ONTO THIS GUIDE SHEET, AND LATER ATTACH A LEAF TO THE TAPED-DOWN THREAD.
Fig. 225 Pattern (C) how to tape aluminum leaves to thread line.
(Cut out this guide along its border lines and tape to the top of a work table.)
WARNING: The parts of the thread that will be inside the Can and on which the leaf will be suspended must serve to insulate
the high-voltage electrical charges to be placed on the leaf Therefore, the suspended parts of the thread must be kept very
clean.
XI. Install the Aluminum-Foil Leaves
1. In preparation for suspending the leaves inside the can, make two shallow notches in the top of the rim of the
can. Make one notch above each of the two lines ("FASTEN THREADS HOLDING ALUMINUM LEAVES
HERE") on the paper Pattern attached to the outside of the can. Make flat-bottomed notches by first filing a
V-shaped notch, and then using a fine-toothed hacksaw blade to make the notch rectangular. (If a file and/or a
hacksaw blade are not available, the leaf- suspending threads can be taped to the top of the rim of the can.)
2. Use the two small pieces of 'ape stuck to the ends of a leaf-suspending thread to attach the thread to the
outside of the can. Attach the tapes on opposite sides of the can, so as to suspend the leaf inside the can. See
END VIEW sketch. Each of the two marks on the attached thread MUST rest exactly in a notch (or on the top
of the rim of the can, if you are unable to make notches). Be sure that the hem-side of each of the two leaves will
face outward. See END VIEW sketch.
3. Position and secure the second leaf, being sure that:
a. The smooth sides of the two leaves are not wrinkled or bent and face each other, and are flush ("right
together") when not charged. See END VIEW sketch and study the first photo illustration, "An Uncharged
KFM".
b. The upper edges of the two leaves are suspended side by side and at the same distance below the top of
the can.
c. The leaf-suspending threads are in their notches in the top of the rim of the can (or are taped with
Band-Aid to the top of the rim of the can) so that putting the cover on will not move the threads.
d. No parts of the leaf-suspending threads inside the can are taped down to the can or otherwise restricted.
e. The leaf-suspending parts of the threads inside the can do not cross over, entangle or restrict each other.
f. The threads come together where they go over the rim of the can, and the leaves are flat and hang
together as shown in the first photo illustration, "An Uncharged KFM"
g. The leaves look like these photographed leaves. If not, make new, better leaves and install them.
4. Cover with tape the parts of the threads that extend down the outside of the can, and also cover with more
tape the small pieces of tape near the ends of the threads on the outside of the can. Or use epoxy or other
waterproof glue to attach the parts of the threads on the outside of the can securely to the can.
5. To make the SEAT, cut a piece of a wooden pencil, or a stick, about one inch long and tape it securely to the
side of the can along the center line marked SEAT on the pattern. Be sure the upper end of this piece of pencil is
at the same position as the top of the location for the SEAT outlined on the pattern. The top of the SEAT is 3/4
inch below the top of the can. Be sure not to cover or make illegible any part of the table printed on the paper
pattern.
6. Cut out one of the "Reminders for Operators" and glue and/or tape it to the unused side of the KFM. Then it is
best to cover all the sides of the finished KFM with clear plastic tape or varnish. This will keep sticky-tape on the
end of an adjustment thread or moisture from damaging the "Reminders" or the table.
XII - Make the Plastic Cover
1. Cut out the paper pattern for the cover from the Pattern Page (B).
2. From a piece of clear, strong plastic, cut a circle approximately the same size as the paper pattern.
(Storm-window vinyl film, 4 mils thick, is best.)
3. Stretch the center of this circular piece of clear plastic over the open end of the can, and pull it down close to
the sides of the can, making small tucks in the "skirt," so that there are no wrinkles in the top cover. Hold the
lower part of the "skirt" in place with a strong rubber band or piece of string. (If another can having the same
diameter as the KFM can is available, use it to make the cover -- to avoid the possibility of disturbing the
leaf-suspending threads.)
Fig. 226 (Shows positioning of tape and rubber band to secure plastic cover on KFM)
4. Make the cover so it fit snugly, but can be taken off and replaced readily.
Just below the top of the rim of the can, bind the covering plastic in place with a 1 :4- inch-wide piece of strong
tape. (Cloth duct tape is best. Use two thicknesses. If only freezer or masking tape is available, use three or four
thicknesses.)
Keep vertical the small part of the tape that presses against the rim of the can while pulling the length of the tape
horizontally around the can so as to bind the top of the plastic cover snugly to the rim. If this small part of the tape
is kept vertical, the lower edge of the tape will not squeeze the plastic below the rim of the can to such a small
circumference as to prevent the cover from being removed quite easily.
REMINDERS FOR
OPERATORS
REMINDERS FOR
OPERATORS
The drying agent inside a KFM is
O.K. if, when the charged KFM is
not exposed to radiation, its
readings decrease by 1 mm or less
in 3 hours.
Reading: With the reading eye 12
inches vertically above the seat.
note on the tom scale the separation
of the lower edges of the leaves. If
the right leaf is at 10 mm and the
left leaf is at 3 mm. the KFM reads
10 mm. Never take a reading while
a leaf is touching a stop-thread.
Never use a reading that is less than
5 mm.
Finding a dose rate: If before
exposure a KFM reads 17 mm and
if after a l-minute exposure it reads
5 mm. the difference in readings is
12 mm the attached table shows the
dose rate was 9.6 R hr during the
exposure.
Finding a dose: If a person works
outside for 3 hours where the dose
rate is 2 R hr. what is his radiation
dose? Answer: 3 hr x 2 R hr = 6 R.
Finding how long it takes to get a
certain R dose: If the dose
rate is 1.6 R hr
outside and a person
is willing to take a 6
R dose, how long can
he remain outside?
Answer: 6 R /1.6 R/hr
3.75 hr = 3 hours and
45 minutes.
Fallout radiation
guides for a healthy
person not previously
exposed to a total
radiation dose of
more than 100 R
during a 2-week
period:
6 R per day can be
tolerated for up to
two months without
losing the ability to
work.
100 R in a week or
less is not likely to
seriously sicken.
350 R in a few days
results in a 50-50
chance of dying,
under post-attack
conditions.
600 R in a week or
less is almost certain
to cause death within
a few weeks.
The drying agent inside a KFM is
O.K. if, when the charged KFM is
not exposed to radiation, its
readings decrease by 1 mm or less
in 3 hours.
Reading: With the reading eye 12
inches vertically above the seat.
note on the tom scale the separation
of the lower edges of the leaves. If
the right leaf is at 10 mm and the
left leaf is at 3 mm. the KFM reads
10 mm. Never take a reading while
a leaf is touching a stop-thread.
Never use a reading that is less than
5 mm.
Finding a dose rate: If before
exposure a KFM reads 17 mm and
if after a l-minute exposure it reads
5 mm. the difference in readings is
12 mm the attached table shows the
dose rate was 9.6 R hr during the
exposure.
Finding a dose: If a person works
outside for 3 hours where the dose
rate is 2 R hr. what is his radiation
dose? Answer: 3 hr x 2 R hr = 6 R.
Finding how long it takes to get a
certain R dose: If the dose
rate is 1.6 R hr
outside and a person
is willing to take a 6
R dose, how long can
he remain outside?
Answer: 6 R /1.6 R/hr
3.75 hr = 3 hours and
45 minutes.
Fallout radiation
guides for a healthy
person not previously
exposed to a total
radiation dose of
more than 100 R
during a 2-week
period:
6 R per day can be
tolerated for up to
two months without
losing the ability to
work.
100 R in a week or
less is not likely to
seriously sicken.
350 R in a few days
results in a 50-50
chance of dying,
under post-attack
conditions.
600 R in a week or
less is almost certain
to cause death within
a few weeks.
5. With scissors, cut off the "skirt" of the plastic cover until it extends only about one inch below the top of the rim
of the can.
6. Make a notch in the "skirt," about one inch wide, where it fits over the pencil SEAT attached to the can. The
"skirt" in this notched area should be only about 5/8 of an inch long, measured down from the top of the rim of the
can.
7. Remove the plastic cover, and then tape the lower edges of the "skirt," inside and out, using short lengths of
1/4-inch-wide tape. Before securing each short piece of tape, slightly open the tucks that are being taped shut on
their edges, so that the "skirt" flares slightly outward and the cover can be readily removed.
8. Make the charging-wire by using the full-size, exact-size pattern on the right.
Doorbell wire with an outside diameter of about 1116 inch is best, but any lightweight insulated wire, such as part
of a lightweight two-wire extension cord split in half, will serve. The illustrated wire is much thicker than bell wire.
To stop tape from possibly slipping up or down the wire, use a very little glue.
If a very thin plastic has been used for the cover, a sticky piece of tape may need to be attached to the end of the
bare-ended adjustment thread, so both threads can be used to hold the charging wire in a desired position.
The best tape to attach to an end of one of the adjustment-threads is cloth duct tape. A square piece 3/4 inch by
3/4 inch is the sticky base. To keep this tape sticky (free of paper fibers), the paper on the can should be covered
with transparent tape or varnish. A piece about 1/8 inch by 314 inch serves to stick under one end of the sticky
base, to hold the adjustment-thread. A 3/4 inch by 1- 1/4 inch rectangular piece of tape is used to make the finger
hold -- important for making adjustments inside a dry-bucket.
With a needle or pin, make a hole in the plastic cover 1/2 inch from the rim of the can and directly above the
upper end of the CENTER LINE between the two leaves. The CENTER LINE is marked on the pattern
wrapped around the can. Carefully push the CHARGING-WIRE through this hole (thus stretching the hole) until
all of the CHARGING-WIRE below its Band-Aid-tape stop is inside the can.
9. From the Pattern Page (B) cut out the SCALE. Then tape the SCALE to the under side of the plastic cover, in
the position shown on the pattern for the cover, and also by the drawings. Preferably use transparent tape. Be
careful not to cover with tape any of the division lines on the SCALE between 20 on the right and 20 on the left of
0.
10. Put the plastic cover on the KFM can.
Fig. 228 (Charging Wire. Sticky Ended Adjustment Thread.)
Book Page: 229
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XIII. Two Ways to Charge a KFM
When preparing to charge a KFM, be sure its anhydrite is fresh. (Under humid conditions, sometimes in only 2 days enough
water vapor will go through the plastic cover to make the drying agent ineffective.) Be sure no piece of anhydrite is on top of
another piece. Re-read VIII 7 and VIII 8.
1. Charging a KFM with Hard Plastic Rubbed on Dry Paper.
a. Adjust the charging-wire so that its lower end is about 1/16 inch above the upper edges of the
aluminum-foil leaves. Use the sticky-tape at the end of one adjustment-thread to hold the charging-wire in
this position. Stick this tape approximately in line with the threads suspending the leaves, either on the side
of the can or on top of the plastic cover. (If the charging-wire is held loosely by the cover, it may be
necessary to put a piece of sticky-tape on the end of each adjustment-thread in order to adjust the
charging-wire securely. If a charging-wire is not secure, its lower end may be forced up by the like charge
on the leaves before the leaves can be fully charged.)
Fig. 229a (Charging a KFM)
b. Select a piece of Plexiglas, a draftsman's plastic triangle, a smooth plastic ruler, or other piece of hard,
smooth plastic. (Unfortunately, not all types of hard plastic can be used to generate a sufficient electrostatic
charge.) Be sure the plastic is dry.
For charging a KFM (especially inside a dry-bucket), cut a rectangular piece of hard plastic such as
Plexiglas about 1-1/2 by 6 inches. Sharp corners and edges should be smoothed. To avoid contaminating
the charging end with sweaty, oily fingers, it is best to mark the other end with a piece of tape, and to hold
it only by its taped end.
c. Fold DRY paper (a piece of clean paper bag, or other smooth, clean paper) to make an approximate
square about 5 inches on a side and 15 to 20 sheets thick. (This many sheets of paper lessens leakage to
the fingers of the electrostatic high-voltage charges to be generated on the hard plastic and on the rubbed
paper.)
d. Fold the square of paper in the middle, and move the hard plastic rapidly back and forth so that it in the
middle of this folded square is rubbed vigorously on the paper while the outside of this folded square of
paper is squeezed firmly between thumb and little finger on one side, and the ends of three fingers on the
other. To avoid discharging the charge on the plastic to the fingers, keep them away from the edges of the
paper. See sketch..
Fig. 229b (Using plastic and paper to generate a static charge)
e. Move the electrostatically charged part of the rubbed plastic rather slowly past the upper end of the
charging-wire, while looking straight down on the KFM. Keep the hard plastic approximately
perpendicular to the charging- wire and about 1/4 to 1/2 inch away from its upper end. The charge jumps
the spark gaps and charges the leaves of the KFM. Charge the leaves sufficiently to give a reading of at
least 15 mm.
f. Pull down on an insulating adjustment-thread to raise the lower end of the charging-wire. (If the
charging-wire has been held in its charging position by its sticky ended adjustment-thread being stuck to the
top of the clear plastic cover, to avoid possibly damaging the threads: (1) pull down a little on the
bare-ended adjustment-thread; and (2) detach, pull down on, and secure the sticky-ended
adjustment-thread to the side of the can, so as to raise and keep the lower end of the charging-wire close
to the underside of the clear plastic cover.) Do not touch the charging-wire, because its insulation usually is
not good enough to prevent the charge from bleeding off into the fingers.
g. To get the most accurate readings possible, lightly bump or shake the charged KFM (to remove any
unstable part of the charge) before taking the initial reading.
h. If the initial reading is more than 20 mm, to get the most accurate reading possible carefully partially
discharge the leaves (by touching them with the charging-wire while guiding the wire with your fingers on its
insulation), to reduce to 20 mm or slightly less the initial reading that you will use. Or completely discharge,
and recharge to 20 mm or slightly less.
i. To keep a KFM in excellent condition and to enable its drying agent to last much longer before becoming
ineffective, put the whole KFM in an airtight container, such as a large peanut butter jar, with drying agent
about an inch deep on its bottom. Or at least keep the charging paper and the hard plastic charging strip
dry in a sealable container, such as a Mason jar, with some drying agent.
2. Charging a KFM from a Quickly Unwound Roll of Tape. (Quick unwinding produces a harmless charge of
several thousand volts on the tape.)
a. Adjust the charging-wire so that its lower end is about 1/16 inch above the upper edges of the
aluminum-foil leaves. Use the sticky-tape at the end of one adjustment-thread to hold the charging-wire in
this position. Stick this tape approximately in line with the leaves, either on the side of the can or on the
plastic cover. (If the plastic cover is weak, it may be necessary to put a piece of sticky-tape on the end of
each adjustment-thread, in order to hold the charging-wire securely. If a charging-wire is not secure, its
lower end may be forced up by the like charge on the leaves before the leaves can be fully charged.)
Book Page: 230
b. The sketch shows the "GET SET" position, preparatory to unrolling the Scotch Magic Transparent
Tape, PVC, electrical tape, or other tape. Be sure to first remove the roll from its dispenser. Some of the
other kinds of tape will not produce a high enough voltage.
(Illustration) "Get Set" position
c. QUICKLY unroll 10 to 12 inches of tape by pulling its end with the left hand, while the right hand allows
the roll to unwind while remaining in about the same "GET SET" position only an inch or two away from the
KFM.
d. While holding the unwound tape tight, about perpendicular to the charging-wire, and about 114 inch
away from the end of the charging-wire, promptly move both hands and the tape to the right rather slowly
taking about 2 seconds to move about 8 inches. The electrostatic charge on the unwound tape "jumps" the
spark gaps from the tape to the upper end of the charging-wire and from the lower end of the
charging-wire to the aluminum leaves, and charges the aluminum leaves.
Be sure neither leaf is touching a stop-thread.
Try to charge the leaves enough to spread them far enough apart to give a reading of at least 15 mm, but no
more than 20 mm after the KFM has been gently bumped or shaken to remove any unstable part of the
charge.
e. Pull down on an insulating adjustment-thread to raise the lower end of the charging-wire. If the
charging-wire has been held in charging position by its sticky-ended adjustment-thread being stuck to the
top of the clear plastic cover, it is best first to pull down a little on the bare-ended adjustment-thread, and
then to move, pull down on, and secure the sticky-ended adjustment-thread to the side of the can so that
the lower part of the charging-wire is close to the underside of the clear plastic cover.
Do not touch the charging-wire.
(Illustration) Transferring charge
f. Rewind the tape tight on its roll, for future use when other tape may not be available.
Testing Your KFM to Learn if it Can
Accurately Measure Low Dose Rates
Put fresh drying agent in your KFM and then charge and test the KFM in a location where it is not exposed to abnormal
radiation. Take an initial reading. If after 3 hours its reading has decreased by 1 mm, or less, this means that its leaf-suspending
threads are good insulators and that your KFM can reliably measure dose rates as low as 0.03 roentgens per hour (30
milliroentgens per hour). By post-attack standards, 30 mR/hr is a low dose rate. In a whole month of continuous exposure (an
impossibility, because fallout decays). 30 mR/hr would result in a dose of 21.9 roentgens - not enough to incapacitate. Warning:
In heavy fallout areas, for the first few days after fallout deposition the dose rates inside even most good shelters will be higher
than 0.03 R/hr.
Trouble Shooting
If charging does not separate the two leaves sufficiently, take these corrective actions:
1. Be sure the pieces of anhydrite in the bottom of the ionization chamber (the can) are in a single layer, with no
piece on top of another and the top of no piece more than 112 inch above the bottom of the can.
2. Check to be sure that the threads suspending the leaves are not crossed; then try to charge the KFM again.
3. If the KFM still cannot be charged, replace the used anhydrite with fresh anhydrite.
4. If you cannot charge a K FM when the air is very humid, charge it inside its dry-bucket.
5. If you cannot charge the KFM while in an area of heavy fallout, take it to the place affording the best protection
against radiation, and try to charge it there. (A dose rate of several hundred R hr will neutralize the charges on
both the charging device and the instrument so rapidly that a K FM cannot be charged.)
If a KFM or other radiation measuring instrument gives unexpectedly high readings inside a good shelter, wipe all dust off the
outside of the instrument and repeat the radiation-measurements. Especially when exposing a fallout meter outdoors where
there is fresh fallout, keep the instrument in a lidded pot, plastic bag, or other covering to avoid the possibility of having it
contaminated with fallout particles and afterwards getting erroneously high radiation measurements.
Book Page: 231
XIV. Make and Use a Dry-Bucket
By charging a KFM while it is inside a dry-bucket with a transparent plastic cover (see illustration), this fallout meter can be
charged and used even if the relative humidity is 100% outside the dry-bucket. The air inside the dry-bucket is, kept very dry
by a drying agent placed on its bottom.
About a cupful of anhydrite serves very well. The pieces of this dehydrated gypsum need not be as uniform in size as is best for
use inside a KFM, but do not use powdered anhydrite.
Fig. 231a (Bucket with Anhydrite)
A dry-bucket can be readily made in about an hour by proceeding as follows:
1. Remove the handle of a large bucket, pot, or can preferably with a top diameter of at least 11 inches. A
4-gallon bucket having a top diameter of about 14 inches and a depth of about 9 inches is ideal. A plastic tub
approximately this size is satisfactory. If the handle-supports interfere with stretching a piece of clear plastic film
across the top of the bucket, remove them, being sure no sharp points remain.
2. Cut out a circular piece of clear plastic with a diameter about 5 inches larger than the diameter of the top of the
bucket. Clear vinyl 4 mils thick, used for storm windows, etc., is best. Stretch the plastic smooth across the top of
the bucket, and tie it in place, preferably with strong rubber bands looped together to form a circle.
3. Make a plastic top that fits snugly but is easily removable, by taping over and around the plastic just below the
top of the bucket. One-inch-wide cloth duct tape, or one-inch-wide glass-reinforced strapping tape, serves well.
When taping, do not permit the lower edge of the tape to be pulled inward below the rim of the bucket.
Fig. 231a (Bucket with Anhydrite - Enlarged View)
(Illustration) Cutting the clear plastic cover.
Book Page: 232
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4. Cut two small holes (about 1 inch by 2 inches) in the plastic cover, as illustrated. Then make the radial cuts
(shown by dotted lines) outward from the small holes, out to the solid-line outlines of the 3 inch by 4 inch
hand-holes, so as to form small flaps.
5. Fold the small flaps upward, so they are vertical. Then tape them on their outer sides, so they form a vertical
"wall" about 3/4 inch high around each hand-hole.
6. Reduce the length of two ordinary plastic bread bags (or similar plastic bags) to a length that is 5 inches greater
than the height of the bucket. (Do not use rubber gloves in place of bags; gloves so used result in much more
humid outside air being unintentionally pumped into a dry-bucket when it is being used while charging a KFM
inside it.)
7. Insert a plastic bag into each hand-hole, and fold the edge of the plastic bag about 1/2 inch over the taped
vertical "wall" around each hand-hole.
8. Strengthen the upper parts of the plastic bags by folding 2-inch pieces of tape over the top of the "wall" around
each hand-hole.
9. Make about a quart of anhydrite by heating small pieces of wall-board gypsum, and keep this anhydrite dry in a
Mason jar or other airtight container with a rubber or plastic sealer.
10. Make a circular aluminum-foil cover to place over the plastic cover when the dry-bucket is not being used for
minutes to hours. Make this cover with a diameter about 4 inches greater than the diameter of the top of the
bucket, and make it fit more snugly with an encircling loop of rubber bands, or with string. Though not essential,
an aluminum-foil cover reduces the amount of water vapor that can reach and pass through the plastic cover, thus
extending the life of the drying agent.
11. Charge a KFM inside a dry-bucket by:
a. Taking off wrist watch and sharp-pointed rings that might tear the plastic bags.
b. Placing inside the dry-bucket:
(1) About a cup of anhydrite or silica gel;
(2) the KFM, with its charging-wire adjusted in its charging position; and
(3) dry, folded paper and the electrostatic charging device, best a 5-inch-long piece of Plexiglas with
smoothed edges, to be rubbed between dry paper folded about 4 inches square and about 20 sheets
thick. (Unrolling a roll of tape inside a dry-bucket is an impractical charging method.)
c. Replacing the plastic cover, that is best held in place with a loop of rubber bands.
d. Charging the KFM with your hands inside the plastic bags, operating the charging device. Have another
person illuminate the KFM with a flashlight. When adjusting the charging-wire, move your hands very
slowly. See the dry-bucket photos.
12. Expose the KFM to fallout radiation either by:
a. Leaving the KFM inside the dry-bucket while exposing it to fallout radiation for one of the listed time
intervals, and reading the KFM before and after the exposure while it remains inside the dry-bucket. (The
reading eye should be a measured 12 inches above the SEAT of the KFM, and a flashlight or other light
should be used.)
b. Taking the charged KFM out of the dry-bucket to read it, expose it, and read it after the exposure. (If
this is done repeatedly, especially in a humid shelter, the drying agent will not be effective for many KFM
chargings, and will have to be replaced.)
XV. How to Use a KFM alter a Nuclear ATTACK
A. Background Information
If during a rapidly worsening crisis threatening nuclear war you are in the place where you plan to take shelter, postpone
studying the instructions following this sentence until after you have:
(1) built or improved a high-protection-factor shelter (if possible, a shelter covered with 2 or 3 ft of earth
and separate from flammable buildings), and
(2) made a KAP (homemade shelter-ventilating pump) if you have the instructions and materials, and
(3) stored at least 15 gallons of water for each shelter occupant if you can obtain containers.
Having a KFM or any other dependable fallout meter and knowing how to operate it will enable you to minimize radiation
injuries and possible fatalities, especially by skillfully using a high-protection-factor fallout shelter to control and limit exposures
to radiation. By studying this section you first will learn how to measure radiation dose rates (roentgens per hour = R/hr), how
to calculate doses [It] received in different time intervals, and how to determine time intervals (hours and/or minutes) in which
specified doses would be received. Then this section lists the sizes of doses (number of R) that the average person can tolerate
without being sickened, that he is likely to survive, and that he is likely to be killed by.
Book Page: 233
Most fortunately for the future of all living things, the decay of radioactivity causes the sandlike fallout particles to become less
and less dangerous with the passage of time. Each fallout particle acts much like a tiny X-ray machine would if it were made so
that its rays, shooting out from it like invisible light, became weaker and weaker with time.
Contrary to exaggerated accounts of fallout dangers, the radiation dose rate from fallout particles when they reach the ground in
the areas of the heaviest fallout will decrease quite rapidly. For example, consider the decay of fallout from a relatively nearby,
large surface burst, at a place where the fallout particles are deposited on the ground one hour after the explosion. At this time
one hour after the explosion, assume that the radiation dose rate (the best measure of radiation danger at a particular time)
measures 2,000 roentgens per hour (2,000 R/hr) outdoors. Seven hours later the dose rate is reduced to 200 R/hr by normal
radioactive decay. Two days after the explosion, the dose rate outdoors is reduced by radioactive decay to 20 R/hr. After two
weeks, the dose rate is less than 2 R/hr. When the dose rate is 2 R/hr, people can go out of a good shelter and work outdoors
for 3 hours a day, receiving a daily dose of 6 roentgens, without being sickened.
In places where fallout arrives several hours after the explosion, the radioactivity of the fallout will have gone through its time
period of most rapid decay while the fallout particles were still airborne. If you are in a location so distant from the explosion
that fallout arrives 8 hours after the explosion, two days must pass before the initial dose rate measured at your location will
decay to 1/10 its initial intensity.
B. Finding the Dose Rate
1. Reread Section IV, "What a KFM Is and How it Works." Also reread Section XIII, "Two Ways to
Charge a KFM," and actually do each step immediately after reading it.
2. Charge the KFM so that it reads at least 15 mm. Next raise the lower end of the charging wire. Then
gently bump or shake the KFM to remove any unstable part of the charge. Read the apparent separation of
the lower edges of the leaves while the KFM rests on an approximately horizontal surface. If the reading is
larger than 20 mm, bleed off enough charge to reduce the initial reading to 20 mm or slightly less, for
maximum accuracy. Never take a reading while a leaf is touching a stop-thread.
3. To prevent possible contamination of a KFM (or of any other fallout meter) with fallout particles, keep it
inside a plastic bag or other covering when there is risk of fallout particles being deposited or blown onto it.
An instrument contaminated with fallout particles can give too high readings, especially of the low dose-rate
measurements made inside a good shelter.
4. Expose the KFM to fallout radiation for one of the time intervals shown in the vertical columns of the
table attached to the KFM - (Study the following table.) If the dose rate is not known even approximately,
first expose the fully charged KFM for one minute. For dependable measurements outdoors, expose the
charged KFM about 3 feet above the ground. The longer outdoor exposures usually are best made by
attaching the KFM with 2 strong rubber hands to a stick or pole, being careful never to tilt the KFM too
much.
5. Read the KFM after the exposure, while the KFM rests on an approximately horizontal surface.
6. Find the time interval that gives a dependable reading by exposing the fully charged K FM for one or
more of the listed time intervals until the reading after the exposure is;
(a) Not less than 5 mm.
(b) At least 2 mm less than the reading before the exposure.
7. Calculate by simple subtraction the difference in the apparent separation of the lower edges of the leaves
before the exposure and after the exposure. An example: If the reading before the exposure is 18 mm and
the reading after the exposure is 6 mm, the difference in readings is 18 mm - 6 mm 12 mm.
8. If an exposure results in a difference in readings of less than 2 mm, recharge the KFM and expose it
again for one of the longer time intervals listed. (If there appears to be no difference in the readings taken
before and after an exposure for one minute, this does not prove there is absolutely no fallout danger. Take
a longer reading.)
9. If an exposure results in the reading after the exposure being less than 5 mm, recharge the KFM and
expose it again for one of the shorter time intervals listed.
10. Use the table attached to the KFM to find the dose rate (R/hr) during the time of exposure. The dose
rate (R/hr) is found at the intersection of the vertical column of numbers under the time interval used and of
the horizontal line of numbers that lists the calculated difference in readings at its left end.
An example: If the time interval of the exposure was 1 MIN. and the difference in the readings was 12 mm,
the table shows that the dose rate during the time interval of the exposure was 9.2 R/HR (9.2 roentgens per
hour).
Another example: If the time interval of the exposure was 15 SEC. and the difference in readings was 11
mm, the table shows that the dose rate during the exposure was halfway between 31 R/hr and 37 R/hr; that
is, the dose rate was 34 R/hr.
Book Page: 234
11. Note in the table that if an exposure for one of the listed time intervals causes the difference in readings
to be 2 mm or 3 mm, then an exposure 4 times as long reveals the same dose rate. An example: If a 1- min.
exposure results in a difference in readings of 2 mm, the table shows the dose rate was 1.6 R/hr; then if the
KFM is exposed for 4 minutes at this same dose rate of 1.6 R/hr, the table shows that the resultant
difference in readings is 8 mm.
The longer exposure results in a more accurate determination of the dose rate.
12. If the dose rate is found to be greater than 0.2 R/hr and time is available, recharge the KFM and repeat
the dose-rate measurement -- to avoid possible mistakes.
C. Calculating the Dose Received
The dose of fallout radiation -- that is, the amount of fallout radiation received -- determines the harmful effects on men and
animals. Being exposed to a high dose rate is not always dangerous -- provided the exposure is short enough to result in only a
small dose being received. For example, if the dose rate outside an excellent fallout shelter is 1200 R/hr and a shelter occupant
goes outside for 30 seconds, he would be exposed for 1/2 of 1 minute, or 1/2 of 1/60 of an hour, which equals 1/120 hour.
Therefore, since the dose he would receive if he stayed outside for 1 hour would be 1200 R, in 30 seconds he would receive
1/120 of 1200, which equals 10 R (1200 R divided by 120 = 10 R). A total daily dose of 10 R (10 roentgens) will not cause
any symptoms if it is not repeated day after day for a week or more.
In contrast, if the average dose rate of an area were found to be 12 R/hr and if a person remained exposed in that particular
area for 24 hours, he would receive a dose of 288 R (12 R/hr x 24 hr = 288 R). Even assuming that this person had been
exposed previously to very little radiation, there would still be a serious risk that this 288 R dose would be fatal under the
difficult conditions that would follow a heavy nuclear attack.
Another example: Assume that three days after an attack the occupants of a dry, hot cave giving almost complete protection
against fallout are in desperate need of water. The dose rate outside is found to be 20 R/hr. To backpack water from a source
3 miles away is estimated to take 2-1/2 hours. The cave occupants estimate that the water backpackers will receive' a dose in
2-1/2 hours of 50 R (2.5 hr x 20 R/hr = 50 R). A dose of 50 R will cause only mild symptoms (nausea in about 10% of
persons receiving a 50 R dose) for persons who previously have received only very small doses. Therefore, one of the cave
occupants makes a rapid radiation survey for about 1-1/2 miles along the proposed route, stopping to charge and read a KFM
about every quarter of a mile. He finds no dose rates much higher than 20 R/hr.
So, the cave occupants decide the risk is small enough to justify some of them leaving shelter for about 2-1/2 hours to get
water.
D. Estimating the Dangers from Different Radiation Doses
Fortunately, the human body -- if given enough time -- can repair most of the damage caused by radiation. An historic example:
A healthy man accidentally received a daily dose of 9.3 R (or somewhat more) of fallout-type radiation each day for a period
of 106 days. His total accumulated dose was at least 1000 R. A dose of one thousand roentgens, if received in a few days, is
almost three times the dose likely to kill the average man if he receives the whole dose in a few days and after a nuclear attack
cannot get medical treatment, adequate rest, etc. However, the only symptom this man noted was serious fatigue.
The occupants of a high-protection-factor shelter (such as a trench shelter covered with 2 or 3 feet of earth and having
crawlway entrances) would receive less than 1/200 of the radiation dose they would receive outside. Even in most areas of
very heavy fallout, persons who remain continuously in such a shelter would receive a total accumulated dose of less than 25 R
in the first day after the attack, and less than 100 R in the first two weeks. At the end of the first two weeks, such shelter
occupants could start working outside for an increasing length of time each day, receiving a dally dose of no more than 6 R for
up to two months without being sickened.
Book Page: 235
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To control radiation exposure in this way, each shelter must have a fallout meter, and a daily record must be kept of the
approximate total dose received each day by every shelter occupant - both while inside and outside the shelter. The long- term
penalty which would result from a dose of 100 R received within a few weeks is much less than many Americans fear. If 100
average persons received an external dose of 100 R during and shortly after a nuclear attack, the studies of the Japanese
A-bomb survivors indicate that no more than one of them is likely to die during the following 30 years as a result of this 100 R
radiation dose. These delayed radiation deaths would be due to leukemia and other cancers. In the desperate crisis period
following a major nuclear attack, such a relatively small shortening of life expectancy during the following 30 years should not
keep people from starting recovery work to save themselves and their fellow citizens from death due to lack of food and other
essentials.
A healthy person who previously has received a total accumulated dose of no more than 100 R distributed over a 2-week
period should realize that:
100 R, even if all received in a day or less, is unlikely to require medical care - provided during the next 2 weeks a total
additional dose of no more than a few R is received.
350 R received in a few days or less results in a 50-50 chance of being fatal after a large nuclear attack when few survivors
could get medical care, sanitary surroundings, a well-balanced diet, or adequate rest.
600 R received in a few days or less is almost certain to cause death within a few days.
E. Finding the Protection Factor of a Shelter
To avoid the necessity of repeatedly going outside a shelter to determine the changing dose rates outside, find the shelter's
protection factor (PF) by measuring the dose rate inside the shelter as soon as it becomes high enough to be reliably measured.
Then promptly measure the dose rate outside. The uncontaminated shelter's PF = Dose Rate Inside/Dose Rate Inside.
An example: If the dose rate inside is found to be 0.2 R/hr and the dose rate outside is 31 R/hr, the shelter's PF = 31 R/hr / 0.2
R/hr = 155.
Then at future times the approximate dose rate outside can be found by measuring the dose rate inside and multiplying it by
155. Approximate Dose Rate Outside = Dose Rate Inside x PF.
F. Using a KFM to Reduce Radiation Doses Received
If a charged KFM is discharged and reads zero within a second or two after being taken outside a good shelter, this means that
the dose rate outside is hundreds of roentgens per hour. Get back inside! Also remember that a 15-second reading is not as
accurate as are readings made in longer specified exposure times.
Inside most shelters, the dose received by an occupant varies considerably, depending on the occupant's location. For
example, inside an expedient covered-trench shelter the dose rate is higher near the entrance than in the middle of the trench. In
a typical basement shelter the best protection is found in one corner. Especially during the first several hours after the arrival of
fallout, when the dose rates and doses received are highest, shelter occupants should use their fallout meters to determine
where to place themselves to minimize the doses they receive.
They should use available tools and materials to reduce the doses they receive, especially during the first day, by digging deeper
(if practical) and reducing the size of openings by partially blocking them with earth, water containers, etc. -- while maintaining
adequate ventilation. To greatly reduce the slight risk of fallout particles entering the body through nose or mouth, shelter
occupants should cover nose and mouth with a towel or other cloth while the fallout is being deposited outside their shelter, if at
the same time ventilating air is being blown or pumped through their shelter.
The air inside an occupied shelter often becomes very humid. If a good flow of outdoor air is flowing into a shelter--especially if
pumped by briefly operating a KAP or other ventilating pump - a KFM usually can be charged at the air intake of the shelter
room without putting it inside a dry-bucket. However, if the air to which a KFM is exposed has a relative humidity of 90% or
higher, the instrument cannot be charged, even by quickly unrolling a roll of tape.
In extensive areas of heavy fallout, the occupants of most home basements, that provide inadequate shielding against heavy
fallout radiation, would be in deadly danger. By using a dependable fallout meter, occupants would find that persons lying on
the floor in certain locations would receive the smallest doses, and that, if they improvise additional shielding in these locations,
the doses received could be greatly reduced. Additional shielding can be provided by making a very small shelter inside the
basement where the dose rate is found to be lowest. Furniture, boxes, etc. can be used for walls, doors for the roof, and water
containers, books, and other heavy objects for shielding -- especially on the roof. Or, if tools are available, breaking through
the basement floor and digging a shelter trench will greatly increase available protection against radiation. If a second expedient
ventilating pump, a KAP, (or a small Directional Fan), is made and used as a fan, such an extremely cramped shelter inside a
shelter usually can be occupied by several times as many persons as can occupy it without forced ventilation.
END OF INSTRUCTIONS
Book Page: 236
PATTERN (A)
Book Page: 237
PATTERN (B)
Book Page: 238
PATTERN (C)
(Cut out this guide along its border lines and tape to the top of a work table.)
WARNING: The parts of the thread that will be inside the can and on which the leaf will be suspended must serve to insulate
the high-voltage electrical charges to be placed on the leaf Therefore, the suspended parts Of the thread must be kept very
clean.
Book Page: 239
REMINDERS FOR
OPERATORS
REMINDERS FOR
OPERATORS
The drying agent inside a KFM is
O.K. if, when the charged KFM is
not exposed to radiation, its
readings decrease by 1 mm or less
in 3 hours.
Reading: With the reading eye 12
inches vertically above the seat.
note on the tom scale the separation
of the lower edges of the leaves. If
the right leaf is at 10 mm and the
left leaf is at 3 mm. the KFM reads
10 mm. Never take a reading while
a leaf is touching a stop-thread.
Never use a reading that is less than
5 mm.
Finding a dose rate: If before
exposure a KFM reads 17 mm and
if after a l-minute exposure it reads
5 mm. the difference in readings is
12 mm the attached table shows the
dose rate was 9.6 R hr during the
exposure.
Finding a dose: If a person works
outside for 3 hours where the dose
rate is 2 R hr. what is his radiation
dose? Answer: 3 hr x 2 R hr = 6 R.
Finding how long it takes to get a
certain R dose: If the dose
rate is 1.6 R hr
outside and a person
is willing to take a 6
R dose, how long can
he remain outside?
Answer: 6 R /1.6 R/hr
3.75 hr = 3 hours and
45 minutes.
Fallout radiation
guides for a healthy
person not previously
exposed to a total
radiation dose of
more than 100 R
during a 2-week
period:
6 R per day can be
tolerated for up to
two months without
losing the ability to
work.
100 R in a week or
less is not likely to
seriously sicken.
350 R in a few days
results in a 50-50
chance of dying,
under post-attack
conditions.
600 R in a week or
less is almost certain
to cause death within
a few weeks.
The drying agent inside a KFM is
O.K. if, when the charged KFM is
not exposed to radiation, its
readings decrease by 1 mm or less
in 3 hours.
Reading: With the reading eye 12
inches vertically above the seat.
note on the tom scale the separation
of the lower edges of the leaves. If
the right leaf is at 10 mm and the
left leaf is at 3 mm. the KFM reads
10 mm. Never take a reading while
a leaf is touching a stop-thread.
Never use a reading that is less than
5 mm.
Finding a dose rate: If before
exposure a KFM reads 17 mm and
if after a l-minute exposure it reads
5 mm. the difference in readings is
12 mm the attached table shows the
dose rate was 9.6 R hr during the
exposure.
Finding a dose: If a person works
outside for 3 hours where the dose
rate is 2 R hr. what is his radiation
dose? Answer: 3 hr x 2 R hr = 6 R.
Finding how long it takes to get a
certain R dose: If the dose
rate is 1.6 R hr
outside and a person
is willing to take a 6
R dose, how long can
he remain outside?
Answer: 6 R /1.6 R/hr
3.75 hr = 3 hours and
45 minutes.
Fallout radiation
guides for a healthy
person not previously
exposed to a total
radiation dose of
more than 100 R
during a 2-week
period:
6 R per day can be
tolerated for up to
two months without
losing the ability to
work.
100 R in a week or
less is not likely to
seriously sicken.
350 R in a few days
results in a 50-50
chance of dying,
under post-attack
conditions.
600 R in a week or
less is almost certain
to cause death within
a few weeks.
Book Page: 241
Instructions
(A)
INSTRUCTIONS FOR PERSONS CONCERNED WITH
REPRODUCING THE K.F.M. INSTRUCTIONS
The KFM instruction pages are printed so that they can be readily cut out and pasted up (using the "LAYOUT FOR 12-PAGE
TABLOID" given on page 242) to expedite rapid reproduction preparatory to mass distribution. No authorization is required
to reproduce this survival information.
All of the paste-ups should be photo-reduced to fit your size newspaper, EXCEPT four cut-outs [paste-ups (15), (18), (21)
and (24)] and one drawing [paste-up (26)] SHOULD REMAIN AT 100%.
To make the instruction pages fully camera-ready for paste-up and photographing, it is necessary: (1) To cut off each page's
title and number (such as "INSTRUCTIONS, Page 2" and "2l4"); (2) To use a camera-invisible blue pencil to copy the
numbers on the back of each page onto the front of that page, writing them in a blank space nearest to the approximate original
position of the numbers; (3) To cut out each of the 40 paste-ups.
On the back of each paste-up are the number of the tabloid page to which the paste-up is to be attached and (in parentheses)
the number of the paste-up itself. For example, on the back of "INSTRUCTIONS, Page 2" are printed the following: "Pg 1-
(2)" and "Pg 1- (3)." Thus, this page contains two paste-ups, both of which should be attached to page 1 of the tabloid
paste-up. The positions in which they should be attached to page 1 are shown in the layout sketch on page 242.
Timed field tests by two newspapers have shown that less than 40 minutes is required to begin printing a KFM tabloid. Each
test began when the newspaper was given only written instructions like this page and the following layout page, along with
KFM instructions like those in this book except that the index numbers were already printed in camera-invisible blue on each
half page of the instructions.
The camera-ready copy is for use with a straight lens (100%, horizontal and 100% vertical reproduction).
Fig. Pg. 241 TABLOID LAYOUT SHEET and CENTER FOLD OF A 12-PAGE TABLOID, INDICATING
TABLOID Page 6 AND Page 7.
All photographs are 85-line screen.
The following layout sketch for a 12-page tabloid indicates where each of the numbered paste-ups [(1), (2),... (40)] should be
pasted-up and what spaces should be left blank. This positioning of the paste-ups is necessary to permit a KFM-maker to cut
out the patterns without destroying any instructions printed on opposite sides of the 12 tabloid pages.
Fig. Pg. 232 INSTRUCTIONS (B) FOR PHOTOGRAPHER - PRINTER
Book Page: 243
Copyright 2000 Nuclear War Survival Skills
Nuclear War Survival Skills
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App. D: Expedient Blast Shelters
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INCREASING IMPORTANCE
The majority of urban and suburban Americans would need blast shelters to
avoid death or injury if they did not evacuate before an all-out nuclear
attack. As nuclear arsenals continue to grow, an increasing majority would
need the protection of blast shelters. In an attack on militarily relevant
targets, as much as 5% of the total area of the 48 states could be subjected
to blast damage severe enough to destroy or damage homes depending on
the number of warheads assigned to each hard target, weapon reliability,
etc. If blast shelters affording protection up to the
15-pounds-per-square-inch (15 psi) overpressure range were available to
everybody and were occupied at the time of attack, the great majority of the occupants would survive
all blast, fire, and radiation effects in the blast areas subjected to less than 15-psi blast effects.
Fifteen-psi blast shelters will survive as close as about 1.5 miles from ground zero of a 1-megaton
surface burst, and about 2.3 miles from ground zero or a 1-megaton air burst. Except in high-density
urban areas where the air supply openings and exits of shelters are all too likely to be covered with
blast-hurled debris, the area in which people inside good earth- covered 15-psi blast shelters would be
killed would be only about 1/6th as large as the area in which most people sheltered in typical
American homes probably would die from blast and fire effects alone.
Blast tests have indicated that the SmallPole Shelter (the most blast-resistant of the earth-covered
expedient shelters described in Appendix A) should enable its occupants to survive up to the 50-psi
overpressure range - if built with the blast-resistant and radiation- protective features described in
following sections, and if located outside an urban area. Calculations show that this earth-covered
expedient blast shelter also would give adequate protection at the 50-psi blast overpressure range against the intense initial
nuclear radiation that is emitted from the fireball of a 1-megaton explosion. However, to make this shelter (see page 258)
provide adequate protection against the even more intense initial nuclear radiation that would reach the 50-psi overpressure
range from the fireball of a 500-kiloton or smaller explosion, it should have at least 6 feet of earth cover and additional cans of
water should be kept ready to be placed in the horizontal parts of the entryways promptly after the shelter is occupied.
The life-saving potential of well designed, well built blast shelters is a demonstrated fact. Millions of Americans living in high-risk
areas would be able to build expedient blast shelters within only a few days provided they were given field-tested instructions,
had made some preparations before the crisis arose, had a few days of recognized warning, and during the crisis were
motivated by the President. The following information is given in the hope of encouraging more Americans to make
preparations for blast protection. Also, it may serve to increase the number who realize the need for permanent blast shelters in
high-risk blast areas.
Some informed citizens particularly those who live near large cities or in their outer suburbs may choose to build earth-covered
expedient blast shelters in their backyards, rather than to evacuate. Going into a strange area and trying to build or find good
shelter and other essentials of life would entail risks that many people might hesitate to take, particularly if they live outside the
probable areas of severe blast damage. For such citizens, the best decision might be to stay at home, build earth-covered
expedient blast shelters, supply them with the essentials for long occupancy, and remain with their possessions.
The following descriptions of the characteristics and components of expedient blast shelters should enable many readers to use
locally available materials to provide at least 15-psi blast protection. Pre-crisis preparations are essential, as well as the ability
to work very hard for two to four days. (Field-tested instructions are not yet available; to date only workers who were
supervised have built expedient blast shelters.5)
PRACTICALITY OF EXPEDIENT BLAST SHELTERS
At Hiroshima and Nagasaki, simple wood-framed shelters with about 3 feet of earth over wooden roofs were undamaged by
blast effects in areas where substantial buildings were demolished.4
Book Page: 244
Figure D.1 shows a Hiroshima shelter that people with hand tools could build in a day, if poles or timber were available. This
shelter withstood blast and fire at an overpressure range of about 65 psi. Its narrow room and a 3-foot-thick earth cover
brought about effective earth arching; this kept its yielding wooden frame from being broken.
Fig. D. 1. A small, earth-covered backyard shelter with a crude wooden frame-undamaged, although only 300
yards from ground zero at Hiroshima.
Although the shelter itself was undamaged, its occupants would have been fatally injured because the shelter had no blast door.
The combined effect of blast waves, excessive pressure, blast wind, and burns from extremely hot dust blown into the shelter
(the popcorning effect) and from the heated air would have killed the occupants. For people to survive in areas of severe blast,
their shelters must have strong blast doors.
In nuclear weapons tests in the Nevada desert, box-like shelters built of lumber and covered with sandy earth were structurally
undamaged by 10- to 15-psi blast effects. However, none had blast doors, so occupants of these open shelters would have
been injured by blast effects and burned as a result of the popcorning effect. Furthermore, blast winds blew away much of the
dry, sandy earth mounded over the shelters for shielding; this resulted in inadequate protection against fallout radiation.
Twelve different types of expedient shelters were blast-tested by Oak Ridge National Laboratory during three of Defense
Nuclear Agency's blast tests.5 Two of these tests each involved the detonation of a million pounds or more of conventional
explosive; air-blast effects equivalent to those from a 1-kiloton nuclear surface burst were produced by these chemical
explosions.
Several of these shelters had expedient blast doors which were closed during the tests. Figure D.2 shows the undamaged
interior of the best expedient blast shelter tested prior to 1978, an improved version of the Small-Pole Shelter described in
Appendix A. Its two heavy plywood blast doors excluded practically all blast effects; the pressure inside rose only to 1.5 psi an
overpressure not nearly high enough to break eardrums. The only damage was to the expedient shelter-ventilating pump (a
KAP) in the stoop-in entryway. Two men worked about 5 minutes to replace the 4 flap-valves that were blown loose.
Fig. D.2. Undamaged interior of a Small-Pole Shelter after blast testing at the 53-psi overpressure range.
Large buildings would have been completely demolished.
Book Page: 245
When blast-tested at 5-psi overpressure, not even the weakest covered-trench shelters with unsupported earth walls
(described in Appendix A) were damaged structurally. However, if the covering earth were sandy and dry and if it were
exposed to the blast winds of a megaton explosion at the 5-psi overpressure range, so much earth would be blown away that
the shelter would give insufficient protection against fallout radiation. Much of the dry, shielding earth mounded over some of
the above- ground shelters was, in fact, removed by the blast winds of these relatively small test explosions, even at the lower
overpressure ranges at which homes would be wrecked. In contrast, in blast tests where the steeply mounded earth was damp,
little blast-wind erosion resulted. (The reader should remember that even if shelters without blast doors are undamaged, the
occupants are likely to suffer injuries.)
CONSTRUCTION PRINCIPLES
Millions of Americans if given good instructions, strong motivation, and several days to work should be able to build blast
shelters with materials found in many rural areas and suburban neighborhoods. During a crisis, yard trees could be cut down for
poles and sticks, and a garage or part of a house could be torn down for lumber. Many average citizens could build expedient
blast shelters if they learn to:
° Utilize earth arching by making a yielding shelter. The remarkable protection that earth arching gives to
those parts of a shelter designed to use it is illustrated by Fig. D.3.
Fig. D.3. Effective earth arching in the earth covering of this 4-ft-wide Pole-Covered Trench Shelter prevented a single
pole from being broken by blast forces that exerted a downward force of 53 psi (over 3-1/2 tons per square foot) on
the overlying earth.
This picture shows the unbroken roof of a 4- foot-wide Pole-Covered Trench Shelter that was built in rock-like
soil and blast tested where the blast pressure outside was 53 psi. Its strong blast doors prevented the blast wave
from entering. Without the protection of earth arching that developed in the 5 feet of earth cover over the yielding
roof poles, the poles would have been broken like straws. In contrast, the ground shock and earth pressure
produced by 1-kiloton blast effects almost completely collapsed the unsupported, rock-like earth walls.
Fig. D.4. Post-blast interior of an Above- ground, Door-Covered Shelter that survived 1-kiloton blast effects
at the 5.8-psi overpressure range. The shelter walls were made of bedsheets containing earth, as described in
Appendix A.
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App. E: How to Make a Homemade Piston Pump
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How to Make and Use a Homemade Plywood
Double-Action Piston Pump
THE NEED
Ventilating pumps-mostly centrifugal blowers capable of operating against
quite high resistance to airflow-are used to force outdoor air through most
high-protection-factor fallout shelters and through almost all permanent blast
shelters. Low-pressure ventilating devices, including ordinary bladed fans
and homemade air pumps such as KAPs and Directional Fans, cannot force
enough air through a permanent shelter's usual air-supply system consisting
of pipes, or of pipes with a blast valve, a filter, and the valves needed to
maintain a positive pressure within the shelter.
Manually cranked centrifugal blowers, or blowers that can either be
powered by an electric motor or be hand-cranked, are the preferred means of ventilating permanent
shelters from Switzerland to China. The main disadvantages of efficient centrifugal blowers are:
1. They are quite expensive. For example, in 1985 a good American hand-cranked
blower, that pumps only about 50 cubic feet per minute (50 cfm) through a shelter's
pipes, blast valve and filter, retails for around $250. An excellent foreign blower that
enables one man to pump somewhat larger volumes sells for about twice as much.
2. Not enough centrifugal blowers could be manufactured quickly enough to equip all
shelters likely to be built during a recognized crisis threatening nuclear attack, and lasting
for weeks to several months.
Therefore, there is need for an efficient, manually operated, low- cost ventilating pump that:
3. Can pump adequate volumes of outdoor air through shelter- ventilating systems that have quite high
resistances-up to several inches water gauge pressure differential.
4. Will be serviceable after at least several weeks of continuous use.
5. Can be built at low cost in home workshops by many Americans, using only materials available in most towns.
6. Could be made by the millions in thousands of shops all over the U.S., for mass production during a recognized
prolonged crisis, using only plywood and other widely available materials.
To produce such a shelter ventilating pump, during the past 20 years I have worked intermittently designing and building several
types of homemade air pumps. However, until I was traveling in China as an official guest in October 1982 and saw a wooden
double- action piston pump being used, I did not conceive or come across a design that I was able to develop into a
shelter-ventilating pump that meets all of the requirements outlined above. Now I have made and tested a simple homemade
Plywood Double-Action Piston Pump, described below, that satisfies these requirements. Three other persons have used
successively improved versions of these instructions to make this model, and several others have contributed improvements.
HOW A PLYWOOD DOUBLE-ACTION PISTON PUMP WORKS
Fig. 1 pictures the box-like test model described in these instructions.
Fig. 1. Plywood Double-Action Piston Pump, with manometer attached for tests.
Fig. 2 illustrates a vertical section through a slightly improved model, and shows the 12x12-in. plywood piston being pushed
from right to left, causing air from the outdoors to be "sucked" down the open air-supply duct in the top of the pump, then
down to the right through the open valve in the airtight frame (that is above and near the right end of the PARTITION), and on
down into the lower- pressure area behind the leftward-moving piston.
Because the air to the right of the leftward-moving piston is at a lower pressure than the air in the shelter room, the exhaust
valves in the front end (the handle end) of the pump are held closed.
During this half of the pumping cycle, the higher-pressure air in the part of the pump's square "cylinder" to the left of the
leftward-moving piston opens the air-exhaust valves in the back end of the pump, and fresh air is forced out into the shelter
room, The higher-pressure air to the left of the valve in the airtight frame (that is above the left end of the PARTITION) keeps
this valve closed, while the lower-pressure air to the right of this valve helps keep it closed.
When the piston is pulled to the right, all of the valves shown closed are quickly opened, and all shown open are quickly
closed. Then fresh air is forced into the shelter room through the opened exhaust valves in the front end of the pump.
Fig. 2. Vertical Section of the Double-Action Piston Pump showing its square piston being pushed to the left.
Book Page: 262
PERFORMANCE TESTS
The volumetric and durability tests summarized below are proof that this homemade Plywood Double-Action Piston Pump is
better than most hand-cranked centrifugal blowers for supplying a shelter with outdoor air through typical air-intake and
exhaust pipes- especially when the ventilation system contains a filter and/or blast valves. The filters that give the best
protection, Chemical Biological Radiological (CBR) Filters, have quite high resistance to airflow, as do commercial blast valves
that close quickly enough to protect filters.
1. Volumetric tests.
Because the rapidly pulsating airflows into and out of a piston pump are very hard to measure accurately with an air velocity
meter, I made an inflatable cylindrical bag of 2-mil (0.002 inch) polyethylene film; the fully inflated volume of this bag was 256
cubic feet. The bag was suspended on a horizontal strong cord running through its length. A short tube 62 inches in
circumference connected the back end of the pump (that is opposite the operator's end) to the suspended bag. Bag and pump
were in a below ground shelter that normally has essentially motionless air. See Fig. 1.
Since this type of pump exhausts equal volumes of air from each of its two ends, the total cubic feet per minute (cfm) that it
pumps equals twice the cfm that it exhausts into the shelter from one of its ends. See Fig. 1, that shows the pump attached with
"C" clamps to a small steel table and being used to pump air into the 256 cubic foot suspended bag.
I measured the pressure differences against which the pump was operated. In a shelter these differences typically are caused by
the resistance to airflow in pipes, valves, and a filter. I measured pressure differences in inches water gauge (1 in. w.g. 0.036
psi) with the small-tube manometer attached to the side of the pump. To produce various pressure differences for several tests,
I nailed a piece of plywood over the top of the air-intake duct, so as to produce different sized openings: in most tests I placed
different layers of filter materials in a filter box that was fitted airtight over the 6 x 6-in. air-supply duct on the top of the pump.
See Fig. 3. (This low-resistance filter removes practically all fallout particles of wartime concern, and also most infective
aerosols that may be used in biological warfare. See "Making and Using a Homemade Filter Box and Filter", by Cresson H.
Kearny, October 1985.
Fig. 3. Pump with Homemade Filter (20 x 20 x 8-inches inside dimensions) connected airtight on top of the pump's 6 x
6-inch air-intake duct.
The best centrifugal blowers that I have seen or heard about are those manufactured by a Finnish company, Temet Oy. (I
cranked a Temet Oy blower in an Israeli shelter used for testing ventilation equipment: the Finnish centrifugal blower was better
than Swiss, German and captured Russian blowers also undergoing tests.) Therefore, in Table 1 a few of the volumetric tests of
my best model Plywood Double-Action Piston Pump (powered by one and two men) are compared with performance data
furnished by Temet Oy for its centrifugal blower when cranked by two men. I have converted Temet Oy's metric units into the
common American units.
In Table 1 the pressure difference of 4.3 inches water gauge is the resistance to airflow that Temet Oy realistically gives as
typical of a well designed shelter ventilation system of pipes, valves and blower plus a Chemical Biological Radiological (CBR)
filter. Temet Oy gives 2.0 inches water gauge as typical of the same ventilation system with only a low resistance dust filter. The
much larger volume pumped by the Double-Action Piston Pump when a CBR filter is used (as compared to the cfm pumped
by this very good centrifugal blower) is typical of the reduced effectiveness of even the best centrifugal blowers at high pressure
differences.
In areas devastated by a nuclear explosion, the typical very dusty conditions are likely to result in filters soon becoming dirty
and higher in resistance to airflow. Then the greater effectiveness of a piston pump for ventilating a shelter with a high-resistance
air-supply system will be even more important than when its filter is clean.
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Table 1. Comparison of Plywood Double-Action Piston Pump with Temet Oy Centrifugal Blower.
TYPE OF
PUMP
PRES.
DIFF
(in. w.g.)
CUBIC FEET PER MINUTE
HORSE-
POWER
Double-Action
Piston Pump
one man
4.9
134
?
two men
4.3
182
?
Temet Oy
Centrifugal Blower
two men
4.3
90
0.15
Double-Action
Piston Pump
one man
2.3
172
?
two men
2.3
208
?
Temet Oy
Centrifugal Blower
two men
2
300
0.18
The horsepower requirements of my pump have not yet been measured. However, based on the calculated air pressure on the
12 x 12-in. piston of 22.3 lbs. when the pressure difference was 4.3 in. w.g. (0.155 psi), when two pumpers were making 52
strokes (cycles) per minute while pumping 182 cfm, the horsepower delivered was about 0.14 HP without allowing for friction
and the losses of power due to reversals in the directions of piston movements. I estimate that the actual horsepower delivered
by the two pumpers (I, a 69 year old with a stiff back in 1983, and a 15-year-old boy) was somewhat less than 0.2 HP. A
man in good condition can work for hours delivering 0.1 HP.
When comparing machines powered by human muscles, what muscles are used and how they are used are often as important
as are the horsepower requirements. Leg muscles are more efficient and are much stronger than arm muscles. Arm muscles are
used much more in cranking a blower than in pushing and pulling the piston of a properly designed reciprocating piston pump
back and forth horizontally. See Fig. 3. If this double-action piston pump is placed at a height above the floor so that its handle
is approximately at the height of a standing operator's elbows, then the operator can do most of the work with his legs. See Fig.
3. He efficiently moves his body back and forth for over a foot, while moving his hands and forearms horizontally for slightly
less than a foot relative to his body. To deliver the same horsepower by cranking a blower uses less efficient muscles
inefficiently, and is much more tiring.
As shown in Table 2, the volumetric efficiency of my best model is good for a shelter-ventilating pump. The volumetric
efficiency of a piston pump (a positive displacement pump) is found by dividing the cfm actually pumped by the theoretical
maximum cfm at the same pumping rate and the same pressure difference, assuming all piston strokes are full length, that all
valves open and close instantaneously, and that there is no leakage. Table 2 shows that the greater the pressure difference, the
lower the efficiency- as one would expect, because of increased leakage.
PRES.
DIFF
(in. w.g.)
STROKES PER
MINUTE
cfm
EFFICIENCY
4
36
122
84.0%
2.6
45
160
89.0%
0.7
51
188
92.0%
0.4
54
202
94.0%
0.2
55
208
94.5%
Table 2. Volumetric Efficiencies of Double-Action Piston Pump Operated by One Man.
Book Page: 263
2. Durability tests.
Finding a homemakeable method to seal the moving piston so as to assure at least one month of continuous efficient pumping
was the most difficult problem. Various rubber seals attached to the edges of the piston were unsatisfactory, and aluminum
sheetmetal strips (shaped and attached like the galvanized steel sheetmetal strips used in this model) wore out in less than a
week, even when oiled every 24 hours.
To save money during weeks of continuous durability testing, the pump was operated by an electric motor that powered a
pulley drive that turned a 2-foot-diameter pulley having an attached 40-in.-long steel pitman with a hinged connection to a
horizontally- sliding bar connected to the handle of the pump's wooden piston rod. See Fig. 4.
After pumping for 380 hours (15.83 days) at 44 strokes per minute against a pressure difference of 2.3 in. w.g., the worst
worn spot on any of the 30-gauge steel sheetmetal sealing strips on the piston was reduced in thickness from its original
0.0155 in. to 0.0145 in. This worst-spot wear of 0.001 in. is only about a 6% reduction in thickness. The flap valves functioned
as well as when new, and appeared unworn.
I conclude that this pump would be serviceable after several months of continuous use-provided it is lubricated after every 24
hours of actual use, as in this durability test. In this test I lubricated the piston, its "cylinder's" four walls, and its rod with
Lubriplate Ne. 105, "the original whito grease". This non-sticky "grease-type lubricant" is used extensively, especially to
lubricate internal combustion engines before first starting up. Another builder of this model pump found Siloo White Lube, an
all-purpose lithium grease, the best of the lubricants that he tested. Judging from my' prior durability' tests, a very' light oil
applied daily serves reasonably well. Ordinary bearing grease is unsatisfactory.
MATERIALS
The following materials (that cost about $65. retail in 1985) are needed to make and operate the best model of this pump:
Plywood, 3/4-in. exterior: one 4 x 8-ft. sheet (finished on one side, unwarped).
Plywood, 3/8-in. exterior: 1/4th of a 4 x 8-ft. sheet (finished on one side, unwarped). (Second choice: 1/4-in. exterior
plywood).
Oak board, 3/4 x 1-3/4 in., straight, well seasoned, 4 ft. long, to make the piston rod. (If oak or other very' strong
wood is not available, use a straight fir or pine board.)
Fir or pine board, about 3/4 x 1-3/4 in., 8 ft. long, to make the piston-rod handle, etc.
28-gauge or lighter galvanized-steel flashing (sold by lumber yards for roofers), no thicker than 0.016 in.: or galvanized
steel or flashing no thinner than 0.012 in. Or 30 gauge galvanized steel sheetmetal available in some sheetmetal shops.
(Sheet- metal thicker than 0.016 is not springy enough for making this pump's near-equivalent of piston rings.) Best to go
to a sheet- metal shop and have 3 strips cut, each 3 in. wide and about 30 in. long.
Screws, round-headed, zinc-plated wood screws:
22 each of No. 12 (2-in. long, 12/32 in. dia.), with flat washers 10 each of No. 10 (1-1/2 in. long, with flat washers)
15 each of No. 6 (3/4 in. long, with flat washers)
Nails, 4-penny (1-1/2 in.), best cement-coated: 1/4 lb. Nails, 3-penny (1-1/4 in:), galvanized: 1/4 lb.
Staples (if an oak board for the piston rod is not available), No. 17, 3/4-in., galvanized): 1/4 lb.
Tacks, No. 6 upholstery, (1/2-in. long): a small container. Tacks, No. 3 upholstery (3/8-in. long): a small container. Felt,
weather stripping, 5/8-hi. wide: 10 ft.
Tape, silver duct tape, 2-in. wide: a small roll.
Tape, masking tape, 3/4-in. wide: a small roll.
Adhesive, waterproof: "Liquid Nails", or other all purpose construction adhesive: one approx. 11-oz. tube (for use in
caulking gun).
Epoxy, 5-minute: 2 tubes.
Rubber cement: a small tube.
Sealer (such as polyurethane clear finish, to reduce absorption of oil or other lubricant of the "cylinder"): 1/2 pint.
Plastic film, transparent storm-window type (such as 4-mil Flexo-Glass, by Warp Bros.): 3 sq. ft.
Grease-type lubricant, an all-purpose motor-breakin lithium grease such as "Siloo White Lube" or "Lubriplate No. 5
Space Age Lubricant": two approx. 10 oz. tubes.
Inner tube rubber, heavy truck or auto (cut from an old tube): 1 sq. ft.
FUNCTIONAL RELATIONS OF PARTS
Look at Figs. 2, 5, and 6. In Figs. Sand 6, the lower, fixed part of the front end is pictured below the piston rod. The piston
rod slides back and forth on the center of the fixed part of the front end (as indicated more clearly in Fig. 7), and in the notch in
the removable part of the front end.
Fig. 4. Mechanized Drive Used in Weeks-Long Durability Tests.
Fig. 5. Front End of the Durability Test Pump, showing the lower fixed part (below piston rod) and the upper removable
part, that is held by 6 screws with flat washers. Felt weather-stripping makes the removable part airtight.
Book Page: 264
Fig. 6. Pump Built by Dale Huber, of Lake City, Florida in his home workshop, while guided only by the second draft of
these repeatedly improved instructions. The removable part of the front end has been taken off, to insert the piston into
the 12 x 12-in. "cylinder" under the PARTITION. The plastic flaps of this pump's flap valves are black: transparent
plastic film is preferred.
Note that a single plastic-film flap covers each pair of 2 x 4-in. valve holes, and that, as shown in Fig. 2 (that gives a side view
of all six flaps), all flaps open away from the vertical center-plane of the pump.
In Fig. 5 the removable (upper) part of the front end is shown in place, secured by six round-head screws with flat washers. In
Fig. 7 note the pair of 2 x 4-in. flap- valve holes above the piston rod.
In Fig. 6. the removable part of the front end has been removed, exposing the 26-in.-long, horizontal PARTITION that serves
as the top of the 12 x 12-in. "cylinder", in which the piston can make a 24-in.-maximum- length stroke. Also see Figs. 2 and 7.
Fig. 6 also shows the piston while it is being removed and one of the two rubber bumpers (made of inner tube rubber) on its
piston rod.
The back end of the "box" is made of one piece of plywood, as shown in Fig. 8. The two plastic flaps of its exhaust valves each
cover two 2 x 4-in. valve holes, that are positioned the same as the four valve holes in the front end.
Fig. 7. Front End (Operator's End) of Plywood Double-Action Piston Pump. The two 4 x 12-in. valve frames are
shown by dashed lines, as is the 12 x 26-in. PARTITION. (tioned the same as the four valve holes in the front end.
Fig. 8. Back End. Only the plywood is shown.
Book Page: 265
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CUTTING OUT THE PLYWOOD PARTS
1. The four parts of the "cylinder" (its bottom, two sides, and the PARTITION: see Fig. 7) should be made with
the wood grain of the plywood running in the same direction as the lengths of these parts. This reduces piston
friction.
2. Outline on a sheet of exterior 3/4-in. plywood all of the plywood parts-except for the 12 x 12-in. piston and
the two 12 x 12-in. construction forms, which are made of 3/8-in. exterior plywood. (If 3/8-in. plywood is not
available, use 1/4-in.) Do not assume that the corners of a sheet of plywood are truly square. Also check the
width of the sawcut of the saw to be used, and allow for this width when drawing adjacent outlines of parts on the
plywood. Be sure to make all corners square.
3. If you do not have a table saw that saws accurately, or a heavy- duty' saber saw, you will do well to pay a
professional carpenter or cabinet maker to saw out the plywood parts-and also the piston rod if you are making it
out of an oak board. A professional can accurately saw out all of the plywood parts and the 10 valve holes in
about 2 hours, provided you have accurately outlined all saw lines.
4. Make the following plywood rectangles with tolerances of + or - 1/32 in.:
PARTITION, 12 x 26-in.
Two sides, each 16-3/4 x 32-in. (If your "3/4-in. plywood" actually is less than 11/16-in. thick,
make the height of each of your sides 16-3/4-in. less the difference between 3/4-in. and the actual
thickness of your plywood. See Fig. 7.)
Bottom, 17-1/2 x 32-in.
Top, 13-1/2 x 32-in.
Two valve frames, each 4 x 12-in.
Piston, 12 x 12-in. (of 3/8-in. plywood).
Two construction forms, each 12 x 12-in. (of 3/8-in. plywood).
5. Make the following plywood rectangles with tolerances of + or - 1/16 in.:
Back end, 13-1/2 x 17-1/4-in. (See Fig. 8.)
Removable (upper) part of front end, 13-1/2 x 10-7/8 in. (See Figs. 7 and 9.)
Fixed (lower) part of front end, 13-1/2 x 6-3/8-in. (See Figs. 7 and 10.) The four parts of the
air-intake duct: two each 6-1/2 x 6-in.; two each 6-1/2 x 7-1/2-in.
Two spacers (to be nailed to the bottom) each 3/4 x 3/4 x 32-in.
6. Saw out the 10 valve holes; a tolerance of + or - 1/8 in. is good enough. (See Figs. 7, 8, 9, and 10.)
7. Saw a square 6 x 6-in. hole in the center of the top, as shown in Fig. 2 - if you are going to install the
homemade filter (described in separate instructions) directly on top of your pump. (To connect your pump to a
round air-intake pipe, cut an appropriate round hole in the top.)
8. Sandpaper the finished sides of the PARTITION, the two sides, and the bottom, to reduce friction on the
reciprocating piston. Use fine sandpaper.
9. Make and attach the 6 valve flaps, to complete the flap valves, that are the lowest resistance, quickest acting
type tested.
a. Make a 3-3/4 x 5-3/4-in. cardboard TEMPLATE, using carbon paper to transfer lines of Fig. 11 to
cardboard. (See Fig. 11 on page 7, and note that this TEMPLATE outlines the right half of the 3-3/4 x
11-1/2-in. plastic-film flap.) Also transfer the dashed tack-line and mark the ends of the 4 horizontal
stop-string lines. Drill 8 small holes through the cardboard at the ends of the 4 stop-string lines, so that you
can use a pencil to mark these points on plywood.
Fig. 9. Removable Part of Front End, Unfinished. Only the plywood is shown.
Fig. 10. Fixed Part of Front End, Unfinished. Only the plywood is shown.
b. Use your TEMPLATE to mark around the 2 x 4-in. valve holes in plywood parts: (1) the positions of
the ends of each hole's H stop- strings, (2) the right side-edge and the bottom-edge of each flap after it is
attached, and (3) the tack-lines.
c. Drill a 1/16-in. diameter hole through the plywood at each point marked for an end of a stop-string.
d. With nylon kite string (or other nylon string about 1/16-in. in diameter, such as 50-lb-test nylon fishing
line) and a big enough needle, string the "four" stop-strings across each 2 x 4-in. hole. (Use a string long
enough to make "four" uncut stop-strings.) Start on the unfinished, back side of the plywood, on the
opposite side from the future valve flap. To secure the starting end, wrap the string around a half-driven
tack, and then drive it in. Keep pulling the string tight as you thread it through the holes and as you wrap its
finishing end around a half-driven tack. Finally epoxy the string in all of the holes, on the back side of the
plywood. (An equally strong nylon string can be made by twisting together 4 pieces of waxed nylon dental
floss.)
(Stop-strings also can be positioned by using No. 3 upholstery tacks in place of the 1/16-in. diameter
holes. Drive a tack partly' in, wind the string around it while pulling the string tight, and drive the tack
completely in, to hold the string securely. Finally, coat the tack heads and the adjacent plywood with a
smooth covering of adhesive, to provide a smooth seat for the valve flap.)
e. Cut out 6 plastic flaps of transparent 4-mil plastic film (each 3-3/4 x 11-1/2 in.). The easiest way to
accurately' cut a flap of thin plastic film is to make a cardboard template 3-3/4 x 11-1/2-in.. place it on the
film, and cut around it with a very sharp knife.
f. In preparation for attaching a flap over each pair of 2 x 4-in. valve holes, cover the plywood above each
pair of holes with masking tape, up to the straight "tack line" that you already have drawn 1/2 in. above
each hole. Use your cardboard TEMPLATE. The masking tape will prevent the adhesive (that will be used
to attach each valve flap) from being applied too near the 2 x 4-in. holes, where adhesive would keep a
flap from opening fully.
g. Position each of the 6 flaps properly' in its closed position, with its lower edge on the line that you
already have used the TEMPLATE to draw 3/4 in. below each flap's pair of 2 x 4-in. holes. Position its
right side-edge on the line already drawn 1 in. from the right side of the right hole of each pair of 2 x 4-in.
holes. Then put masking tape over the lower edge of each flap and the adjacent plywood, to hold the flap
temporarily' in its closed position.
h. Gently fold down the upper part of each flap, so that the plywood above its pair of 2 x 4-in. holes is
uncovered (except where you have placed the protective tape), and place small pieces of masking tape so
as to hold each flap temporarily in this folded-down position.
i. Quickly apply a thin coat of all-purpose construction adhesive (such as Liquid Nails) to a 1/2-in.-wide
plywood area above the protective masking tape that covers the plywood up to the "tack line" 1/2 in.
above each pair of 2 x 4-in. valve holes. Then promptly' detach the small pieces of masking tape holding
the flap in its folded-down position, and turn the flap (the lower part of which is still being held in its proper
closed position by masking tape) into the whole flap's closed position. Press the upper part firmly' against
the approximately 1/2- in.-wide coating of adhesive, to secure the valve in its proper closed position. Allow
several hours for the adhesive to harden before removing the tape and using the valve.
j. Drive small tacks (No. 3: 3/8 in.) on the "tack line" (see TEMPLATE), to make sure the flap stays
securely attached after long use. (Very small tacks are easily driven if held with tweezers or needle-nosed
pliers.)
Book Page: 266
PUTTING THE PUMP "BOX" TOGETHER
1. The following procedure is the best tested construction method for persons who lack experience in putting
parts together so that all corners are exactly square, or who do not have the big clamps and other gluing
equipment used by cabinet makers. This procedure is best carried out by two persons working together.
2. On the finished side of the top, draw two parallel lines exactly 12 in. apart and parallel to the top's 32-in.-long
edges. Each of these lines will be 3/4-in. from an edge. Also draw a line 6 in. from and parallel to each end of the
top, to mark the positions of the two valve frames. See Fig. 2.
3. Build the pump's "box" upside down; start by placing its top on the floor, as indicated by Fig. 12.
Fig. 12. Parts of the Pump "Box", with Dimensions in Inches. The Roman numbers give the best tested order for
attaching these parts to each other.
4. Attach the two valve frames II and III to the top I with construction adhesive, positioning each of them 6 in.
from an end of the top I. Make sure that each frame's flap valve is upside down and facing away from the
center of the pump. Remove any adhesive that is on the top beyond the ends of the valve frames.
(When using construction adhesive to make this pump, it is best to apply a rather thin coat to only one of the two
plywood surfaces to be joined. Then promptly rub one plywood part slightly back and forth against the other,
while pressing them together-thus making sure that both surfaces are coated and in close contact. Wait until the
adhesive sets and bonds adequately before attaching more parts.)
5. Draw two parallel lines on the unfinished side of the PARTITION, each 3 inches from one of its ends. Adhere
the two 12-in.-long unattached edges of the valve frames to the PARTITION on these two lines, as illustrated by
Figs. 2, 7 and 12. Allow time for the adhesive to set.
6. Before permanently attaching side V, position it vertically with a long edge resting on the top, and with a
side-edge of the PARTITION and ends of the two valve frames I and II in contact with the finished side of side
V. See Fig, 7. On the unfinished (outer) side of side V draw lines showing the positions of the PARTITION and
of the two valve frames in contact with the finished side of side V.
7. Preparatory to attaching side V to the PARTITION and to the two valve frames, drill 4 slightly oversize screw
holes (for your 2-in. roundhead screws( through side V. Drill these holes so that a screw will go into an end of
each valve frame about 1 in. from its adhered edge, and the other 2 screws will go into the side-edge of the
PARTITION, at points above the valve frames. Next, with side V temporarily in its final position, drill with a
smaller diameter drill through the 4 holes in side V, into the PARTITION and into the two valve frames. Then with
the 4 screws temporarily connect side V, the PARTITION, and the two valve frames, and, while checking with a
carpenter's square the squareness of the angle between the PARTITION and side V, adjust the two pairs of
screws to attain squareness, Remove side V,
8. Apply adhesive to the 3/4-in.-wide area along the long edge of the top, and if necessary a thicker coating of
adhesive than normal to unattached edges of the PARTITION and of the two valve frames. Then promptly
position side V, and by again screwing in and adjusting the 4 screws, make the angle between the PARTITION
and side V square. Allow the adhesive to set.
9. Use short pieces of duct tape to temporarily attach the two 12 x 12-in. construction forms to the PARTITION
and to side V, (Before using these forms, drive 4 small nails into each form, near its corners, to serve as handles
for removing them from the completed "cylinder".) Attach a construction form near each end of the PARTITION.
10. Adhere the finished side of side VI to the top, to the unattached side-edge of the PARTITION, and to
end-edges of the valve frames, while keeping side VI pressed against the two square construction forms. To
keep side VI pressed against the construction forms until the adhesive sets, use small nails to temporarily nail two
small boards horizontally across the ends of the sides, at each end of the "box".
11. On the finished side of the bottom IX, draw two parallel lines 13- 1/2-in. apart, making each line 6-3/4-in.
from the center line of the bottom, as shown in Fig, 7, Nail the two 3/4 x 3/4 x 32-in, spacer boards VII and VIII
to the bottom, 13-1/2-in. apart.
12. To attach the bottom, first place it (with its finished side down) on the exposed long-edges of the sides, If you
find that the bottom rests on the construction forms and is not in contact with the long-edges of the sides, in effect
increase the heights of the sides by coating with adhesive both the edges of the sides and the 3/4-in.-wide area of
the bottom to which the sides will be adhered, Then adhere the bottom onto the edges of the sides. Before the
adhesive hardens, remove any that has been squeezed into the corner of the "cylinder".
Book Page: 268
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. Permanently attach the fixed part of the front end X (see Fig. 7, 10 and 12) with adhesive and small nails to the sides and to
the bottom. Be sure that its flap valve is upside down and is facing away from the center of the pump, and that a long edge
of this part is level with the outer side of the bottom. Remove the construction forms.
14. Paint the interior of the "cylinder" with sealer-after removing all adhesive that may be in its corners.
15. After the sealer dries, sandpaper the interior of the "cylinder" with fine sandpaper, and paint it again with the final coat of
sealer.
16. To attach the removable part of the front end XI, stand the "box" on its completely open end and drill slightly oversize
screw holes (for your 2-in. screws) clear through the removable part of the front end, as indicated by Fig. 9. With the flap valve
facing outward, temporarily attach this part with a few small nails to the end of the top and to ends of the two sides. Then with
a smaller-diameter bit, drill the screw holes deep enough into the top and the sides so that the 7 screws will hold securely.
17. So that it will be unnecessary to tightly screw on the removable part of the front end in order to make its repeated
temporary attachments airtight, tack felt weather-stripping (best 1/8-in. thick and 5/8-in. wide), or strips made of two
thicknesses of flannel, to the contact edges of the top and the sides. No. 3 (3/8-in.) carpet tacks serve well. Then with a razor
blade carefully cut the felt covering the screw holes in the edges, and remove these small pieces of covering felt.
18. Attach with screws the removable part of the front end.
19. To prevent damage to the front-end valve flaps when you stand the pump on its front end, epoxy a small piece of 3/8-in.
plywood to the front end, near each of its four corners, as pictured in Figs. 3 and 5. Before standing the pump on its front end,
use small pieces of masking tape to temporarily secure its valve flaps in their closed positions.
20. Attach the back end XII, using only screws. See Fig. 8. (For repairs, the back end may have to be removed.) To make the
attachment of the back end airtight, coat its attachment "crack" only with rubber cement.
MAKING THE PISTON, THE PISTON ROD, AND ITS HANDLE
1. Have a sheetmetal shop cut three 3-ft.-long, 3-in.-wide strips of galvanized steel sheetmetal that is no more
than 0.016-in., thick and no less than 0.012-in. thick. (Most galvanized steel valley flashing used by roofers and
sold by many lumber yards is less than 0.016-in. thick; 30-gauge galvanized sheet metal sold by some sheetmetal
shops is about 0.015-in. thick.) Steel sheetmetal thicker than about 0.016 in. is not springy enough and is
unsatisfactory.
2. With a tolerance of + or - 1/32-in., cut from these strips two strips each 11-13/16-in. long, and two strips each
11-3/4-in. long. (These four strips first must be bent and then tacked to the four sides of the plywood piston;
these piston-sealing strips serve rather like piston rings, by making close, sliding, low-friction contact with the
sides of the plywood "cylinder". Steel strips resist wear and if properly lubricated make the pump serviceable for
months of continuous use.)
3. Preparing the four sheetmetal sealing strips:
a. Since the strips to be tacked to the top and the bottom of the piston must be bent differently from the
strips to be tacked to its two sides, mark "T or B" on each of he two strips that are 11-13/16 in. long, and
mark "8" on each of the two strips that are 11-3/4 in. long.
b. On each of the two strips marked "T or B", draw an ink line along which to make the approximately 30
degree bend, and another line for the approximately 90 degree bend. (See the left half of Fig. 13 for the
distances from the edges of these two "T or B" strips to their bends.) Also draw two ink lines along which
to drive tacks, spaced as shown in the left half of Fig. 13.
Likewise draw four lines on each of the two strips marked "8", as specified in the right half of Fig. 13,
noting that some of these lines are spaced differently than corresponding lines on the strips marked "Tor B"
c. Using a small sharpened nail for a punch and placing one strip of sheetmetal at a time on a smooth board,
punch 2 rows of tack holes in each strip. The tack holes should be about 1-1/2 in. apart.
d. From a nominal 1 x 2-in. straight board, make two boards each about 3/4 x 7/8 x 12-1/4 in., for use in
bending the sealing strips.
e. Securely sandwich a "T or B" strip of sheetmetal between the two 12-1/4-in.-long boards placed exactly
on top of each other, by tightening two "C" clamps on the ends of the two boards, so that the bending line
3/8-in, from one side of the strip is just visible along the straight edge of a board. Then hold the two
clamped boards in a vise so that the 3/8-in.-wide part of the sheetmetal strip is uppermost and vertical.
f. Bend the exposed part of the strip about 30 degrees off the vertical, away from the side of the strip
where the holes have been indented by the punch. To bend evenly, hammer gently and repeatedly on a 3/4
x 3/4 x 18-in. board held against the exposed 3/8-in.-wide part of the strip.
Fig. 13.Piston Sealing Strips, each made of a springy sheetmetal strip 3 in. wide.
g. With the sheetmetal strip held sandwiched between the two 12-1/4-in.-long boards by the two "C"
clamps and the vise, so that the bending line for the almost 90-degree bend is barely visible, bend the
exposed part of the strip 90 degrees, in the same direction that the 3/8-in.-wide part was bent. See Figs.
13 and 14.
h. Bend the other "T or B" strip, and similarly bend each of the two "8" strips.
4. Attach the four sheetmetal sealing strips to the plywood piston with No. 6 tacks (1/2-in. long). Place on a solid
metal surface the part of the plywood piston opposite the spot to which part of a strip is being tacked, so that
when a tack is hammered in its point is clinched (bent over) on the far side of the 3/8-in.-thick plywood piston,
by being hammered against the solid metal surface.
a. First tack a "T or B" sheetmetal strip to the top of the piston, and a "T or B" strip to its bottom.
b. Then tack the two "8" strips to its sides. The strips should fit together so as to make square corners. If
adjacent ends of two strips do not fit neatly together, cut bit by bit a very little off the end(s) of a strip(s) so
that the two adjacent ends fit together neatly at their
c. To prevent air leakage between the ends of the sealing strips, put rubber cement in the four corner
"cracks" between strips. (This was not done on the test pump's piston.)
Fig. 14. Plywood Piston with Sheetmetal Sealing Strips Attached.
Book Page: 269
5. For the piston rod, saw from a straight, well-seasoned oak board a 3/4 x 1-3/4 x 36-1/2-in. board.
Sandpaper it smooth. (A piston rod made of well-seasoned oak is less likely to break if abused, but necessitates
using screws, in place of nails and staples, for attachments. Piston rods made of nominal 1 x 2-in. fir boards were
undamaged in the tests.)
6. To complete the piston rod:
a. For the handle, use 4 pieces of a nominal 1 x 2-in. board cut to the lengths shown in Fig. 15. Also see
Fig. 16. Round all edges and corners, to minimize the chances of the operators' blistering their hands.
b. Paint the piston rod and its handle with sealer. When dry, sandpaper. Then apply a final coat of sealer.
c. Use adhesive, screws, and nails (or adhesive and nails if your piston rod is of soft wood) in making the
handle illustrated by Fig. 15
Fig. 15. Piston Rod Handle Made of 3/4 x 1-3/4-in. Boards.
Fig. 16. The Pump Handle of the Durability-Test Pump, showing how one man best holds it when two men are pumping.
d. To reduce friction on the piston rod and resultant enlargement of the piston-rod hole with long use, coat
with epoxy all four sides of the piston-rod hole. SeeFigs. 7 and 16. Be sure that the piston rod slides snugly
yet freely in its hole when the removable part of the front end is screwed in place.
e. From a piece of thick truck-tire inner-tube rubber, cut a 2-in.- wide strip 12-in. long. To make the
2-in.-wide rubber bumper (see Figs. 15 and 16), connect one end of this rubber strip to the center of a
3/4-in.-wide side of the piston rod. Do not place any screw or staple in the strip closer than 1 in. from the
strip's forward edge, that may repeatedly bump into the front end. Wrap and attach the strip quite tightly
around the piston rod next to the handle. (If you have only a piece of passenger-car inner-tube rubber, then
to make a 2-in.-wide bumper use a 4-in.-wide strip of this thinner rubber folded double lengthwise.)
7. Attaching the piston rod to the piston:
a. On the back of the 12 x 12-in. plywood piston, mark lines to enable you to attach the piston rod as
pictured in Fig. 14. Note that the lower side of the piston rod is exactly 5-1/2 in. above the lower edge of
the plywood of the piston, and that the center line of the piston rod intersects the vertical center line of the
plywood of the piston.
b. To the end of the piston rod (see Fig. 14) adhere and screw (or adhere and nail if your piston rod is not
oak) two pieces of nominal 1 x 2-in. boards each 3 in. long. Each of these two small boards and the end of
the piston rod are in contact with and securely connected to the plywood piston, and form a perfect "T" at
the end of the piston rod.
c. Connect the piston rod to the piston, best with epoxy (or adhesive) and small screws. Make sure that:
(1) the four piston sealing strips overlap the piston's plywood in the direction of the piston rod, (2) the
1-3/4-in.-wide sides of the piston rod are parallel to the top and bottom of the piston, and (3) the piston
rod is perpendicular to the piston. See Figs. 2 and 14.
d. Make and attach to the piston rod a 3-in.-long rubber bumper, positioned close to the piston as shown
in Fig. 2.
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OPERATING THE PUMP
1. Check to see that the four sheetmetal strips on the four sides of the piston all make even contact with the walls
of the "cylinder" when the piston is moved back and forth. If the piston does not slide back and forth quite easily
even when not lubricated, carefully bend a strip or strips so that they press less against the "cylinder" walls. If
while someone is shining a flashlight through a valve opening in the other end of the pump you observe that parts
of a sheetmetal strip do not make close contact with a "cylinder" wall, gently bend outward that part of the strip.
2. Lubricate all four walls of the "cylinder", the sheetmetal strips that slide against the walls, and the piston rod.
Use a very thin motor-breakin white lithium grease (not an ordinary bearing grease, that is too sticky). Or use a
thin oil. The pump should be lubricated after no more than each 24 hours of use, and before being used again after
days of disuse.
3. Install the pump at a height above the floor so that most of the persons who are going to pump can push and
pull with their hands moving at about the same height that their elbows are when they are standing. See Fig. 3for
an example of a pump-supporting table raised to an efficient height for operators who are the height of the pumper
pictured.
4. To save work and to minimize wear on the pump, usually operate it with a length of stroke a little shorter than
the distance between its two rubber bumpers. To save energy especially when pumping air through ahigh
resistance ventilation system, move the piston back and forth by using mostly your leg and body muscles.
PROLONGED STORAGE
Wipe off all grease and other lubricants if you do not plan to use this pump for months. All lubricants-especially those on
wood-tend to become gummy with time.
Keepyour supply of pump lubricants taped to your pump.
REQUEST
Suggestions for improving this pump and/or these instructions will be appreciated, and may contribute to improvements likely to
save lives.
Cresson H. Kearny
Copyright © 1986 by Cresson H. Kearny
No part of this work (except brief passages that a reviewer may quote in a review) may be reproduced in any form unless the
reproduction includes the following statement: "Copyright © 1986 by Cresson H. Kearny. All or part of this information on the
Plywood Double-Action Piston Pump may be reproduced without obtaining permission from anyone."
Book Page: 270
FILTER BOX AND FILTER
PURPOSES
The primary shelter ventilation requirement is to supply enough outdoor air to maintain endurable heat-humidity conditions.
To keep the concentration of respiratory carbon dioxide low enough for survival, very little fresh outdoor air is required.
Evenfor an infant or an infirm person remaining in a crowded shelter for days, 3 cubic feet per minute (3 cfm) is adequate. For a
healthy adult or child 1.5 cfm is enough. Too much carbon dioxide, not too little oxygen, is the initial cause of unendurable
conditions in inadequately ventilated shelters in which the air does not get unendurably hot.
In contrast, up to 25 cfm of outdoor air per occupant may be needed to maintain endurable heat-humidity conditions inside a
crowded shelter occupied for days during a heat wave in a hot, humid part of the U.S. Hence the need for a large-volume
ventilating pump, best with a low-resistance filter.
If outdoor air flows into a shelter through a hood, gooseneck pipe, or other air-supply opening that causes all but tiny fallout
particles to fall out before the air reaches shelter occupants, breathing this unfiltered air will not result in short-term radiation
casualties. However, a very small fraction of the occupants of a shelter supplied with unfiltered air in an area of heavy fallout
may contract cancer years later as a result of breathing shelter air containing tiny fallout particles, that a properly designed filter
could have removed.
Air that has been in contact with fallout particles before being filtered is not radioactive,
The homemade filter illustrated below, if used with an efficient "suction" pump such as the Plywood Double-Action Piston
Pump described separately, will remove practically all fallout particles likely to cause casualties even decades later, This filter
also will remove most infective aerosols, the air-borne tiny particles used in biological warfare - an unlikely type of attack on the
United States. It will not remove poisonous gasses, an even less likely danger to Americans if all-out war befalls us.
CONSTRUCTION
Filter Box
If 20 x 20-inch furnace filters are available, use plywood or boards to build the filter box shown in the illustration. To make
permanent connections airtight, first use waterproof construction adhesive or glue, and then tape. (If only smaller filters are
available, reduce the horizontal dimensions of the box accordingly, except for the top and bottom openings.) Check to be sure
that your filters will fit snugly in the box of the size you plan to build.
The square frame on the bottom of the filter box should fit snugly over the square air-intake duct on the top of your Plywood
Double-Action Piston Pump. Tape the cracks to make the connection airtight and to permit easy removal of the filter box.
Make the illustrated 4 supports of the hardware cloth no thicker than 3/4 inch, thus providing enough space below the filter for
low- resistance airflow. (Hardware cloth is a stiff, square-mesh, molten- dipped galvanized wire.)
Make the square top of the filter box so that it covers the upper edges of the box's sides and can be easily removed. Then cut
in its center a round hole slightly smaller than 4 inches in diameter. File the hole's edges so that a 4-inch-diameter can (such as a
coffee can with its top and bottom cut out) fits snugly in this hole. To connect the can securely and airtight, first use waterproof
construction adhesive or epoxy, and then tape. (If construction adhesive or epoxy is not available, cut a 2-1/2-inch-diameter
hole in the center of the bottom of the 4-inch-diameter can. Then make radial cuts spaced about one-half inch apart, out to the
full diameter of the can. Bend these tabs outward 180 degrees, preparatory to tacking them with small tacks to the bottom of
the filter box top. Tape airtight.)
So that the top of the filter box can be easily removed, tape it onto its box. A roll of duct tape should be kept with the filter box
and pump at all times.
To connect the filter box to the shelter's air-intake pipe, the best widely available air duct is the inexpensive, 4-inch-diameter
flexible duct used with clothes dryers.
(Figure p.270) Homemade Filter To Fit On Plywood Double-Action Piston Pump, and To Be Connected to a
4-Inch-Diameter Air-Intake Pipe.
Book Page: 271
Filter Materials
Furnace or air-conditioner dust filters, those made of oiled fiberglass fibers, will remove practically all but the very smallest
fallout particles. Filters that are sold in box-like housings can easily be installed so that all the pumped air will pass through
them, by taping them to the inner sides of the filter box. The illustration shows two plain mats of furnace filter material, each
taped around its edges. (If commercial dust filters are not available, bath towel cloth will serve. However, in very dusty areas a
cloth filter may become overloaded, thus seriously reducing the rate of airflow much sooner than if an oiled fiber filter is used as
a prefilter.)
To filter out most of the tiny particles that may pass through one or more furnace filters, place two thicknesses of bath towel on
top of the filter-support made of hardware cloth, and tape them around their edges to the box. See illustration.
Tests by U.S. Army specialists have shown that filtering air through two thicknesses of bath towel removes about 85 percent of
even microscopic aerosols as small as 1 to 5 microns in diameter. (See "Emergency Respiratory Protection Against
Radiological and Biological Aerosols", by II. G. Guyton et al., A.M.A. Archives of Industrial Health, Vol. 20, July through
Dec. 1959.) This is the size of most infective aerosols used in biological warfare. In most of an area subjected to a biological
attack, if 85 percent of this size-range of infective aerosols and practically all larger particles are removed, then most persons
breathing this filtered air will not receive enough infective agents to infect and sicken them.
Persons who are especially desirous of protecting their shelter's occupants against biological warfare aerosols, but who can not
afford or obtain expensive High Efficiency Particulate Air filters (HE PA filters), should consider using disposable pleated air
filters that meet official ASHRAE standards. One 2-in. pleated air filter, measuring 19-1/2 x 19-1/2 in., will remove over 90
percent of particles in the 1.0-5.0 micron range, yet when clean its resistance to an airflow of 200 cfm is only about 0.2 in.
water gauge (about 0.007 psi). Its cost is about twice that of a good ordinary furnace filter of the same size. However, it has
approximately three times the life of a standard panel type filter before becoming overloaded. Disposable pleated air filters are
available in larger cities.
USE
The illustrated homemade filter has such low resistance to airflow that, when up to about 200 cfm is being pumped through it by
a Plywood Double-Action Piston Pump, the air volume is decreased by only about 10 percent, as compared to the volume
pumped with no filter in the ventilation system. With a homemade Plywood Double- Action Piston Pump, up to approximately
200 cfm can be pumped through this filter even when the total difference in air pressure (caused by the ventilation pipes, a dirty
filter, etc. that restrict airflow) is high, about 5 inches water gauge (0.18 psi).
Even if the United States suffers an all-out Soviet attack, only a small part of its area will be subjected to blast effects severe
enough to injure the occupants of fallout shelters. (Fallout shelters are not designed to withstand blast, but especially typical
earth-covered ones afford consequential blast protection.) In contrast, an installed filter, unless protected by an efficient blast
valve, will be wrecked by a quite low-pressure blast wave that comes down its open air-intake pipe -even if the small part of
the blast wave that would enter the shelter room through its open ventilation pipes is not nearly powerful enough to injure the
shelter occupants. Thus unprotected installed filters will be wrecked in an area several times as large as the area in which
occupants of fallout shelters will be injured by blast.
To be sure of having a filter in good condition, you can:
1. Make and keep in your shelter an extra complete filter, ready to replace your installed filter if it is damaged, or
if it becomes overloaded with dust and its resistance to airflow becomes too high. Furthermore, if your filter is
installed in your shelter room and becomes so radioactive with retained fallout particles that it is delivering a
consequential radiation dose to shelter occupants, it is advantageous to be able to remove it, pitch it out, and
install a replacement filter. (To be able to supply your shelter with unfiltered air in peacetime or after the end of
consequential fallout danger, you should make and keep ready a duct with appropriate fittings to connect your
pump directly to its air-intake pipe.)
2. If you have only one filter, do not install it before you need to filter the air supply. Connect your pump directly
to the air-intake pipe, using an appropriate duct and fittings. Then before the attack and before the arrival of
fallout (revealed by your fallout-monitoring instrument), keep your shelter well ventilated with unfiltered air.
Whether or not your filter is installed, stop ventilating your shelter for a few hours while heavy fallout is being
deposited outside - unless heat-humidity conditions become unbearable. If before shelter ventilation is stopped the
shelter air does not contain an abnormally high concentration of carbon dioxide, then no outdoor air need be
supplied for about 5 hours to prevent building up too high a concentration of respiratory carbon dioxide -
provided there is about 70 cubic feet of shelter-room volume for each occupant.
AN ENCOURAGING REMINDER
Persons making preparations to improve their chances of surviving an all-out attack should realize that if the United States is hit
with warheads the sizes of those in the 1987 Soviet intercontinental arsenal, the fallout particles of critical concern will be much
larger than the extremely small particles (1 to 5 microns in diameter) which are not completely removed by this filter. Fallout
particles this small produced by large nuclear explosions do not fall to the ground for many days to months after the nuclear
explosions, by which time they have become much less radioactive. Essentially all of the larger particles can be removed merely
by filtering the air through a few thicknesses of bath towel cloth.
Book Page: 273
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App. F: Providing Improved Ventalation and Light
Means for Providing Improved Natural Ventilation and Daylight to a Shelter with an Emergency Exit
THE NEED
Survivors in areas of heavy fallout can greatly reduce the radiation doses that they will receive, and thus
decrease their risks of contracting cancer, if they sleep and spend many of their non-outdoor-working
hours inside good shelters during the first several months after an attack. (See Minimizing Excess
Radiogenic Cancer Deaths After a Nuclear Attack, by Kathy S. Gant and Conrad V. Chester, Health
Physics, September 1981.)
A permanent family shelter can serve quite well for months as a post-attack temporary home if it is
designed to provide adequate natural ventilation most of the time, to have adequate and easy forced
ventilation by a KAP when forced ventilation is needed, and to have daylight illumination, A shelter
dependent on ventilation laboriously pumped through pipes and on artificial lights even during daytime is
much less practical for use as a post-attack home.
The following instructions should enable a family having an earth-covered shelter with an emergency
exit to make it much more livable for months-long occupancy. The means described below for
providing improved ventilation and daylight illumination also will supply guidance to survivors who will
build shelters post-attack to minimize continuing radiation exposures, especially to children and
pregnant women,
BUILDING AND USING A MULTI-PURPOSE EMERGENCY EXIT HOUSING
Build a multi-use emergency exit housing of the design pictured in Fig. F,1 and detailed in Fig. F.2, Size
your exit housing to fit snugly over the top of your completed vertical exit shaft. This exit housing is
made of 3/4-inch exterior plywood, four 2 x 2 x 36-inch boards, and four 16 x 16-inch window panes
of 1/8-inch Plexiglas. Plated screws and waterproof adhesives are used to assure sturdiness and durability.
Fig. F.1, Multi-Use Emergency Exit Housing Installed Over the Square Emergency Exit Described by Figs. 17,1, 17.2,
and 17.3. (Photograph)
The adjustable top of this exit housing measures 4 x 4 x 1 feet, and can be tilted to make different sized ventilation openings in
any of four directions. The top also can be raised straight up to make various sized openings all the way around, or it can be
completely closed - as explained by Fig. F.2 and the following descriptions of its uses.
Book Page: 274
Fig. F.2. Plan and Side View of Multi- Purpose Emergency Exit Housing, on a Square Emergency Exit with 34 x
34-Inch Cross- Sectional Outside Dimensions. (Diagram)
Fig. F.3. The Top and Four Walls of the Multi-Purpose Emergency Exit Housing, Nested Together to Save Storage
Space. (Photograph)
In Figs. F.2 and F.3, note the eight beveled plywood guides, two on the inside of each side of the top. These guides are needed
so that the top can be tilted in the position desired, merely by using a stick to raise it from below. To hold the top in a tilted or
raised position, spacer boards are placed between the raised top and the upper edges of a wall or walls, as illustrated by Fig.
F.4.
Fig. F.4. View from Below the Exit, Looking Up the Multi-Purpose Emergency Exit Housing. The top is shown
supported in a tilted position by two 6-inch-wide boards placed between a wall and the top. (Photograph)
The illustrated housing over a vertical exit provides:
* A means to regulate shelter ventilation, and to increase natural ventilation when the wind is blowing. If, for
example, the shelter's opened exit is to the north of its opened entry and a north wind is blowing, shelter airflow
will blow in through the exit and out through the entry. This natural ventilating airflow, often inadequate, is
increased if the adjustable top of the exit housing is not simply raised 6 inches on all four sides, but is tilted as
shown in Fig. F.1, with its south side closed and its north side tilted up 6 inches to provide a 6 x 26-inch
ventilation opening between the upper edge of the entry housing's north wall and its top. Then a north wind striking
the north wall produces increased air pressure over and above this wall, forcing more air into the exit and on
through the shelter. In contrast, if a south wind is blowing, natural airflow will go in through the shelter's entry and
out through its exit. And if the adjustable top still is tilted open to the north as illustrated, then reduced air pressure
over and above the downwind north wall will "suck" an increased airflow out of the exit and through the shelter.
The measured increases in airflows through a small shelter resulting from the top of this exit housing being tilted
were only 40-50 cfm when an 8-10 mph breeze was blowing. These rather small increases in airflow, however,
often would make it unnecessary to supply forced ventilation to a family shelter by intermittently operating a KAP.
* Exclusion of rain, snow, and larger dust and fallout particles. The four 12 x 48-inch vertical sides of the
adjustable top overhang the exit housing's walls by 6 to 12 inches. Thus the top serves as a large ventilation hood
over the exit, preventing rain, snow, and larger dust and fallout particles from entering while ventilation is
continuing. (To prevent entry of flies and mosquitoes, an insect screen panel, made to fit over the bottom of the
emergency exit, should be kept stored in the shelter until needed. A screen door for the inner entry doorway also
should be stored. Remember that installing screens greatly reduces natural ventilation airflows.)
* A reliable source of daylight. The four 12 x 12-inch' windows of this exit housing let enough daylight into the exit
shaft, that is painted white, to permit a person on the shelter floor below to read, even for several minutes after
sunset. See Fig. F.4.
* A way to observe what is going on all around the shelter, without having to go outside, and with lessened
exposure to fallout radiation.
* Quick installation post-attack, after fallout decays sufficiently. In an installation test, dirt was dug away to
expose the upper 12 inches of the emergency exit shaft. Then in just 8 minutes the author and a boy carried the 5
parts of this exit housing 80 feet, positioned its four walls around the already exposed upper 12 inches of the
reinforced concrete emergency exit, nailed its walls together, and placed its adjustable top in the tilted position
pictured in Fig. F.1.
BUILDING AND USING AN ENTRYWAY COVER THAT PROVIDES A LARGE, PROTECTED
VENTILATION OPENING
Build a shelter entryway cover that keeps out rain, snow, and the bigger dust and fallout particles while providing a large,
protected ventilation opening both for natural ventilation and for easy forced ventilation by a KAP when needed.
Book Page: 275
For an example of one type of entryway cover, see Fig. F.5. This photo shows a 4-piece cover, that two men in a little less
than 5 minutes carried out of this shelter and installed over the 4 x 6-foot opening above the shelter's opened stairway doors.
Fig. F.5. A Quickly Installable, 4-Piece Entryway Cover That Provides Easy Access and a Large, Protected Ventilation
Opening.
This cover is made of 4 pieces of 1/4-inch chipboard, each 5 feet wide, and short lengths of nailed-on 1 x 2-inch boards.
These 4 pieces can be tied quickly with their attached nylon cords to inner parts of the two 2 x 6-foot steel entryway doors,
which are pictured in their opened, upright positions.
The lowermost of the 4 chipboard pieces has a groove near each end. The grooves are each made of 2 nailed-on lengths of 1 x
2 lumber spaced apart to fit the lower ends of the doors and hold them in their upright positions 4 feet apart. The upper edge of
this lowermost piece is 8 inches below the lower raised corners of the doors, so that an 8 x 48-inch ventilation opening is
assured when the lower of the two large covering pieces (pictured being held open) rests on the doors. (This step-over piece of
chipboard illustrates a way to reduce the quantity of larger fallout particles that will be blown into many types of shelters,
because most sandlike particles and coarse dust are blown along close to the ground. They are not blown upward and over a
vertical obstruction by most winds. If an entryway has an inner, ordinary doorway, even more fallout particles can be kept out
of the shelter room if an 18 x 18-inch ventilation hole is cut in the door near its top.
Book Page: 276
Then air entering the shelter room will have to rise at least 4 feet above the entryway floor, and most of the larger fallout
particles will be deposited on the entryway floor.)
The chipboard piece attached to the upper ends of the doors also has two 1 x 2 boards nailed near each end, forming grooves
into which the upper ends of the doors fit. The doors are thus held in their upright positions and rain, etc. is kept from falling or
being blown through the upper end into the entryway.
The uppermost of the two large covering pieces of chipboard (or exterior plywood) rests on the opened doors and is kept from
slipping down by a 1 x 2-inch board nailed 4 inches from its upper end. This small board "hooks" over the upper edge of the
piece of chipboard (or plywood) attached to the upper ends of the steel doors. (See the drawing on the side of this column.)
This large piece of chipboard is securely tied to the doors.
To keep the two large pieces from moving sideways, one 1 x 2-inch board is nailed near each of their side edges, spaced so as
to lie against the outside of each opened, upright steel door. To strengthen the hingeline edge of the upper large covering piece,
a ix 2-inch board is nailed along its lower edge.
Fig. Pg. 276.
The lower of the two large covering pieces also has a reinforcing 1 x 2 nailed near its hinged edge.
The most practical hinge that the author has devised is illustrated by the drawing. This flexible hinge is much less likely to be
broken than are conventional hinges, and makes it easier to build the two large covering pieces to fit over the opened doors.
Note that the upper edge of the lower large piece goes under the rainproofing, 6-inch-wide rubber flap, which is nailed only
along the lower edge of the upper large covering piece. Then the two large pieces are held and hinged together by first
stretching each of 2 strong, 2-inch-wide rubber bands (or rustproof springs) attached by cords to the upper large covering
piece, and then hooking its attached bent-wire hook onto a nylon cord loop connected to the lower large covering piece. Each
strong rubber band (cut from a truck innertube) and its attached hook and nylon cords is 5 inches from an opened door. Thus
hinged, the lower large piece can be easily raised to permit a person to step out of or into the stairway entry. When this hinged
lower large piece is closed and tied down, a 2.7 square foot protected ventilation opening with a 10- -inch overhang results.
OTHER ENTRYWAY COVERS TO PROVIDE LARGE PROTECTED OPENINGS FOR NATURAL AND KAP
VENTILATION
The owner of a permanent shelter with an emergency exit may be able to improvise coverings over its entry and exit after fallout
decays sufficiently to permit work outdoors - provided that he understands natural ventilation and low-pressure forced
ventilation requirements, and has the boards, nails, pieces of chipboard or plywood or canvas, tools, etc. needed. But if you
own a permanent shelter your pre-crisis preparations surely should include making and storing ready-to-install entryway and
exit coverings of whatever designs you decide will best meet your anticipated needs for high-protection factor sleeping and
living quarters during weeks or months following a nuclear attack.
Book Page: 277
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Selected References
1. Radiobiological Factors in Manned Space Flight, Space Radiation Study Panel of the Life
Sciences Committee, Space Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, National Research
Council, 1967.
2. Personal communication with Dr. C. C. Lushbaugh, Chairman, Medical and Health Science
Division, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, in June 1977.
3. The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, 1962, Samuel Glasstone, Editor, published by U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission, April 1962.
4. Adequate Shelters and Quick Reactions to Warning: A Key to Civil Defense," Francis X. Lynch,
Science, Vol. 142, pp. 665-667, 1963.
5. Blast Tests of Expedient Shelters in the DICE THROW Event, Cresson H. Kearny and Conrad
V. Chester, Oak Ridge National Laboratory Report No. 5347, February 1978.
6. The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, 1977, Third Edition, Samuel Glasstone and Philip J. Dolan,
Editors, U.S. Department of Defense and U.S. Department of Energy, 1977. This most authoritative
publication has numerous sections written for non-technical educated readers. In 1986, a cloth-bound
copy can be purchased for $17.00 from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. When ordering, ask for The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, 1977,
Stock No. 008-046-00093-0. (Since the, price may be increased in future years, a buyer should first
write requesting the current price.)
7. The 900 Dais, Harrison E. Salisbury, Harper Row, New York, N.Y., 1969.
8. Expedient Shelter Construction and Occupancy Experiments, Cresson H. Kearny, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Report No. 5039, March 1976.
9. Biological Tolerance to Air Blast and Related Biomedical Criteria, Clayton S. White et al., Lovelace Foundation for
Medical Education and Research, Albuquerque, N.M., April 1965.
10. Instrument Requirements for Radiological Defense of the US. Population in Community Shelters, Carsten M.
Haaland and Kathy S. Gant, Oak Ridge National Laboratory Report No. 5371, August 1978.
11. Field Testing and Evaluation of Expedient Shelters in Deeply Frozen Ground, Ren Read, College of Environmental
Design, University of Colorado, Denver, Cob., July 1978.
12. "Construction of Hasty Winter Shelters," Cresson H. Kearny, Annual Progress Report, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Report No. 4784, March 71-March 72, December 1972.
13. Shelter Occupancy Studies at the University of Georgia, Final Report, 3. A. Hammes and Thomas R. Ahearn, OCD
Contract No. OCD-PS-66-25, 1966.
14. "Environmental Physiology of Shelter Habitation," A. R. Dasler and D. Minard, paper presented at the ASHRAE
Semiannual Meeting in Chicago, January 1965.
15. Studies of the Bureau of Yards and Docks Protective Shelter, NRL Report 5882, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory,
Washington, D.C., December 1962.
16. Winter Ventilation Tests, Guy B. Panero, Inc., Subcontract No. B-64212-US for Office of Civil Defense, February
1965.
17. "Interim Standards for Ventilating Systems and Related Equipment for Fallout Shelters," Office of Civil Defense,
Washington, D.C., 1962.
Book Page: 278
18. Response to DCPA Questions on Fallout, DCPA Research Report No. 20, prepared by Subcommittee on Fallout,
Advisory Committee on Civil Defense, National Academy of Sciences, November 1973.
19. Personnel Shelters and Protective Construction, NAVDOCKS P-81, Department of Navy, Bureau of Yards and
Docks, September 1961
20. The Destruction of Dresden, David Irving, Wm. Kimber and Co., London, May 1963.
21. Chinese Civil Defense, excerpts from Basic Military Knowledge, Shanghai 1975, ORNL/tr-4171, edited by Conrad
V. Chester and Cresson H. Kearny, Oak Ridge National Laboratory translation, August 1977.
22. The Effects of Mass Fires on Personnel in Shelters, A. Broido and A. W. Mc Masters, Technical Paper 50, Pacific
Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Berkeley, Calif., August 1960.
23. Civil Defense, N. I. Alabin, et al., Moscow 1970, ORNL/tr-2793, Oak Ridge National Laboratory translation, December
1973.
24. Manual of Individual Water Supply Systems, Environmental Protection Agency, Water Supply Division, Washington,
D.C., 1973.
25. "Solubility of Radioactive Bomb Debris," D.C. Linsten, et al., Journal of American Water Work Association, 53, pp.
256-62, 1961.
26. Maintaining Nutritional Adequacy During A Prolonged Food Crisis, Kay B. Franz and Cresson H. Kearny, Oak
Ridge National Laboratory Report No. ORNL-5352, July 1979.
27. Livestock, Fallout and a Plan for Survival, W.F. Byrne and M.C. Bell, UT-AEC Agricultural Research Laboratory,
Oak Ridge, Tenn., R-CD-3, April 1973.
28. Availability and Shipment of Grain for Survival of the Relocated Population of the U.S. After a Nuclear Attack," Carsten
M. Haaland, American Journal of Agricultural Economics, May 1977.
29. Personal Communication with Kathy S. Gant and Conrad V. Chester, January 1979.
30. Food Stockpiling for Emergency Shelters, Food and Materials Division, Commodity Stabilization Service, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, April 1961.
31. The KFM, a Homemade Yet Accurate and Dependable Fallout Meter, Cresson H. Kearny, Paul R. Barnes, Conrad V.
Chester, and Margaret W. Cortner, Oak Ridge National Laboratory Report No. ORNL-5040 (corrected), January 1978.
32. Where There Is No Doctor, David Werner, Hesperian Foundation, Palo Alto, Calif., 1977.
33. Personal communications from Colonel C. Blanchard Henry, M.D., Binghamton, N.Y., to Cresson H. Kearny in 1963.
34. Emergency Medical Treatment, TM-1 1-8, Federal Civil Defense Administration, U.S. Government Printing Office, April
1953.
35. "The Radiation Studies Begin," Science, Vol. 204, p. 281, 1979.
36. Protection of the Thyroid Gland in the Event of Releases of Radioiodine, National Council on Radiation Protection
and Measurements, NCRP Report No. 55, Washington, D.C. 20014, August 1, 1977.
37. Accidental Radioactive Contamination of Human and Animal Feeds and Potassium Iodide as a Thyroid-Blocking
Agent in a Radiation Emergency, Food and Drug Administration, Federal Register, December 15, 1978, pp. 58790-58800.
38. Civil Defense, N. I. Akimov et al., Moscow, 1969, ORNL/ tr-2306, Oak Ridge National Laboratory translation, April
1971
39. "Frantic Team Efforts Brought Vital Chemical to Stricken Plant," Robert Reinhold, New York Times, April 4, 1979, p.
A16.
40. Trans-Pacific Fallout and Protective Countermeasures, Cresson H. Kearny, Oak Ridge National Laboratory Report
No. 4900, November 1973.
41. Letter dated May 23, 1979 from William H. Wilcox, Administrator, Federal Disaster Assistance Administration,
Washington, D.C. to Robert A. Levetown, Washington Representative of the American Civil Defense Association.
42. Historical Instances of Extreme Overcrowding, Bureau of Social Science Research, Inc., Report No. 354-5, March
1963.
43. After-Action Report, Operation Laboratory Shelter, Headquarters U.S. Army XXIV Airborne Corps, Ft. Bragg, N.C.,
1970.
Book Page: 279
Copyright 2000 Nuclear War Survival Skills
Nuclear War Survival Skills
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Definitions and explanations of terms are given on the listed pages. Because
some terms are mentioned on up to 55 different pages, all pages on which
some terms are listed are not included.
For broad categories of information, see the Contents page.
Abnormalities from radiation, 16, 43, 44
Aerosol filters for biological warfare, 272
Air burst, 15, 16
Air pumps, see KAP, also see ventilation
Air-slap of an air-blast wave, 259
Alpha radiation (or particles), and protection against, 44
Anhydrite, 26, 219
Atoms, radioactive, 12, 43, 44
Attack Warning Signal, 23
Attenuation of radiation, 14, 39
Auroras, artificial, 20
Batteries, conserving, 26, 100, 101
Beliefs, false re nuclear war, 5
Benches and bunks for shelters
expedient, 117, 118
permanent, 144, 145
Bequerel (Bq), 96
Beta bums, and prevention of, 43, 44, 130, 131
Beta radiation (or particles), and protection against, 43, 44, 130
Biological warfare aerosol filters, 272
Biological weapons, 8
Blast
areas, 29, 31, 243
doors, 252-255
effects, 15, 16, 28, 64
effects at distances from GZ, 28
injuries to eardrums and lungs, 252
negative phase (or negative pressure), 254-257
positive phase (or overpressure), 16, 65, 252
protector logs, 253-255
tests, 61
valve, expedient, 256, 257
wave, 24
wind, 63, 64
wind erosion, 245
Blindness, flash, 44
Bodies, disposal of, 105
Bombers, enemy, 25
Bq (bequerel), 96
Bucket Stove, 79-82
Burns
from bets radiations (or particles), 43, 44, 130
from heated air, 45
from the popcorning effect, 44, 45
from thermal pulse (heat rays) causing flash burns, 43, 44
of the eye, 44
Bursts, nuclear
air, 15
high altitude, 20
surface, 11
Cancer from gamma radiation (ray) doses from trans-Pacific fallout, 152
risk estimates, 110, 111, 152-154
Candle-lamps, 149
Candles, 149
Canopies over entries, 41, 158, 159
Car, loading for evacuation, 34
Carbon dioxide, dangers from
fires, 61
respiration (exhaled breath), 53, 56
Carbon monoxide, dangers from
candles, 149
fires, 56, 61, 64, 65, 138, 148
smoking, 53
Cesium, radioactive, 76
cfm (cubic feet per minute) of air needed, 51-53, 59, 60
Chair, Bedsheet, 119-124
Chemical weapons, 8
Chernobyl disaster, 112, 152-154
Chimney effect (for ventilation), 51, 52
Chinese test explosion's worldwide fallout, 151, 152
Civil defense
American (budget only), 6
Chinese, 58, 63, 71, 248-252
Russian, 6, 7, 18, 56, 57, 65
Swiss, 6
Clothing and footwear, expedient
beta burns, protection against, 43, 44, 130, 131
cold weather, 125-127
keeping warm without fire, 129
mask, fallout, 130, 131
rainwear, including rain chaps, 129
sandals, 129, 130
winter footwear, 127, 128
Cooking and heating in a permanent shelter, 148, 149
Cooking, expedient
Bucket Stove, 79-82
Fireless Cooker, 82, 148
grain and beans, 82,83
wheat balls and corn balls, 148, 149
Crater of explosion, 11, 12
Crisis
evacuation, 6, 31
preparations made during, 6
simulation during field tests, 36
Cuban Missile Crisis, 5
Cutting trees and poles, 157, 158
Decay, radioactive, 12, 13
Defense Nuclear Agency blast tests, 68, 244
Diarrhea, 77
Diets, see Food
Digging with pick and shovel, 156
Directional Fanning (ventilation)
importance of, 58
instructions, 59, 60
Distillation of water, 72
Doors, blast, expedient, 252-255
Dose, radiation, 12, 30, 39, 110, 111 Dose rate, radiation, 12, 13
Dose rate meters (survey meters), 12, 94 commercial sources, 96, 97
homemade, see KFM
war reserves of, 95
Dosimeters, 12, 94, 95
commercial sources, 96, 97
war reserves, 95
Dragging logs and poles, 157
Dresden firestorm, 65
Earth arching, 42
Earth rolls (earth-filled rolls), 156, 157
EBS (Emergency Broadcasting System), 23
Effective Temperature (ET), 52, 53
Electric power vulnerabilities, 23, 24, 47, 72
Electromagnetic pulse (EMP)
effects, 23, 24
NAWAS, unprotected against
EMP, 22 protection against, 23, 26
Emergency Broadcasting System (EBS), 23
Emergency operating Center (EOC), 23
EMP, see electromagnetic pulse
End of mankind propaganda, 5, 11, 16-19
Entrance (entryway) cover, 275, 276
Entries, vertical, for shelters,
expedient, 41, 174, 175, 249-252
permanent, 142-144, 273-275
280
ET (Effective Temperature), 52, 53
Evacuation, 27-35
by car, 34
check list, 32, 33
during crisis, 6, 31
spontaneous, 31
whether to, 31, 32, 47
Exit, emergency, 142-144
Exit housing, multi-purpose, 273-275
Exotic weapons, 8
"Expedient", definition of, 5
Fallout
attenuation (by shielding) of fallout radiation, 16, 39
beta burns from fallout, 43
clouds, 28, 55
clouds, stabilized, 27, 28
decay (of fallout radiation dose rate), 12, 43
deposition, times required for, 12, 13, 55
extent of, 25
high-risk areas, 29
highest-risk areas, 29
local, 15
origins of, 12
particles, 12, 43, 54, 55
patterns, 27
Trans-Pacific, 113, 151-154
weathering of, 13
Fallout masks, expedient, 130, 131
Fallout (radiation) meters, see Dose rate meters, also see Dosimeters
Famine relief by trucked grain, 74
Fear, 20
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), 6
FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency), 6
Fertility after nuclear war, 16, 76
Field tests (families building expedient shelters), 35, 36-42, 50, 155
Filter, and homemade filter box, 271, 272
Fire
carbon dioxide, fire-caused dangers, 61
carbon monoxide, 53, 54, 56, 61
causes of, 64
dangers, relative, 61, 64
easily ignitable materials, 14
forest and brush, 61
homes, 48, 62
oxygen depletion by, 61
protective measures, including whitewashing, 61, 63
secondary causes after blast, 61, 64
thermal radiation (ignition from fireball), 61, 62
urban, 61, 65
Fireball, 11, 15, 44, 61, 62
Fireless Cookers, 82, 148
Firestorms, 14, 61, 65
Flash blindness, 44
Flash burns, 44
Food
baby foods, emergency, 89-91
basic survival ration to store, 88, 89, 147
contamination by fallout, and decontamination, 16
expedient processing, 77-79
flotation, of grain hulls, 78
grain and bean diets, 83-85, 88, 89
loss of animals, 75
meat, precautions post-attack, 75
minimum needs, 75, 76
multi-year storage, foods for, 88
nutrients, essential, expedient ways to provide
animal protein, minimum requirement, 87
fat, 87
iron, 87
niacin and calcium, 86, 87
vitamin A, 86
vitamin C, 84-86
vitamin D, 86
one year supply, 146-148
requirements, daily, 84, 85
reserves in U.S., 87, 88
salt requirements, 53, 66, 83-86, 92
sieving husks from flour and meal, 78
sprouting, 85, 86
storage, 88-92, 105, 146
survival ration, basic, to store, 88, 89, 147
Footwear, expedient, 127-129
Furnishings for shelters
Bedsheet-Chair, 124
Bedsheet-Hammock, 119-123
benches, seats, and bunks, 117, 118, 144
Gamma radiation (rays), 14, 38-40, 94
Genetic damage from radiation, 16
Glass windows, dangers from, 24, 25
Grain mills
expedient, 77
hand-cranked, 148
Grains, grinding with farm machinery, 78
Gray (Gy) (unit of absorbed radiation dose), 96
Ground zero (GZ), 15
Halving-thickness of shielding material, 13, 14
Hammock, Bedsheet-, 119-123
H-bomb, 43
Help from fellow Americans, 21
Hewing flat, square sides on logs, 253, 255
Hiroshima, 15, 16, 44, 61, 64, 244
survivors, 21
warning, inadequate, 22
Hot-spots of radiation, 55
ICBM (Intercontinental Ballistic Missile), 23-25
sites, 29, 30
"In Time of Emergency", 45, 57
Infection prevention, 103-107
Initial nuclear radiation (from fireball), 15, 257-259
Insects, control by screens, etc., 51, 101, 104, 106, 141
Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM), 23-25
Iodine, tincture of, as prophylactic on skin, 116
Iodine, radioactive, 60,72, 111-115, 152-154
KAP (Kearny Air Pump), expedient advantages proven by tests, 50-54
instructions, complete, for making and using, 193-212
KFM (Kearny Fallout Meter), expedient dose rate meter advantages proven by tests, 97-99
instructions, complete with patterns, for making and using, 213-239
instructions, with tabloid layout sheet, for tabloid reproductions of the KFM instructions, 241-242
needed materials and tools: only those found in millions of homes, 97, 218, 219
untrained Amen cans who have made KFMs, 97, 99, 194
Kearny Air Pump, see KAP
Kearny Fallout Meter, see KFM
KI cc Potassium iodide
Kiloton (KT), 17
Lamps, commercial, 101
Lamps, expedient, 101, 102
Life-support equipment for shelters, 45
Light for shelters
candles, 101, 149
electric, with batteries and bulbs, 100, 101
daylight, through exit housing, 275
for permanent shelter, 149, 150
lamps, expedient, 101, 102
minimum needed, 100
Log dragging, 157
MAD (Mutual Assured Destruction), 6
Mask, expedient, fallout and dust, 43, 54, 130, 131
281
Megaton (MT), 14
Midgetman, 55
MIRV, Multiple Independently-targeted Reentry vehicle, 27
Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD), 6
Myths about nuclear war, 11-19
Nagasaki, 13, 15-17, 21, 44, 243
National Academy of Sciences, findings and recommendations, 16, 53, 54, 110
National Shelter Survey (NSS), 47
National Warning System (NAWAS), 22
Nausea, 65
Navy shelter-occupancy tests, 52, 53
NAWAS (National Warning System), 22
Neglect, benign, 108, 109
Neutron warheads, 8
NSS (National Shelter Survey), 47
Nuclear attacks, types of, 7
Nuclear explosions, limits on destructiveness, 15-17
Nuclear weapons, accuracy and targets, 7
"Nuclear winter" theory, 17-
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Occupancy field tests of expedient shelters, 51, 52, 117-119
Occupancy field tests of permanent shelters, 52, 53, 66, 106
Overkill, 16, 17
Oxygen, lack of, 61
Paralysis, emotional, 20, 21
Pellagra, 86
PF (protection factor), 14, 29, 42, 134
Picocurie, 154
Plutonium, 43
Poles and logs, cutting and dragging, 157, 158
Popcorning effect, skin burns, 44, 45
Population relocation (crisis evacuation), 6, 31
Potassium iodide (KI)
doses for thyroid protection during and after nuclear war, 113, 114, 116,
doses for thyroid protection during and after peacetime nuclear accidents, 111-113, 116
expedient ways to prepare and take, 115, 116
FDA official patient information, 112, 113
prophylactic use for protection against Trans-Pacific fallout, 152, 153
ways to obtain, 114
Protection factor (PF), 14, 29, 42, 134
"Protection in the Nuclear Age", 45, 57
psi (pounds per square inch), 15
Psychology of Survival, 20, 21
Public shelters, 47, 48
Pump, Double-Action Piston, instructions for making and ventilating shelters with, 261-270
Punkah (fan), 50
R (roentgen), 94, 110
Rad, 110
Radiation doses
delayed effects, 13
genetic injuries from, 16
lethal, 13, 94
lifetime risks from, 110, 111
non-incapacitating, 13
whole-body, 13
Radiation meters for measuring fallout
commercially available models, 96
critical need for, 94
KFM (expedient), see KFM
maintenance and calibration of factory made meters, 97
war reserves, 95
warnings to buyers, 95
Radiation sickness, 110, 111
Radiation world wide effects, 110
Radioactive decay, 12
Radios, how to keep operating, 26
Rain-outs (of fallout particles), 29, 55
Rainwear, 129
Rem, 110
Respiratory diseases, control of, 107
Risk areas, high, highest, 29-31
Roentgen (R), 94, 110
Runways, long, targeted, 24
Russian civil defense, 6, 7, 18, 56, 57, 65
Salt requirements, 53, 66, 83-86
Sanitation in shelters, expedient
disposal of corpses, 105
disposal of excrement and urine, 104, 105
disposal of vomit, 105
food, 105, 106
insect control, 104, 106, 141
personal possessions, 106
Scavenging of fallout particles, 55
Screens, insect, 44, 106, 141
Scurvy, 84, 85
SDI (Strategic Defense Initiative), 5
Seeds to Store, 92, 93
Shelter Survey, National (NSS), 47
Shelter types, advantages and disadvantages of, 47-49
Shelters
as post-attack homes, 273-276
needs often overlooked, 150
practice living in, 150
Shelters, blast, expedient, 7, 49
construction principles, 245-255
doors, 252-255
entryways, 242-252
increasing importance of, 243
tests of, 244-246, 248
ventilation, 255
Shelters, blast, permanent, 7, 49
Shelters, fallout, against beta and alpha radiation (particles), 43, 44
Shelters, fallout, expedient, 7
basement, 45, 46
building experiments, 36-42
building instructions, general, 155-159
Car-Over-Trench, 54
earth-covered (shielded), 35, 36, 47-49, 65
instructions, detailed, for six types, see Contents page
snow-covered (shielded), 48, 158
Shelters, fallout, official civil defense (FEMA) instructions, 45
Shelters, fallout, permanent, 7
Shelters, fallout, permanent family, 134-150
Shelters, fallout, public, 47, 48
Shielding
barrier, 39
geometry, 39, 40
Shielding materials, halving thicknesses, 13, 14
Shock wave (blast wave), 44
Sievert (Sv) (dose equivalent), 96
Skin diseases, prevention of, 106, 107
Skyshine, 39, 41
SLBM, targets of and arrival times, 23-25, 31
Snow for shielding, 158
Snow-outs (of fallout), 55
Soviet nuclear strategy, 27
Star Wars, 5
Stove, expedient, for cooking and heating, 79-82
Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), 5
Strontium, radioactive, 76
Submarine launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), and targets of, 23-25, 31
Surface burst, 11
Survey meters (dose rate meters), 12, 94, 96, 97
Surviving without doctors (self-help), 108-116
Sv (Sievert) (dose equivalent), 96
Swiss civil defense budget, 6
Tactical warning, 22, 24
Targets, probable, 16, 29, 31
Television and EMP, 23, 24
Temperature, effective, 52
Terror, 20
Thermal (heat) radiation from fireball ignitions by, 14,61-63
other effects, 44
protective measures, 61-63
282
Thirst, 66
Three Mile Island accident, 152
Thumb-test for stable earth, 155
Thyroid abnormalities, damage to
Marshall Islanders, 111
by other exposures to radioactive iodine, 111, 152
Thyroid abnormalities, prevention of by means other than prophylactic potassium iodide, 115, 116
by prophylactic potassium iodide, see Potassium iodide
Toilets, expedient, 103, 104
Toxins, bacterial, 75
Transistors, EMP damage, 26
Tree felling, 157
Trench digging, 156
Tunnel shelters at Nagasaki, 15
Ultraviolet, post-attack, exaggerations of dangers, 17
Urination and water, minimum needs, 66
Ventilation, shelter, safe times for stopping, 272
Ventilation-cooling of shelters
cold weather, 53
cooling before occupying, 54
filtered sir, 54
forced, by expedient air pumps, see KAP, also see Directional Fanning, also see Appendix E
hot weather, 52, 53
inhalation dangers, 54, 55
natural, 53
need for shelter air pumps, 193, 194
requirements, 50-53, 56
through multi-purpose exit housing, 273, 274
warnings re official instructions, 56-58
without filters, 54
Vitamins, expedient ways to provide
niacin, 86, 87
vitamin A, 86
vitamin C, 84-86
vitamin D, 86
Vomiting, 104
Warnings of attack, 22-25
given by the attack itself, 23-25
how to respond to, 25
NAWAS, 22,23
types of, 22
Water, 66-74
bags, expedient, for carrying and storing, 66-68
bail-can for wells, 71
disinfecting
boiling, 70
chlorine bleach, 69, 70
tincture of iodine, 2%, 70
filtering, including removal of radioactivity, 71-74
minimum needs, 66
permanent shelter, supplies for, 145, 146
requirements, 66
salt needs with, 66
siphoning, 69, 70
sources, 71
storage pits, 66
storing for years, 145
storing in expedient containers, 67-69
Weathering effects, reducing fallout hazards, 13
Windows, dangers from shattered glass, 24, 25
X-rays, 12, 13
Copyright 2000 Nuclear War Survival Skills
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Please Note: The KFM Templates are not entirely reliable unless they are
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End of data from Nuclear War Survival Skills. Scroll down to view the next entry into the Laptop Friendly Disaster Survival Library.
Active First Aid The official first aid manual for PARASOL EMT, an Australian EMT training firm. Complete copy.
(Would welcome a more well-known source for first aid information, provided it's of equal quality and comprehensiveness: E-mail me at gamecampone@aol.com to suggest)
reprinted with permission from http://www.parasolemt.com.au/Manual/afa.html
ACTIVE FIRST AID
Active First Aid Online is the Internet version of the official PARASOL EMT First Aid book. Written by
ambulance paramedics with a total of 40 years experience in pre-hospital care. 100% Australian content.
Designed for easy storage in car glove box or first aid kit. Active First Aid Online has been comprehensively
updated, with the launch of Active First Aid 4th Australasian Edition.
Principles of First Aid
In Australia, first aid has been as much a part of the culture as billy tea. In the early towns and on the
goldfields, caring volunteers and individuals performed a much-needed service to the sick and injured, and
laid the foundations for the traditional first aid organisations.
The period between the World Wars saw an increased awareness in the community of the benefits of first
aid and the combining of other activities, such as surf life saving, with first aid training. It was not until the
1960's and 1970's that the general public became involved by attending first aid classes and using this
newfound knowledge to their benefit. First aid training has now become virtually indispensable to industry
and for an active social life.
WHAT IS FIRST AID?
First aid is the initial care of the injured or sick. It is the care administered by a
concerned person as soon as possible after an accident or illness. It is this prompt
care and attention prior to the arrival of the ambulance, that sometimes means the
difference between life and death, or between a full or partial recovery.
First aid has limitations, as not everybody is a paramedic or doctor, but it is an
essential and vital element of the total medical system. FIRST AID SAVES
LIVES! ...ask any person who works in the emergency medical field.
IMMEDIATE ACTION
As in most endeavours, the principle to be adopted in first aid is immediate action.
Bystanders or relatives not knowing what to do, or being too timid to try, have unwittingly contributed to
unnecessary deaths and chronic injuries. If a person is sick or injured, then they need help - and they need
it immediately.
It is important that any action taken by the first aid provider is commenced as quickly as possible. Quick
action is necessary to preserve life and limb. A casualty who is not breathing effectively, or is bleeding
copiously, requires immediate intervention. If quick effective first aid is provided, then the casualty's has a
much better chance of a good recovery.
It should be remembered though that any action undertaken is to be deliberate, and panic by the first aid
provider and bystanders will not be beneficial to the casualty. Try to remain calm and think your actions
through. A calm and controlled first aider will give everyone confidence that the event is being handled
efficiently and effectively.
WILL I HARM THE CASUALTY?
It is unlikely that the casualty being treated by a trained first aid provider will come to any additional harm,
provided that the care and treatment is rendered in accordance with the provider's level of training. Many
horror stories abound of well meaning first aiders causing irreversible injuries to their casualties, but these
are usually just that, stories! If first aid is administered quickly, effectively, and with due care, then the
casualty will not suffer any additional harm.
See the legal issues chapter for additional information.
HOW DO I GET HELP?
To get expert medical assistance, call an ambulance on '000' (emergency number for
Australia, check your local emergency number) as early as possible. If you are attending
a casualty, get a bystander to telephone for help. If you are on your own then you
may have to leave the casualty momentarily to make a call. It's common sense, the
decision is yours!
If you are calling from a mobile phone, you can dial '112' to call for assistance! (number for
Australia, check your local emergency number)
'MEDIC ALERT'
Some individuals suffer from certain medical conditions that may cause them to
present with serious signs and symptoms at any time. As a form of assistance and
notification, these people may wear a form of medical identification, usually a special
bracelet, or less commonly, a necklace. These devices are commonly referred to as
'Medic Alert' bracelets, but other types are available, such as 'Vial of Life' and
'SOS Talisman'.
They are imprinted with the person's identity, the relevant medical condition, and other details which may
include allergies, drugs required, or specialised medical contact. Medical conditions that may be notified
vary from specific heart diseases, to diabetes, epilepsy, asthma, and serious allergies.
Human Anatomy
The human body is composed of a number of 'systems', each with a specific role in the function of the
body as a whole. The function of these individual systems is known as the body's physiology.
It is important that, as a first aid provider, you are aware of the major systems and their functions. A basic
knowledge of human anatomy will assist you in your first aid diagnosis, and will provide a firm basis for the
care and treatment of a casualty.
Essentially, there are ten (10) anatomical systems, with some more important to the first aid provider than
others. This section will address those systems that are important in the management of first aid.
The Nervous System
The nervous system is considered in two main parts. The brain and the spinal cord
are known as the Central Nervous System. This is the control centre for all
functions of the body. The motor and sensory nerves, which involve movement, are
known as the Peripheral Nervous System, and these function as directed by the
brain. Some peripheral nerves function without conscious thought, and these are
known as autonomic nerves. Blinking and breathing are two functions that are
attributable to these nerves.
The Cardiovascular System
This system involves the heart, blood vessels and blood. The heart is the pump
that drives the circulation of the blood around the body. The body's blood vessels
are quite complicated, and include arteries, which take the blood from the heart, and veins, which return
the blood to the heart. There are smaller blood vessels such as arterioles, venules and capillaries, most
of which are located at the body's extremities and usually close to the skin. Blood is the medium that
transports oxygen from the respiratory system to the body's cells.
As the heart pumps blood a pulse beat can be felt at various locations in the body, and each pulse beat
corresponds to one heartbeat. The heart rate of the average adult at rest is between 60 to 100 beats per
minute, depending on age, medical conditions and general fitness. The most accessible pulse points are the
radial and carotid arteries.
A working knowledge of the locations of these pulse points is essential for the first aid provider.
The Respiratory System
This system is composed of the airway and the lungs. Its function is to provide
oxygen to the blood. Oxygen is extracted from the air that is inhaled via the airway,
and is passed into the blood stream through membranes of the lungs. For the first aid
provider, the maintenance of a casualty's airway is of primary importance.
The Musculoskeletal System
This system involves the bones and muscles of the body. Most muscles that cause
movement work by contracting and relaxing in conjunction with a bone. The action
of raising your leg involves the contraction of several muscles creating an opposing
force in the leg, causing it to move upwards. Some muscles, such as the diaphragm
that makes the lungs expand and contract, do not need bones to work with, but
function attached to large masses of tissue.
The Lymphatic System
This system provides lymphatic fluid that drains from the body's tissues. This is important as a 'flushing'
mechanism, and most toxins and infections absorbed or injected into the tissues are collected by the
lymphatic system and 'strained' through lymph nodes in the armpits, neck and groin. The lymphatic fluid
eventually drains into the blood stream. The lymphatic system is where toxins like snake venom accumulate
after the bite has occurred.
The Digestive System
This system includes the oesophagus, stomach and intestines. Drink and food are
passed to the stomach via the oesophagus, where it is processed into suitable nutrients.
It is then absorbed into the body through the membranes of the intestines. Some
organs, such as the liver and pancreas are considered accessories to the digestive
system as they assist in the processing of food into various chemical substances used by
the body.
The Endocrine System
This system involves those organs and glands that secrete chemicals in the form of hormones to stimulate
and activate the body's functions. The pancreas for example, controls a variety of important functions
by releasing insulin, and influencing the body's metabolic process.
The Urinary System
This is an important system which flushes waste products suspended in fluid from the
body. It includes the kidneys, bladder and urinary tract, and plays a vital role in
maintaining the body in a healthy state. Should the urinary system, (especially the
kidneys) fail, then the affected person requires external assistance to get rid of the
waste products by 'flushing' the blood. This is called haemodialysis or, more
commonly, 'dialysis'.
The Reproductive System
This is linked to the body's endocrine system, through the female's ovaries and the male's testes. These
are known as the gonads, or 'sex glands'. The female reproductive system consists of the ovaries which
produce the human egg, the uterus (or 'womb'), where the fertilised egg is lodged for growth, and the
vagina with the associated 'birth canal'. The male reproductive system is composed of the testes, which
produce sperm, the seminal vesicle that provides the fluid medium for the sperm, and the penis.
The Integumentary System
This is the system that includes skin, hair, fingers and toenails. Their pigmentation (colour) and growth
are linked to the endocrine system.
Infectious Disease & First Aid Hygiene
INFECTIOUS DISEASES are those diseases that cause infections to the human
body, and in some cases are transmitted by contact or by cross-infection. Infection
may be due to bacteria, viruses, parasites or fungi. The usual methods of
communication are; direct contact (contact with an infected person), indirect
contact (through faeces, air conditioning, or similar), or through a host (insects,
worms).
Many deadly infectious diseases have been eradicated in Australia, but several, such as poliomyelitis (a
virus), are again on the increase. Many are preventable by immunisation. Some, such as the Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), have no cure or medical prevention. Examples of infectious diseases are:
BACTERIAL INFECTIONS. Throat infections, whooping cough, diphtheria, rheumatic fever,
tuberculosis strains, cholera, staphylococcus infection, and some forms of meningitis.
VIRAL INFECTIONS. Measles, mumps, rubella, hepatitis, influenza, chicken pox, HIV, common
cold, bronchitis.
PARASITIC INFECTIONS. Malaria, tapeworm, hookworm, itch mites,
pubic and body lice.
FUNGAL INFECTIONS. Ringworm, tinea ('Athlete's Foot'), thrush.
The human body has natural defences against infection, and remains immune to
certain types. Immunity is usually achieved by previous exposure to a particular
infection, with resultant chemical antibodies being produced. The blood contains leucocytes (white blood
cells), which assist in the production of antibodies. The leucocytes and antibodies combat any infection
which invades the body. Unfortunately, whilst the body responds quickly to infection, the initial defences
can be overwhelmed if the infectious agent is present in large numbers. When this happens the casualty
develops the disease caused by the invading organism.
It is at this stage that the body requires help in the form of medically prescribed antibiotics or similar drugs.
GENERAL PRECAUTIONS
Advice that can be offered by the first aid provider are:
care of the susceptible, ie., the ill, the elderly, the very young
care in nutrition and preparation of food
maintenance of personal hygiene
maintenance of sanitary standards
avoid direct contact with infection
avoid transmitting infection
Whilst there is little that the first aider can do to cure an infection, there is a great deal that you can do to
limit the risk of infection, and to treat the symptoms of minor infections. However, the first aid provider
should be familiar with the signs and symptoms of the common diseases, and provide advice to the
infected person to seek appropriate medical attention.
FIRST AID HYGIENE
It is important that first aid procedures be conducted with due regard for the danger of cross infection.
Simple rules of personal hygiene and wearing gloves, if available, are sufficient to guard both the first aid
provider and the casualty from contamination.
PRIOR TO TREATMENT
wash hands with soap and water, or rinse with antiseptic
ensure that hands are washed thoroughly between fingers and under nails
always wear gloves if available
take care not to touch any unclean object when wearing gloves or once hands are washed
if possible, use a protective cloth over clothing
cover any adjacent areas likely to produce infection
DURING TREATMENT
use a face shield or mask with one-way-valve, if available, when doing active resuscitation
use only clean bandages and dressings
avoid coughing, breathing, or speaking over the wound
avoid contact with body fluids
avoid treating more than one casualty without washing hands and changing gloves
AFTER TREATMENT
clean up both casualty and yourself
clean up the immediate vicinity
dispose of dressings, bandages, gloves and soiled clothing correctly by burning
wash hands with soap and water thoroughly even if gloves were used
If possible - dispose of material
contaminated
by body fluids by burning or by a hazard
disposal
The 'CHAIN OF SURVIVAL'
Sudden cardiac arrest is the unexpected collapse of a casualty whose heart has ceased to function. Cardiac arrest
occurs suddenly and is closely linked with sudden chest pain. In fact cardiac arrest is still the major single killer of
people in Australia, and the casualty in cardiac arrest has only minutes from collapse until death is inevitable.
Successful resuscitation of such a casualty depends on quick decisive action taken in sequence like the links in a
chain.
The `Chain of Survival' is the term applied to a series of actions which can be instrumental in resuscitating a
casualty in cardiac arrest. While each link or individual action in the chain is unlikely on its own to revive a
casualty, all of them used effectively together will provide the best chance for a successful outcome.
`The `Chain of Survival' is a description of the steps or links in the medical treatment needed to successfully save
the life of a cardiac arrest patient. You, as the first aider, are responsible for the most important links in this `Chain
of Survival'. Without your quick action the casualty has little chance of survival no matter how good the
paramedics or doctors are.
1st LINK - Early Access
Call first - Call fast. Get to the cardiac arrest casualty quickly and call for an ambulance or other medical
assistance. You need professional help as soon as possible.
2nd LINK - Early CPR
Probably the most important first aid action is early CPR performed by a trained rescuer on a casualty who is in
cardiac arrest. After getting help start CPR immediately and continue it until the ambulance arrives. The Chain of
Survival provides you with a clear guide to the steps you must take if the casualty is to have a chance of survival.
3rd LINK - Early Defibrillation
This is where the ambulance crew or other specially trained first aiders apply an external electric shock to the
casualty's heart using a device called a defibrillator. It is this link which usually has the most dramatic and positive
effect, however it is useless if the first two links have not been initiated.
4th LINK - Early ALS
Sometimes called `ACLS - Advanced Cardiac Life Support'. This action is taken by ambulance paramedics or
doctors who administer specific drugs to the casualty which stimulates the casualty's heart.
The Chain of Survival is dramatically improved by the use of Automated External Defibrillators (AED) within the
first 8-10 minutes of the cardiac arrest - provided that all links have been acted upon!
AUTOMATED EXTERNAL DEFIBRILLATION
In Australia, ambulance crews carry sophisticated equipment which can be used to resuscitate casualties in
cardiac arrest. Unfortunately, ambulances are sometimes not always immediately available, so some industries and
large public event co-ordinators provide a similar, less sophisticated, but effective emergency service. At certain
venues and industrial workplaces, automatic electronic devices called Automated External Defibrillators are used
to provide essential immediate treatment to any casualty in cardiac arrest.
Automated External Defibrillation is the emergency procedure where specially
trained first aiders apply an electronic device to the chest of a cardiac arrest casualty,
and the device automatically delivers a controlled electric shock to the casualty's heart.
In most instances of sudden cardiac arrest, the casualty's heart has ceased to function
normally and is fibrillating or `quivering' uselessly. While this is happening, the heart is not
pumping, so no oxygenated blood is reaching the brain.
Application of an AED to the casualty's chest delivers controlled shocks to the heart, causing the fibrillation to
cease and allows the heart to either start functioning spontaneously, or provides a basis for effective CPR and
medication to restart the heart.
As discussed previously, defibrillation is an important link in the Chain of Survival, and statistically, a casualty's
chances of successful resuscitation are improved dramatically by the first aid use of AEDs.
First aiders should be aware that defibrillators, whether AEDs or the more sophisticated types, only revert certain
cardiac conditions, and there are cardiac arrest casualties who will not respond to electric shocks.
DRABC!
DRABC is the prime consideration for everyone involved in the care and treatment of casualties. Experienced
first aid providers, ambulance crews, nurses and medical specialists, are all-aware of the importance of Danger,
Response, Airway, Breathing and Circulation.
DANGER
to yourself: don't put yourself in
danger!
to others: don't allow bystanders to
be exposed to danger!
to the casualty: remove the danger
from the casualty, or the casualty
from the danger!
RESPONSE
gently 'shake and shout' at the
casualty. Do not shake young
children or infants.
is the casualty alert?
is the casualty drowsy or confused?
is the casualty unconscious, but
reacting?
is the casualty unconscious with no
reaction?
if unconscious, place the casualty in
the stable side position
AIRWAY
is the airway open and clear?
is there noisy breathing?
are there potential obstructions
such as blood?
if so, open and clear the airway!
BREATHING
look to see if the chest rises!
listen for the sound of breathing!
feel, by putting your hand on the
lower part of the chest
if not breathing give 2 effective
breaths and commence EAR
CIRCULATION
is there a carotid pulse?
is it strong?
is it regular?
is there major blood loss?
if no pulse present start CPR
If the casualty is conscious, then treat the injuries or illness according to the signs and symptoms.
Remain with the casualty and call for assistance.
If the casualty is unconscious, and breathing spontaneously, leave him or her in the stable side position, then
treat any injuries.
If the casualty is unconscious, and not breathing, then place him or her on their back and
commence resuscitation, either EAR or CPR as required.
The Unconscious Casualty
Any unconscious casualty who remains on his or her back is at risk of an obstructed airway through either
inhaling vomitus (aspiration), or by having the upper airway blocked by a relaxed tongue.
Airway Open
Airway Closed
Airway Obstructed
The most effective way of eliminating this danger is to put the casualty in a position that will ensure that the
airway remains open by draining away any vomitus, or by allowing the relaxed tongue to move away from
the opening of the airway. This position is called the stable side position.
STABLE SIDE ('LATERAL') POSITION
The most effective first aid method of protecting an unconscious casualty's airway is to put the casualty into
what is called the 'STABLE SIDE, COMA, OR 'LATERAL', POSITION. This is a position of comfort
in which the casualty is effectively put on their side, with the head down and tilted in such a way as to cause
any vomitus to be expelled onto the ground, and the tongue to gravitate away from the airway opening.
PREPARE THE CASUALTY by re-assessing respirations, checking the pockets for bulky items,
and removing necklaces and spectacles, then...
KNEEL close to the casualty and put the arm furthest from you straight out at 90 degrees
PLACE closest arm bent over the chest
ELEVATE and bend the closest leg at the knee
SUPPORT the casualty's head and neck with your hand, preventing forward movement of the head
PUSH gently and firmly on the bent knee with your other hand - the casualty will roll away from you
into the side position
POSITION the casualty's bent leg to avoid further movement
POSITION the casualty's bent arm for comfort
ADJUST the casualty's head slightly to maintain an open airway
CONTINUE to observe for changes in patient's condition.
Generally it really does not matter on which side the casualty is placed - except for women in advanced
pregnancy. These casualties are to be placed on their LEFT side, unless prevented by injuries, to avoid
unnecessary distress to the foetus.
REMEMBER...
ALL unconscious casualties are to be placed in the stable side position
immediately, including those suspected of spinal injury. The movement of this type
of casualty is to be done with extreme care, with full support of head and neck
during movement. Always try to obtain assistance, as more than one person is
required to effectively move a spinal casualty, and all movement is to be done with
the head and spine aligned, by "Log Rolling' the casualty using all available
assistance.
Examination of a Casualty
It is important to not to miss anything when treating a casualty. Ensure that you absorb all the information
available, irrespective of your internal turmoil and near panic. It is important that you approach the incident
in a confident and methodical way. This not only allows you to gain information, but also gives the
appearance of someone who knows what they are doing. This attitude imparts confidence to the casualty
and to bystanders.
THE APPROACH
What are your impressions as you approach the incident? Is it a road traffic accident? Has a person fallen
from a ladder? Quickly confirm in your mind just what is present; bystanders, other vehicles, collapsed
structures.
ALWAYS BE ALERT FOR DANGER!
What about the casualty? Is there more than one? Quickly look around to see if there is the possibility
of more than one casualty. Remember that motorcycles can also carry pillion passengers who have a habit
of being thrown considerable distances on impact.
PRIMARY EXAMINATION
At last you are able to touch your casualty. Check to see if the casualty is conscious.
If unconscious put the casualty in the stable side position, check airway and
breathing. Clear airway if required. If not breathing put casualty on his or her back
and give two effective breaths. Is there a pulse? Is there any severe bleeding? Try
to obtain a history; from a conscious casualty, or from bystanders.
At this point you are able to decide on the life-preserving actions of
cardio-pulmonary resuscitation (CPR), expired air resuscitation (EAR), and haemorrhage control, if they
are required. Get help. If unconscious and breathing, put the casualty into the STABLE SIDE
POSITION.
SECONDARY EXAMINATION
You now have more time to thoroughly examine the casualty by conducting a head-to-toes secondary
examination. Remember to be sensitive to the age, sex and culture of the casualty.
1. Start at the top of the head: check for bleeding, fractures, swelling, and pain.
2. Face: check airway/breathing, eyes, facial fractures, bruising, and jaw line pain.
3. Neck, shoulders and chest: bleeding, fractures, bruising, swelling, pain, 'spring' of ribs. Check for
Medic Alert bracelet.
4. Arms: bleeding, fractures, soft tissue injuries, pain, power. Check for Medic
Alert bracelet.
5. Abdomen and pelvis: rigidity, pain/tenderness, 'guarding', 'spring' of pelvis, and
incontinence.
6. Legs: bleeding, fractures, soft tissue injuries, pain, and power.
7. Do not forget to check the back: hand underneath and check for bleeding, 'log roll' and look at all
areas of the back of the casualty.
Pay attention to:
HISTORY; what happened, from the casualty, relatives or bystanders
SYMPTOMS; what only the casualty can tell you, e.g. Pain
SIGNS; what you can see for yourself, e.g. Bleeding
Examination of a Casualty
It is important to not to miss anything when treating a casualty. Ensure that you absorb all the information
available, irrespective of your internal turmoil and near panic. It is important that you approach the incident
in a confident and methodical way. This not only allows you to gain information, but also gives the
appearance of someone who knows what they are doing. This attitude imparts confidence to the casualty
and to bystanders.
THE APPROACH
What are your impressions as you approach the incident? Is it a road traffic accident? Has a person fallen
from a ladder? Quickly confirm in your mind just what is present; bystanders, other vehicles, collapsed
structures.
ALWAYS BE ALERT FOR DANGER!
What about the casualty? Is there more than one? Quickly look around to see if there is the possibility
of more than one casualty. Remember that motorcycles can also carry pillion passengers who have a habit
of being thrown considerable distances on impact.
PRIMARY EXAMINATION
At last you are able to touch your casualty. Check to see if the casualty is conscious.
If unconscious put the casualty in the stable side position, check airway and
breathing. Clear airway if required. If not breathing put casualty on his or her back
and give two effective breaths. Is there a pulse? Is there any severe bleeding? Try
to obtain a history; from a conscious casualty, or from bystanders.
At this point you are able to decide on the life-preserving actions of
cardio-pulmonary resuscitation (CPR), expired air resuscitation (EAR), and haemorrhage control, if they
are required. Get help. If unconscious and breathing, put the casualty into the STABLE SIDE
POSITION.
SECONDARY EXAMINATION
You now have more time to thoroughly examine the casualty by conducting a head-to-toes secondary
examination. Remember to be sensitive to the age, sex and culture of the casualty.
1. Start at the top of the head: check for bleeding, fractures, swelling, and pain.
2. Face: check airway/breathing, eyes, facial fractures, bruising, and jaw line pain.
3. Neck, shoulders and chest: bleeding, fractures, bruising, swelling, pain, 'spring' of ribs. Check for
Medic Alert bracelet.
4. Arms: bleeding, fractures, soft tissue injuries, pain, power. Check for Medic
Alert bracelet.
5. Abdomen and pelvis: rigidity, pain/tenderness, 'guarding', 'spring' of pelvis, and
incontinence.
6. Legs: bleeding, fractures, soft tissue injuries, pain, and power.
7. Do not forget to check the back: hand underneath and check for bleeding, 'log roll' and look at all
areas of the back of the casualty.
Pay attention to:
HISTORY; what happened, from the casualty, relatives or bystanders
SYMPTOMS; what only the casualty can tell you, e.g. Pain
SIGNS; what you can see for yourself, e.g. Bleeding
Airway Management
An unconscious casualty has no control over his or her muscles, including the muscles that control the tongue. If an
unconscious casualty remains on his or her back, the risk of airway obstruction is great.
An unconscious casualty may also have material in the mouth such as food, blood or vomitus, which may obstruct
the airway. It is vital that such material is removed.
Care of the airway in an unconscious casualty takes precedence over any other injury or illness. This includes
spinal injuries.
The method to be employed to provide care for the airway is to put the casualty into the stable side position.
Immediately the casualty is on his or her side, the airway should be checked and, if blocked, manually cleared.
CLEARING THE AIRWAY
This procedure should always be done with the casualty lying on his or her side to avoid accidental inhalation of
obstructions.
ROLL the casualty into the side position, taking care not to extend the neck or twist the head
USE two fingers to clear the mouth of any visible obstruction
REMOVE dentures only if loose
AVOID probing too deeply as this may force a hidden obstruction further into the airway
Airway management for a casualty requiring EAR or CPR depends on a clear airway and a suitable position of
the head, allowing access to the airway.
A clear airway is maintained on an infant by supporting the head in the horizontal position. DO NOT extend the
head backwards. If difficulty is encountered maintaining the airway in the horizontal position, tilt the infant’s head
back slightly with a gentle movement. This is sometimes called the ‘sniffing position’.
BACKWARD HEAD TILT
This method is used for a casualty in the side position, or when on his or her back prior to commencement of
EAR or CPR.
PLACE one hand on the casualty’s forehead
SUPPORT the chin with the other hand
TILT the head gently backwards, avoiding undue extension of the neck
On completion of the head tilt, the casualty’s jaw is supported by one hand under the point
of the chin, with the index finger aligned along the jaw line. Avoid the soft tissues of the
neck. The mouth should be open.
JAW THRUST
In some instances involving injuries or illness, the casualty’s airway may be difficult to open. An alternative method
of airway maintenance is the jaw thrust.
APPLY pressure with the fingers behind the angle of the jaw
THRUST the jaw gently forward and up, opening the airway.
Expired Air Resuscitation
On normal inspiration, a person breathes in approximately 21% oxygen. The body uses between 4 - 4.5%
of this amount for its normal functions. Therefore, on expiration a person breathes out approximately 16%
oxygen. To breathe into another person as a means of supplementing their oxygen supply is not only
feasible, but in cases of a non-breathing casualty, essential. Immediate supplementary breathing is
necessary, as the brain suffers irreversible tissue damage if deprived of oxygen for longer than about three
minutes. Rapid and effective resuscitation saves lives!
EXPIRED AIR RESUSCITATION (EAR) is the method by which a rescuer breathes for a casualty
who is in respiratory arrest. The common term is 'mouth-to-mouth resuscitation'. It is a most effective
method for sustaining life, as a rescuer breathes out sufficient oxygen to supply a casualty with the necessary
requirement. There are five methods for delivering EAR:
MOUTH-TO-MOUTH where the rescuer seals the casualty's mouth with his or her
mouth and breathes into the airway through the mouth.
MOUTH-TO-NOSE is used where the casualty has sustained
facial injuries that preclude using the mouth. The rescuer closes
the casualty's mouth, seals the nose with his or her mouth,
breathes gently, then releases the casualty's jaw to allow
exhalation.
MOUTH-TO-NOSE-AND-MOUTH
is the preferred method when
resuscitating a child, as the rescuer's
mouth can cover and seal the child's
nose and mouth.
MOUTH-TO-STOMA
is used for
resuscitating a
casualty fitted with
a stoma from a
pipe-like device
fitted into the
throat with an opening in the neck. These devices are often encountered because the casualty is in a
high-risk group, usually because of previous respiratory and/or cardiac problems. The rescuer breathes
through the stoma directly into the airway - a most effective method.
MOUTH-TO-MASK is the most desirable method to be employed by the rescuer
as a means of avoiding possible cross-infection. Masks come in various
configurations, but their use is similar - the mask is fitted firmly over the casualty's
nose and mouth, and the rescuer delivers breaths through the valve or aperture, thus
avoiding direct contact with the casualty's mouth.
EAR is necessary for casualties in complete respiratory arrest. Certain conditions
cause the loss of respiratory effort, and the first aid provider should be aware of the potential for
resuscitation. Choking, heroin overdose, near drowning, certain bites and stings, as well as respiratory
conditions such as asthma and emphysema can cause respiratory arrest necessitating rapid and effective
EAR to sustain life.
Breaths need to be effective, which is evidenced by the rise and fall of the chest with each breath from the
rescuer. Make up to five attempts to achieve the initial two effective breaths.
When considering which resuscitation technique to use, the age of the casualty must be taken into account.
The classifications are:
Infant - Newborn to 1 year
Young Child - 1 to 8 years
Older Child - 9 to 14 years
Adult - 15 years and older
Additional consideration must be given to the physical size of the child. Often a young child may be as well
developed as an older child.
INDICATIONS FOR EAR:
unconscious collapse
cyanosis (blue)
absent respirations, or breathing rate less than 4-5 per minute
PROCEDURE FOR EAR:
check for DANGER
call help
roll casualty away from you
check airway
open airway
look, listen and feel for breathing
if breathing effectively, remain in stable side position
if not breathing, roll onto back
ensure airway is open (head tilt or jaw lift)
give two effective breaths - jaw support (pistol grip). Make up to five attempts to achieve two
effective breaths
assess the rise and fall of the chest (if suspected obstruction - reassess airway)
check pulse
IF PULSE PRESENT, commence EAR for adults and older children by giving one effective breath
every 4 seconds (15 breaths per minute)
for younger children and infants, give one effective breath every three (3) seconds (20 breaths per
minute)
reassess pulse about every one minute
constantly reassess airway, be alert for vomitus
Breaths must be effective. An effective breath is one where there is visible rise and fall of the
chest during EAR. Five attempts may be used to deliver the two effective breaths.
Full breaths are used for an adult and older child. When breathing into a young child
ensure that you modify the force of the breaths. If delivered too forcefully, the air will
be directed into the stomach, which may cause the child to vomit.
The method to be employed for infants is 'frog breathing' or
'puffing', where the rescuer fills his or her mouth with air and
'puffs' it into the infant's mouth. There will be adequate
pressure and volume to satisfy the lung's requirements, but not
enough to impact on the stomach.
EAR is continued until the casualty begins breathing
spontaneously, until the rescuer is relieved by medical aid, or until the casualty deteriorates into full cardiac
arrest at which point the rescuer delivers cardio-pulmonary resuscitation (CPR).
Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation
Cardio-pulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is expired air resuscitation (EAR) used in conjunction with external
cardiac compressions (ECC). It is the singularly most effective form of active resuscitation available, and is used
universally by trained first aid providers and medical personnel. The technique is used to assist in resuscitation of
casualties in cardiac arrest.
While expired air resuscitation is the method by which oxygen is provided to the casualty, external cardiac
compressions, when applied correctly, duplicate the heart's mechanical function of pumping the oxygenated blood
around the body. This combination of techniques is the basis of CPR. Effective CPR can sustain a casualty until
more expert definitive medical treatment is available. It is vital that CPR is initiated immediately on contact with
the casualty.
A particularly important aspect of CPR is that the rescuer's hands are positioned correctly in relation to the
casualty's heart. There are two common methods used to locate the correct position of the heart; the Xiphoid
Location , and the Calliper Method.
Xiphoid Location
Place two fingers of one hand over the casualty's xiphoid process, the small 'bump' at the base of the sternum.
The other hand is then placed with the palm of the hand in the centre of the sternum, above the two fingers. This
position on the lower part of the sternum approximates the location of the heart.
PARASOL EMT first aid manual cont. ( from http://www.parasolemt.com.au/Manual/afa.html )
Calliper Method
The middle finger of one hand is placed on the `sternal notch', the depression above the sternum below the throat.
The middle finger of the other hand is placed at the base of the xiphoid process. Both hands are then moved
together so that the thumbs meet in the middle of the sternum. The lower hand is then positioned palm down
across the lower part of the sternum, close to the thumb of the upper hand. This approximates the location of the
heart.
For adults and older children place one hand in position, the second hand is positioned over the first and the
fingers entwined for stability. An alternative is for the second hand to grip the wrist of the first. The chest is then
compressed approximately 1/3 the depth of the chest with pressure exerted through the heel of the bottom hand.
Hand position for a young child is on a point centrally located on the lower half of the
sternum. Compressions are performed approximately 1/3 the depth of the chest using the
heel of one hand only. The pressure is modified so as not to cause damage to the ribcage.
An infant's heart is located by placing two fingers centrally on the sternum, 1 finger
breadth below the inter-nipple line. Compressions are then performed by pressing with the
fingers approximately 1/3 the depth of the chest. The pressure is modified to reflect the
fragility of the child's chest. The pulse is detected by placing two fingers directly over the infant's upper arm just
above the elbow. This should indicate the brachial pulse.
CPR can be performed by a single rescuer for all age groups, or by two rescuers for adults
and older children. As two-person CPR requires a degree of synchronised technique, it is
usually more effective for first aid providers to perform individual CPR, and change
operators after five minutes or so.
INDICATIONS FOR CPR:
unconsciousness
usually no respirations, although there may be brief irregular, 'gasping' breaths
no pulse
PROCEDURE FOR ADULT AND OLDER CHILD ONE-PERSON CPR:
check for DANGER
check for response, gently shake and shout
call for help
roll casualty away from you
check and clear airway
look, listen and feel for breathing
If not breathing place casualty on back on a firm flat surface
open airway
give two effective breaths
assess the rise and fall of the chest
check for carotid (neck) pulse (5 - 10 seconds)
kneel beside casualty's chest
locate correct hand position
place hands centrally over heart, fingers entwined
lean over casualty, arms straight, elbows locked
commence 15 compressions, with even pressure approximately 1/3 the depth of the chest
compressions - rate of 100 per minute
give two effective breaths
relocate correct hand position
15 compressions
continue cycles and recheck pulse around every 1 minute
PROCEDURE FOR YOUNG CHILD AND INFANT CPR:
begin immediately
check for DANGER
check for response, gently squeeze the shoulder and shout
roll casualty away from you
check and clear airway
look, listen and feel for breathing
If not breathing place casualty on back on a firm flat surface
open airway
initial two effective breaths or puffs
check for carotid pulse (5 - 10 seconds)
5 compressions
1 breath or puff delivered on completion of the fifth compression
continue cycles and recheck pulse about every 1 minute
PROCEDURE FOR TWO-PERSON CPR:
check for DANGER
check for response, gently shake and shout
call for help
roll casualty away from you
check and clear airway
look, listen and feel for breathing
If not breathing place casualty on back on a firm flat surface
one rescuer positions close to the casualty's head and delivers breaths
the other positions on the opposite side of the body beside the chest and performs compressions
open airway
initial two effective breaths
check for carotid pulse (5 - 10 seconds)
5 compressions
1 breath delivered on completion of the fifth compression
As air is forced under pressure into the casualty, and pressure is exerted by compressions,
the risk of causing the casualty to vomit is very real. Rescuers must be alert at all times to
avoid the airway becoming soiled by vomitus. Upon detection of vomitus in the casualty's
mouth, roll him/her into the stable side position, clear the airway, and when clear, roll
casualty back and resume CPR.
CPR is to be continued once begun until either the casualty is revived, the rescuer is
relieved by expert medical aid, or until the rescuer is too exhausted to continue. Should the casualty regain
his/her pulse and breathing, put him/her into the stable side position and observe closely, as often the casualty
lapses back into cardiac arrest. If pulse only returns, continue with EAR.
RESUSCITATION SUMMARY CHART:
ADULT
OLDER CHILD
YOUNG CHILD
BABY
Rate
60-80
80-100
80-100
Depth of compression (cm)
approximately 1/3 chest depth
Initial Breaths
2 effective breaths or puffs
Hands used
2 hands
1 hand
2 fingers
Hand Position
Middle of lower ½ of chest
one finger's
breadth below
inter-nipple line
Adult & Older Child
CPR
Young Child & Infant CPR
1 Person CPR
15 compressions : 2
Breaths
5 Compressions : 1 Breath
2 Person CPR
5 Compressions : 1 Breath
5 Compressions : 1 Breath
Control of External Bleeding
Blood consists of red cells (erythrocytes), which convey oxygen throughout the body; white cells (leucocytes),
which fight introduced infection; platelets (thrombocytes), which assist in the clotting process; and plasma, the
fluid portion of blood. There are between five and seven litres of blood in the average adult body.
Blood is moved around the body under pressure by the cardiovascular system - the heart and blood vessels.
Without an adequate blood volume and pressure, the human body soon collapses. Bleeding, or haemorrhage,
poses a threat by causing both the volume and the pressure of the blood within the body to decrease through
blood loss.
EXTERNAL BLEEDING
External bleeding is usually associated with wounds, those injuries that are caused by cutting, perforating or
tearing the skin. Serious wounds involve damage to blood vessels. As arteries carry oxygenated blood from the
heart, damage to a vessel is characterised by bright red blood which 'spurts' with each heartbeat. Damage to
veins appears as a darker red flow. Capillary damage is associated with wounds close to the skin and is of a
bright red 'ooze' from below the surface.
TYPES OF WOUNDS
Incision is the type of wound made by 'slicing' with a sharp knife or sharp piece of metal.
Laceration is a deep wound with associated loss of tissue - the type of wound barbed wire would
cause.
Abrasion is a wound where the skin layers have been scraped off.
Puncture wounds are perforations, and may be due to anything from a corkscrew to a bullet.
Amputation is the loss of a digit or limb by trauma.
CARE AND TREATMENT
LIFE THREATENING BLEEDING
DRABC
quickly check the wound for foreign matter
immediately apply pressure over the wound to stop any bleeding
call 000 for an ambulance
apply a non-adherent dressing
apply a pad
lay the casualty down
raise and support the injured part above the level of the heart if possible
apply a firm roller bandage
treat for shock if required
if unable to stop the bleeding consider a constrictive bandage. Constrictive
bandages are a measure of last resort, and should only be used in a life
threatening situation where all else fails.
INCISIONS and LACERATIONS.
DRABC
quickly check the wound for foreign matter
immediately apply pressure to stop any bleeding
apply a non-adherent dressing
apply a firm roller bandage
immobilise and elevate the injured limb if injuries permit
ABRASIONS
DRABC
check the wound for foreign matter
swab with a diluted antiseptic solution
apply a non-adherent dressing or a light,
dry dressing if necessary
PUNCTURE WOUND
DRABC
check the wound - do not remove any penetrating object
apply pressure to stop any bleeding
stabilise with a ring pad and non-adherent dressing
apply a firm roller bandage
rest and elevate injured limb if injuries permit
AMPUTATION
DRABC
apply immediate pressure to stop any bleeding
apply a large pad or dressing to the wound
treat for shock
rest and elevate injured limb if possible
collect amputated part - keep dry, do not wash or clean
seal the amputated part in plastic bag or wrap in similar waterproof material
place in iced water - do not allow the part to come in direct contact with ice. Freezing will kill
tissue.
ensure the amputated part travels to the hospital with the casualty
Care should be taken to obtain medical advice
for prevention of tetanus.
REMEMBER so as not to disturb clotting on the wound, do not remove the initial dressing. If bleeding continues and seeps
through the bandage and padding, remove and replace these, leaving the initial dressing in place.
NOSEBLEED (EPISTAXIS)
have the casualty pinch the fleshy part of
the nose
lean slightly forward
advise casualty not to swallow blood
maintain this posture for approximately ten
minutes
apply cool compress to neck and forehead
if bleeding persists, obtain medical aid
advise the casualty not to blow or pick nose
for several hours
Internal Bleeding
Internal bleeding is classified as either visible, in that the results of the bleeding can be seen, or concealed,
where no direct evidence of bleeding is obvious. Internal bleeding is always to be considered as a very serious
matter, and urgent medical aid is necessary.
In most instances, obtaining an adequate history of the incident or illness will give the first aid provider the
necessary clue as to whether internal bleeding may be present. Remember that current signs and symptoms, or
the lack of them, do not necessarily indicate the casualty's condition. Certain critical signs and symptoms may not
appear until well after the incident due to the stealth of the bleed.
VISIBLE INTERNAL BLEEDING
Visible internal bleeding is referred to this way because the results are visible:
Bleeding in the lungs - frothy, bright red blood coughed up by the casualty.
Anal or vaginal bleeding - usually red blood, mixed with mucous.
Bleeding in the stomach - dark 'coffee grounds', or red blood, in vomitus.
Bowel, or intestinal bleeding - dark, loose, foul smelling stools.
Bleeding in the urinary tract - dark or red colured urine
CONCEALED INTERNAL BLEEDING
In these cases, the first aid provider is heavily reliant on history, signs and symptoms. Judgement and experience
play a part, but it may come down to a first aider's 'gut feeling'. If you are unsure, assume the worst and treat for
internal bleeding.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
pale, cool, clammy skin
thirst
rapid, weak pulse
rapid, shallow breathing
'guarding' of the abdomen, with foetal position if lying down
pain or discomfort
nausea and/or vomiting
visible swelling of the abdomen
gradually lapsing into shock
CARE AND TREATMENT
call 000 for an ambulance
position the casualty supine, with legs
elevated and bent at the knees (only if
conscious)
if unconscious, side position with support
under the legs to elevate them
reassurance
treat any injuries
give nothing by mouth
Shock
Shock is a life-threatening condition, and should not be confused with the flood of adrenaline that accompanies
dangerous or fearful situations. This reaction to danger or fear is called the 'fight-or-flight' reaction, and is often
confused with, and referred to as, 'shock'.
CAUSES OF SHOCK
Loss of blood and body fluids - may be due to haemorrhage, burns, dehydration and severe vomiting
and diarrhoea
Heart attack - this is a very serious condition
Sepsis or toxicity - such as severe blood poisoning
Spinal injuries - due to the injury and the reaction of the nervous system
Shock is a deteriorating condition, and one that does not allow a casualty to recover
without active medical intervention. As a first aid provider attending a casualty, you should
ask yourself the following:
Does the injury appear serious?
If I don't do anything to help, is the casualty likely to become worse?
If the casualty's condition worsens, is death a possibility?
If the answer to these questions is 'YES!', then you should treat for shock.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
pale, cool, clammy skin
thirst
rapid, shallow breathing
rapid, weak pulse
nausea and/or vomiting
evidence of loss of body fluids, or high temperature if sepsis present
collapse and unconsciousness
progressive 'shut-down' of body's vital functions
CARE AND TREATMENT
DRABC
control any bleeding
call 000 for an ambulance
if conscious, position supine, with legs elevated
if unconscious, stable side position with support under the legs to elevate them
reassurance
maintain body temperature, but do not overheat
treat any other injuries
Burns and Scalds
BURNS are caused by contact with flame, hot objects, chemicals, electrocution, radiated heat, frozen
surfaces, friction or radiation.
SCALDS are caused by contact with boiling fluids or steam.
The results of either injury are disfigurement, scarring and severe pain. As with most
potentially serious injuries, prevention is better than cure.
Burns are classified as either:
SUPERFICIAL - reddening (like sunburn), outer layer of skin only
PARTIAL THICKNESS - blistering, damage to deeper layers of skin
FULL THICKNESS - whitish or blackened areas, damage to all layers of skin, plus underlying
structures and tissues
The severity of burns is dependent on certain factors such as; the age of the casualty, the depth of the
burns, the part of the body burnt, and the area affected.
The burnt body area of a casualty is assessed as a 'percentage', and is arrived at by
reference to 'THE RULE OF NINES'. Eleven areas of the body are designated
each worth 9%, eg. arm = 9%, etc. The percentages are added, and the total given
as the percentage of the total body area burnt.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS:
red, blistered, white or blackened skin
pain in superficial and partial thickness burns
shock
breathing difficulties
hoarse voice and/or snoring sound when breathing
CARE AND TREATMENT
DRABC
cool only with clean water if possible, and resist using other substances
up to 20 minutes for thermal or radiation burns
20-30 minutes for chemical burns
30 minutes for bitumen burns
consider scoring or cracking bitumen if it is encircling a limb
cover with a clean, non-adherent burn dressing (or plastic wrap etc.)
remove tight clothing and objects, eg. jewellery
call 000 for an ambulance
treat for shock if the burn is severe.
ensure that contaminated clothing is removed unless it is adhering to the burn
flush chemicals from the skin, pay special attention to eyes
DO NOT break blisters
Ensure that the cooling process does not become excessive and cause shivering.
Burns to the face inevitably have an effect on the casualty's breathing, and these effects may take some
time to appear. It is important that any casualty who has inhaled smoke, fumes or superheated air, or has
been burnt on the face, should seek medical aid as soon as possible after the incident. A doctor should
see infants or children who receive any burns.
REMEMBER - Severe burns can lead to shock
and massive infection if not treated properly!
Electric Shock
The human body is an efficient conductor of electricity. When a casualty receives an electric shock from a
household appliance or a power line, the electricity is conducted through the body. A casualty may receive
significant burns or the electric shock may interfere with the heart’s electrical system. Burns to the casualty may be
greater than they appear on the surface.
When attending a casualty exposed to electricity, DANGER is the priority. Be alert for
danger to yourself and to other rescuers, and approach the scene with caution.
DOMESTIC VOLTAGE
Be alert for danger! It is urgent that the casualty be disconnected from the electrical source,
either by:
turning off the power supply and disconnecting any plugs from the outlet, and isolating the electricity supply
at the main powerboard if possible, or
removing the casualty from the electrical source by separation with non conducting materials, eg., wooden
stick or board, rope, or blanket.
Be careful not to touch the casualty’s skin before the electrical source is disconnected, and be alert for the
presence of water or conducting materials which may be in contact.
HIGH VOLTAGE
Damaged high voltage sources can cause the entire scene of an accident to become ‘live’, especially where water
or other materials are in contact with the electricity. Protect yourself and others.
When high voltage electricity is involved in an accident, DO NOT touch the casualty until the scene has been
declared safe by the relevant electrical authorities or workplace supervisor. DO NOT approach the scene if you
feel any unusual sensations, such as ‘tingling’ through your footwear.
The tyres insulate people inside a car with fallen power lines across them, so tell them to stay inside the car and
not to jump out.
Ensure that all bystanders do not approach the scene and remain at least six metres away from the nearest
suspected energised material.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
difficult, or absent breathing
absent, weak or irregular pulse
evidence of burns
evidence of fractures
entrance and exit wound burns
collapse and unconsciousness
TREATMENT
DRABC
call 000 for an ambulance
inform electrical authorities if high voltage involved
if in respiratory arrest - commence EAR
if in cardiac arrest - commence CPR
cool and cover burns with non-adherent dressings
reassurance
Eye and Ear Injuries
THE EYE is a robust, but also a delicate, organ. It can sustain quite severe damage, and with the proper
treatment, recover to its former state. In some instances, though, it can suffer what would be considered to be a
minor injury, and be permanently damaged. Consideration should always be given to avoiding eye injury, and
sufficient protective means taken. Generally, eye injuries are considered as either minor or major injuries.
MINOR EYE INJURIES
These are injuries where the eye has been struck by a foreign object, or has a small object
adhering to its surface, causing irritation. It is characterised by a bloodshot eye, irritation,
and an urge to rub the eye.
CARE AND TREATMENT
irrigate the eye and wash the object out
if this fails, touch the corner of a clean cloth to the object and lift it off the
surface
refer to medical aid if vision is affected
cover the affected eye if appropriate
avoid 'pushing' the object around the eye's surface
only use eye-drops if prescribed by a doctor
MAJOR EYE INJURIES
These are injuries that involve the penetration of the body of the eye, or involve severe blunt trauma to the eye.
These are characterised by blood in the eye, penetrating objects, disturbance of vision, protrusion of eye contents,
and severe pain and spasms. Casualty care in this case is critical, and should be left to the experts.
CARE AND TREATMENT
lay the casualty supine with complete rest
call 000 for an ambulance
cover the affected eye with a ring bandage or similar
reassurance
if tolerated by the casualty, cover the unaffected eye, but remove it if the casualty becomes
anxious
reassurance
avoid attempting to remove any penetrating object
attempts to transport the casualty other than by ambulance should be resisted
eye-drops are not to be used under any circumstances
'WELDER'S FLASH'
'Welder's Flash' is the result of staring or inadvertently looking at the intense light caused during
metal welding, while not wearing the correct eye protection. Care must be taken to supervise
children if welding is being conducted near them, and they should be removed from the location.
The damage caused to the eye's cornea by exposure to this intense light can be painful and, in
some cases, permanent.
CARE AND TREATMENT
apply cool compresses and cover the eyes with pads
urgent medical attention if pain or 'spots' persist
PARASOL EMT first aid manual cont. ( from http://www.parasolemt.com.au/Manual/afa.html )
THE EAR
The ear has two functions, as the receptacle of the auditory senses (hearing), and as the
organ of balance. Injuries to the ear usually affect the hearing function, rather than balance.
Children are especially at risk of ear damage by inserting small objects into the ear canal.
This can have serious effects on the tympanic membrane, or 'eardrum'. An old, but sensible,
saying is that 'nothing smaller than the elbow should be poked in the ear'.
CARE AND TREATMENT FOR EAR OBSTRUCTION
if an insect, attempt to float it out with warm water or clean light vegetable oil
if object immovable, seek medical aid
poking into the ear should be avoided
The tympanic membrane or eardrum is easily damaged. Holes or tears may be caused by swimming and diving
beneath the surface, change in altitude (flying), or by vigorous nose-blowing when 'stuffed up' with a cold or flu.
Eardrums usually spontaneously repair themselves over a period of hours.
CARE AND TREATMENT FOR RUPTURED EARDRUM
place cover over affected ear to guard against infection
seek medical aid
avoid using eardrops unless directed by a doctor
avoid swimming or water sports
Tooth Injuries
When a tooth is knocked out, appropriate emergency medical and dental care is necessary.
A second or permanent tooth can often be saved if prompt action is taken, and the tooth is
handled carefully. The delicate tissue covering the root must be protected to ensure
successful reimplantation. If a child is 7 or more it is likely to be a secondary tooth.
If a child is 6 or less it is likely to be a primary tooth. Baby teeth may become injured after
a fall and turn grey in colour. Treatment is not always necessary, but it is best to have the
dentist examine the child as soon as possible.
CARE AND TREATMENT:
When a baby or toddler injures gums or teeth:
If there is bleeding, put cold water on a piece of gauze and apply pressure to the site
Offer the casualty an icypole or ice cube to suck, to reduce swelling
Call your dentist. He or she will probably want to see the child to assess the need for
realignment, or removal of a very loose tooth
If a permanent tooth is knocked out:
hold the tooth by the crown (the top), not the root
rinse the tooth immediately with saline solution or milk, avoid scrubbing material off it. If this is
not possible, wrap in plastic cling wrap
if the casualty will cooperate, replace the tooth gently in its socket
have the casualty bite down gently on a gauze pad to keep the tooth in place
if the tooth cannot be re-inserted, put it in milk - a good preservative because its chemical
make-up is compatible with teeth
if milk is not available, the tooth can be placed in the casualty’s mouth between the teeth and
cheek, if old enough not to swallow the tooth. If this is not possible, wrap in plastic cling wrap
give the casualty a gauze pad or handkerchief to gently bite down on, which will help control
bleeding and ease the pain
see a dentist right away, within 20 minutes if possible
DO NOT replace the tooth or place anything in the mouth of a drowsy or unconscious casualty
If the tooth can not be reimplanted, control bleeding by placing a gauze pad in the tooth socket, and then get the
casualty to bite gently down on the pad. Avoid rinsing out the mouth because this can interfere with blood clotting.
If the gums are bleeding, put cold water on a piece of gauze and push it between the lips and gums. Have the
casualty hold pressure on the bleeding site.
Head Injuries
HEAD INJURIES can easily mislead the first aid provider by not exhibiting the expected
signs and symptoms immediately after the incident. In many instances, the casualty has
appeared unaffected after the incident only to collapse with life-threatening symptoms some
hours later. This may be due to a small bleed in the brain that eventually increases and
applies excessive pressure on the brain tissue.
As a first aid provider, you should always examine the history of the incident, and the
mechanism of injury. If, in your opinion, the incident had the potential to cause serious injury, assume the worst
and treat as a head injury.
Any casualty that has been rendered unconscious or received a hard blow to the head should always
be examined by a doctor - NO EXCEPTIONS!
Head injuries are generally classified as either:
OPEN - a head injury with an associated head wound; or
CLOSED - with no obvious sign of injury
In many instances, serious head injury is readily identified by certain signs peculiar to the injury. These may
include:
A straw-coloured fluid oozing from the nose or ears. This is cerebro-spinal fluid (CSF), which
surrounds the brain. When a fracture occurs, usually at the base of the skull, the fluid leaks out under
pressure into the ear and nose canals.
'Raccoon eyes' and 'Battle's sign'. The kinetic energy from a blow, which is transmitted through the
head and brain is expelled through soft tissue, eg. the eyes, and behind the ears. Bruising at these points
indicates that the head has suffered exposure to considerable force. It should be remembered that just
because a casualty has two black eyes, this does not necessarily mean that he or she has been struck in the
face. 'Raccoon eyes' may indicate a forceful impact elsewhere on the skull.
Blurred, or double vision. This symptom is common with concussed casualties. It indicates that the brain
has been dealt a blow that has temporarily affected its ability to correctly process the sight senses.
CONCUSSION is a closed head injury. Of all the head injuries, this is the most insidious, and many casualties
have succumbed several hours after the incident. Be especially observant during contact sports or activities
involving children - the myth that you can 'run off' your concussion by playing on is a dangerous attitude, and has
caused grief to many players, parents and coaches when the casualty eventually collapses. Concussion is
potentially very serious, and an indifferent attitude is to be discouraged.
FACIAL INJURIES are also head injuries, and the first aid provider should not be unduly distracted by
obvious facial injuries and forget to assess the casualty for associated brain injury. Facial injuries are also a
complication where the airway is concerned.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
Any, or all, of the following:
history of trauma
head wounds
deformation and/or crepitus of the skull
altered level of consciousness
evidence of CSF leaking from ears or nose
may have unequal pupils
headache
'raccoon eyes' or 'Battle's sign'
nausea and/or vomiting
restlessness and irritability, confusion
blurred or double vision
'snoring' respirations if unconscious
CARE AND TREATMENT
DRABC
call 000 for an ambulance
apply a cervical collar only if trained to do
so
treat any wounds
complete rest - DO NOT allow concussed
casualties to `play on'
if unconscious or drowsy, put casualty in
the stable side position while supporting
the cervical spine
allow any CSF to drain freely - if in stable
side position, put that side down with a pad
over the ear
REMEMBER - Head, neck and spinal injuries
are all related. Any person with a head injury who has a disturbed level of consciousness
may have sustained a neck injury as well.
Spinal Injuries
THE SPINAL COLUMN consists of a series of interconnected bones, called vertebrae, which enclose the
SPINAL CORD, an integral part of the central nervous system. It is the spinal cord, through its attached nerve
roots, which provides the means by which we breathe, move and sense.
Between each vertebra are discs of cartilage, which act as shock absorbers and allow the spinal column a degree
of flexibility. The spine is divided into:
the cervical spine (neck), 7 vertebrae;
the thoracic spine (chest), 12 vertebrae;
the lumbar spine (back), 5 vertebrae;
fused vertebrae of the sacrum
a small vertebra called the coccyx.
Any injury to the spinal cord has serious ramifications for our ability to function normally,
and a separation, or 'lesion, of the cord may cause quadriplegia, paraplegia, or chronic
painful conditions, dependent on the location of the injury.
It is generally the case that a lesion high in the cervical spine is fatal. Damage to the spinal
cord further down to the level of the upper two thoracic vertebrae usually indicates
quadriplegia to varying degrees. Lesions down to the lower thoracic vertebrae may give rise
to paraplegia. Even if the casualty is not affected to these degrees of severity, spinal injury causes chronic back
pain and restricted spinal flexibility.
Spinal injuries can be caused by a variety of physical incidents. A common cause of spinal
injuries is motorcycle accidents. Riders and pillion passengers are thrown unprotected to
the roadway and invariably land heavily in an awkward attitude, putting stress on the spinal
column. It benefits the first aid provider to carefully assess the history of the incident and the
mechanism of injury before applying active treatment. Road traffic accidents, diving
accidents, and sporting accidents provide the majority of casualties.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
history of trauma
generally slow pulse
LOOK at the casualty, does the posture seem unnatural?
may have pale, cool, clammy skin
'tingling', unusual, or absent feeling in extremities
absence of pain in extremities
inability to move arms and/or legs
penile erection
onset of shock
CARE AND TREATMENT
DRABC
call 000 for an ambulance
extreme care in initial examination
if unable to control airway - carefully remove helmet
apply cervical collar if trained to do so
treat for shock
treat any other injuries
maintain body heat
if movement required, `log roll' and use assistants
always maintain casualty's head in line with the shoulders and spine
SPINAL SHOCK is an injury where the spinal column is subject to a forceful blow, but no lesion occurs. The
reaction of the nervous system is such that it mimics a severed spine, and the signs and symptoms are identical.
Some time later the casualty gradually resumes the use of his or her limbs. For the first aid provider, however,
initial examination of the casualty will indicate a spinal lesion, so treat it as one.
Chest Injuries
The potential for serious complications exists when injuries are sustained involving either the chest or the
abdomen, or both. Serious chest injuries usually involve the lungs, and compromised breathing is common.
Abdominal injuries indicate that the organs contained within may have been damaged to varying degrees.
Chest and abdominal injuries are difficult for the first aid provider to manage, and casualties with these injuries
should be referred to medical aid as a matter of priority.
The major chest injuries encountered by the first aid provider are FRACTURED RIBS, FLAIL CHEST and
PENETRATING CHEST WOUND.
FRACTURED RIBS
Ribs are composed of successive layers of flat bone, which give the ribs their flexibility, or
'spring'. When ribs fracture, often the 'spring' is reduced, rather than the entire bone being
detached from the spinal column or the sternum. Rib injuries cause distress due to the
difficulty the casualty has in breathing.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
history of trauma to the chest
pale, cool skin
pain at the site, especially on inspiration
rapid pulse
rapid shallow breathing
'guarding' of the injury
CARE AND TREATMENT
DRABC
put the arm on the injured side in a 'collar and cuff' sling to act as a splint
bind the upper arm close to the side
seek medical aid
observe for respiratory compromise
FLAIL CHEST
FLAIL CHEST is an injury to the ribs where a section of the chest wall has been detached
due to multiple fractures. Generally there is an associated collapsed lung (pneumothorax).
Flail chest should be considered a life-threatening injury due to its complications.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
pale, cool clammy skin
rapid, weak pulse
shallow, difficult breathing
paradoxical chest movements, where the injured area moves in the opposite
direction to the rest of the chest
cyanosis
pain, especially on inspiration
CARE AND TREATMENT
DRABC
call 000 for an ambulance
apply a firm pad over the flail section
apply a firm bandage in place (if pain permits)
posture the casualty in a position of comfort, usually sitting
if unconscious, posture on the injured side
reassurance
observe carefully for signs of breathing difficulties
PENETRATING CHEST WOUND
A PENETRATING CHEST WOUND may be a wound where the object is still in place in the wall of the
chest, or it may be an open wound left by the object, eg., a stab wound, or bullet wound. If the object is still in
place - DO NOT REMOVE IT. If it is too long or too awkward to manage, obtain urgent expert assistance to
have it cut, but resist removing or cutting the object yourself..
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
history of the incident
object still in place
open wound in the chest wall (look for both entry and exit wounds)
pale, cool clammy skin
rapid, weak pulse
rapid, shallow breathing
cyanosis
may be pain at the site
onset of shock
CARE AND TREATMENT
DRABC
call 000 for an ambulance
if object in place, stabilise with a pad around entry wound
if open wound, apply non-adherent pad, taped on three sides only leaving bottom side untaped
posture casualty in position of comfort
reassurance
observe for breathing difficulties
Abdominal Injuries
Abdominal injuries usually involve either BLUNT or PENETRATING TRAUMA, or EVISCERATION.
In either case, vital organs are involved, and the first aid provider should be prepared to treat for internal
bleeding and shock.
BLUNT OR PENETRATING TRAUMA
If the injury is either blunt trauma, eg. A severe blow to the abdomen without any
associated wound, or a penetrating injury, the initial first aid treatment will be the
same.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
history of the incident
pale, cool, clammy skin
may be evidence of wound
rapid, weak pulse, with evidence of shock
rapid, shallow breathing
abdominal rigidity
'guarding' of abdomen - foetal position if lying down
may be incontinent
CARE AND TREATMENT
DRABC
call 000 for an ambulance
stop any bleeding
stabilise any object in situ, and pad around wound. Avoid removing or touching penetrating
objects
if the wound permits, and the casualty is conscious, lay casualty on back and elevate legs
bent at the knees
reassurance
EVISCERATION
Evisceration is the protrusion of abdominal organs from a wound in the abdomen.
Care must be taken not to apply material to the wound that will stick to the
membranes. It should be noted that often there is little pain associated with this type
of injury, and the casualty may walk around or offer to help.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
obvious protrusion of organs
pale, cool, clammy skin
rapid, weak pulse, with evidence of shock
rapid, shallow breathing
may be faecal odour if organs have been lacerated
anxiety
nausea
CARE AND TREATMENT
DRABC
call 000 for an ambulance
cover organs with non-adherent dressing (if unavailable, clean dressing kept wet or plastic
wrap)
place supporting bandage overwound, not too tight
place casualty supine, legs bent
reassurance
if unconscious, stable side position with legs bent
DO NOT attempt to replace organs
Fractures
There are 206 bones in the human body and they are important, not just because
they hold our skin up, but they act as factories for the production of blood and
essential blood cells through bone marrow. Bones are also integral to the body's
strength. Some bones have a protective function (skull), some a supporting
function (pelvis), while others are for movement (fingers, jaw).
When a bone is broken, or fractured, it affects not only blood production and
function, but there are also complications associated with the muscles, tendons, nerves and blood vessels
which are attached, or are close, to the bone.
Fractures are generally classified as:
OPEN - where the bone has fractured and penetrated the skin leaving a wound
CLOSED - where the bone has fractured but has no obvious external wound
COMPLICATED - which may involve damage to vital organs and major blood vessels as a
result of the fracture
OPEN
CLOSED
COMPLICATED
Treatment for fractures is based on SPLINTING, which endeavours to replicate the supporting function of
the bone. While little practical splinting can be offered for a fractured skull, a first aid provider can certainly
offer effective and functional support for fractured limbs. Fractures may be caused by a number of
methods:
DIRECT FORCE, where force is applied sufficiently to cause the bone to fracture at the point of
impact.
INDIRECT FORCE, where force or kinetic energy, applied to a large, strong bone, is transmitted
up the limb, causing the weakest bones to fracture.
SPONTANEOUS OR SPASM-INDUCED fractures are associated with disease and/or
muscular spasms. These are usually associated with the elderly, and people with specific diseases
affecting the bones.
DIRECT FORCE
INDIRECT
FORCE
SPASM-INDUCED
Care should always be exercised when assessing an elderly casualty as the condition known as
OSTEOPOROSIS or 'Chalky Bones' causes bones to fracture easily, often in several places. Always
suspect a fracture if an elderly person complains of pain or loss of power to a limb. Be especially aware of
fractures at the neck of the femur (near the hip), a very common fracture in the elderly.
Young children are also prone to fractures, and the common fractures suffered by children tend to be
associated with the arms and wrists. As young bones do not harden for some years, children's fractures
tend to 'bend and splinter', similar to a broken branch on a tree - hence the common name 'greenstick
fracture'.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF FRACTURES
Some, or all, of the following:
pale, cool, clammy skin
rapid, weak pulse
pain at the site
tenderness
loss of power to limb
associated wound and blood loss
associated organ damage
nausea
deformity
crepitus
CARE AND TREATMENT OF FRACTURES
Care and treatment of fractures relies on immobilisation and adequate splinting of the
injury. However, if the fracture is particularly complex, the wound associated with an
open fracture is difficult to control. If the pulse to the distal part of the limb cannot be
restored by gentle traction, then the limb should be stabilised in its current position.
Urgent ambulance transport should be obtained. Do not waste time with splinting.
Generally, fractured limbs should be made immobile and left for medical aid.
However, in remote areas or some time from medical aid, you may be required to treat as follows:
CARE AND TREATMENT OF A FRACTURED FOREARM
check for distal pulse, if none - gentle traction until pulse returns
treat any wounds
pad bony prominences
apply adequate splint
secure above and below fracture, secure wrist
reassess pulse or capillary return
elevate injury with arm sling
call 000 for an ambulance
CARE AND TREATMENT OF A FRACTURED UPPER ARM
check for distal pulse, if none - gentle traction until pulse returns
treat any wounds
pad between arm and chest
apply 'collar and cuff' sling, secure above and below fracture firmly against chest with
triangular bandages
reassess pulse or capillary return
call 000 for an ambulance
PARASOL EMT first aid manual continued ( from http://www.parasolemt.com.au/Manual/afa.html )
CARE AND TREATMENT OF A FRACTURED LEG
check for distal pulse, if none - gentle traction until pulse returns
call 000 for an ambulance
treat any wounds
immobilise the limb
pad bony prominences
reassess pulse or capillary return
CARE AND TREATMENT OF A FRACTURED PELVIS
call 000 for an ambulance
check for distal pulse both legs
bend legs at knees, elevate lower legs slightly and support on pillows or similar
support both hips with folded blankets either side
discourage attempts to urinate
Care must be exercised with a suspected fractured pelvis. This injury may have serious complications,
especially with regard to female casualties. The casualty should always be transported by ambulance and
not by alternative means unless absolutely essential.
Slings
Slings are used to support an injured arm, or to supplement treatment for another injury such as fractured
ribs. Generally, the most effective sling is made with a triangular bandage. Every first aid kit, no matter how
small, should have at least two of these bandages as essential items.
Although triangular bandages are preferable, any material, eg., tie, belt, or piece of twine or rope, can be
used in an emergency. If no likely material is to hand, and injured arm can be adequately supported by
inserting it inside the casualty's shirt or blouse. Similarly, a safety pin applied to a sleeve and secured to
clothing on the chest may suffice.
There are essentially three types of sling; the arm sling for injuries to the forearm,
the elevated sling for injuries to the shoulder, and the 'collar-and-cuff' or clove
hitch for injuries to the upper arm and as supplementary support to fractured ribs.
After application of any sling, always check the circulation to the limb by feeling for
the pulse at the wrist, or squeezing a fingernail and observing for change of colour in the nail bed. All slings
must be in a position that is comfortable for the casualty. Never force an arm into the `right position'.
The Arm Sling
Support the injured forearm approximately parallel to the ground with the wrist slightly higher than
the elbow.
Place an open triangular bandage between the body and the arm, with its apex towards the elbow.
Extend the upper point of the bandage over the shoulder on the uninjured side.
Bring the lower point up over the arm, across the shoulder on the injured side to join the upper
point and tie firmly with a reef knot.
Ensure the elbow is secured by folding the excess bandage over the elbow and securing with a
safety pin.
Elevated Sling
Support the casualty’s arm with the elbow beside the body and the hand extended towards the
uninjured shoulder.
Place an opened triangular bandage over the forearm and hand, with the apex towards the elbow.
Extend the upper point of the bandage over the uninjured shoulder.
Tuck the lower part of the bandage under the injured arm, bring it under the elbow and around the
back and extend the lower point up to meet the upper point at the shoulder.
Tie firmly with a reef knot.
Secure the elbow by folding the excess material and applying a safety pin, then ensure that the sling
is tucked under the arm giving firm support.
'Collar-and-Cuff' (Clove Hitch)
Allow the elbow to hang naturally at the side and place the hand extended towards the shoulder on
the uninjured side.
Form a clove hitch by forming two loops - one towards you, one away from you.
Put the loops together by sliding your hands under the loops and closing with a "clapping" motion. If
you are experienced at forming a clove hitch, then apply a clove hitch directly on the wrist, but take
care not to move the injured arm.
Slide the clove hitch over the hand and gently pull it firmly to secure the wrist.
Extend the points of the bandage to either side of the neck and tie firmly with a reef knot.
Allow the arm to hang comfortably. Should further support be required, eg., for support to
fractured ribs, apply triangular bandages around the body and upper arm to hold the arm firmly
against the chest.
Soft Tissue Injuries
Soft tissue injuries are those injuries, excluding fractures, affecting the joints and muscles of the limbs.
Sprains, strains and dislocations are considered soft tissue injuries, with some authorities also including
bruising.
The treatment of soft tissue injuries is based on resting the injured part, applying ice packs to limit swelling
and reduce pain, the application of a firm compression bandage as support, and elevation of the limb.
This treatment is known as 'RICE'.
RICE = Rest, Ice, Compression and Elevation
Ice packs should be placed on for a maximum of 10 minutes and can be reapplied when the damaged area
becomes warm again. Do not apply ice directly onto the skin, as this may cause damage tissue. Always use
a barrier, such as cloth, between the ice pack and the skin to help protect tissue. Heat treatments should
not be applied to soft tissue injuries for the first 72 hours.
SPRAINS
Sprains involve the overextension of a joint, usually with partial rupture of the
ligaments. There may also be blood vessel, nerve and tendon damage. An injury with
severe ligament damage may require subsequent immobilisation in a plaster cast.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
sudden pain in the joint
loss of power and ability to bear weight
bruising
swelling
site becomes tender, painful to palpate
CARE AND TREATMENT
RICE
seek medical aid for assessment of ligament damage
STRAINS
Strains involve overstretching of the major muscles of the limb. Muscles are attached to bones by
tendons, which tear if a muscle is forced to stretch excessively. This injury is usually less severe than a
sprain, but can still have complications if not managed correctly.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
pain at the site
an audible 'crack' may be heard as the tendon parts from the bone
may have a discernible gap between muscle and bone
tenderness, discomfort when weight bearing
swelling if near joint
CARE AND TREATMENT
RICE
avoid stretching or massaging the injured limb
if pain persists, seek medical aid
DISLOCATIONS
Dislocations involve the displacement of bone from a joint. These injuries are
underestimated, and can have serious consequences in the form of damage to nerves
and blood vessels. Many people have joints, which dislocate easily due to either a
congenital condition, or to weak ligaments, stretched by previous repeated
dislocations.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
sudden pain in the affected joint
loss of power and movement
deformity of the joint
swelling
tenderness
may have some temporary paralysis of the injured limb
CARE AND TREATMENT
RICE
support limb in position of comfort
seek medical aid
any attempt to reduce a dislocation is only to be made by a doctor
BRUISING, INCLUDING 'CORKED THIGH'
Bruising, or more correctly, 'contusion', is bleeding by damaged blood vessels
beneath the surface of the skin. This is invariably caused by blunt trauma, the
application of force to the injured site. A common injury, especially in contact sports,
is 'corked thigh', a heavy blow to the muscle mass of the thigh, which involves
damage to blood vessels as well as injury to the thigh muscle tissue. Although not a
serious injury, it is very painful, and prompt first aid assists in a rapid recovery.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
history of a blow to the thigh
pain and tenderness
swelling and discolouration
CARE AND TREATMENT
RICE
after four hours, gentle exercise of limb
EMERGENCY CHILDBIRTH
At some time in the future, you may be called on to assist with the birth of a baby. This activity is a most
rewarding one for a first aid provider, and there is no need to be frightened or nervous about it. The mother
requires support and reassurance more than anything else, and if you appear calm and confident this will
show her that you are someone to be relied on.
Remember that women have been performing the function of childbirth for a long time, and the process is
natural. You are there to provide any help that may be required during a process that is controlled by the
mother. Your active intervention is necessary only in extreme situations.
Childbirth is open to infection. It is imperative that you take all possible precautions
against infection from yourself and from the surroundings. Ensure that you wear
gloves during the process. If gloves are unavailable, ensure that you scrub your hands
thoroughly with soap and warm water.
Change your gloves, or scrub your hands each time they come in contact with
contaminated material, eg. faeces, blood, etc.
Childbirth occurs in three stages; the onset of labour (1st stage), the birth of the baby
(2nd stage), and delivery of the afterbirth (3rd stage).
FIRST STAGE: ONSET OF LABOUR
The onset of labour may last between 2 and 24 hours. It begins with cramp-like
pains in the lower abdomen, a `heavy' feeling low down near the pubic area, or some
may experience back pain. The pains occur regularly every 5-20 minutes, and they last for approximately
30 seconds.
In some instances, examination of the woman's vagina may reveal a `show' of bloodstained mucous
heralding the imminent birth of the baby. At this point, urgent ambulance or medical attention should be
sought.
During this stage, there may occur a `breaking of the waters': a sudden flow of fluid from the membrane
around the baby.
If it is obvious that it is too late to move the woman to hospital, there is little you can do except keep the
mother-to-be clean and provide reassurance. Now that the birthing process has begun, you should prepare
for it by arranging for:
a large plastic sheet to cover the bed or floor
two or three clean sheets
three clean linen or string ties about 25cm long
sharp scissors which have been boiled and kept as sterile as possible
sterile pads (large combines are ideal) for the mother
a warm nappy or `bunny rug' for the baby
towels, face washers and warm water to clean the mother
SECOND STAGE: BIRTH OF THE BABY
At this stage, the baby has moved down further into the birth canal. The pains change to `bearing down'
pains. These contractions may stimulate the mother to want to pass a bowel motion. DO NOT LET HER
GO TO THE TOILET UNACCOMPANIED! Check that medical aid is on the way.
The baby will move down the birth canal. There will usually be an increase in bloodstained mucous, and
eventually the top of the baby's head will become visible - this is called `crowning'. Most babies are born
head first, though occasionally a baby presents buttocks-first. This is known as a `breech birth', and the
mother may be unable to give birth without trained medical assistance.
When you observe the `crowning' process, again wash your hands or change your
gloves if time allows. The mother may unavoidably pass a bowel motion. If this
occurs, remove the faeces completely with a pad and cover the stained area.
The mother will be in some pain and have an urge to `push'. ENCOURAGE HER
NOT TO HOLD HER BREATH. Help her stay calm and advise her to `push'
when the urge is very strong.
As the baby is gradually pushed through the opening of the birth canal, gently support
its head - DO NOT PULL THE BABY, as it will be delivered normally in
successive contractions.
Should the umbilical cord be wound around the baby's neck,
slide two fingers underneath it and gently ease it over the
baby's head. There is enough slack in the cord to do this
easily. When the baby's head appears, it will initially face the
anus, but as the baby is delivered, it will spontaneously rotate
to face one side. This is quite normal. Very occasionally, the
babies head is born but the body is held up (usually by the
shoulders), ask the woman to change her position (try all fours or supported squat).
Support the baby's head until the next contraction, during which the baby's shoulders will appear. At this
point, shift your grip to approximately the baby's armpits and gently lift it towards the mother's abdomen as
the final contraction expels it entirely from the birth canal. TAKE NOTE OF THE TIME.
If the baby presents as a breech birth, it will be born body-first. The baby is unlikely to be expelled
normally, so you must attempt to avoid the cord from becoming `pinched' in the birth canal. Gently pull
down a loop of the cord to relieve the pressure. GET MEDICAL HELP URGENTLY!
CARE OF THE NEWBORN INFANT
The baby will be wet and slippery, and at this stage will cool down rapidly. It is
essential that you retain the baby' body heat by wrapping it in a warm cover. Give it
to its mother to hold, taking care not to interfere with the cord.
After one minute, if the baby appears not to be breathing, clear the airway and begin
resuscitation immediately!
After 2-3 minutes, the cord will stop pulsating. At this point, the baby is no longer dependent on the
mother's circulatory system, and is ready to go it alone. Use the linen or string ties to tie the cord firmly in
three places: 10cm, 15cm, and 20cm from the baby's navel. Tie the cords firmly enough to prevent any
flow of blood through it which may cause the baby to bleed.
You need not cut the cord if medical help is on the way, but if you are required to do so, cut the cord
leaving TWO ties on the baby's side of the separation. It is always a nice gesture to ask the baby's father (if
present) to cut the cord and `bring his child into the world'.
As soon as possible after the delivery, quickly assess the baby, noting the time it was delivered, its colour at
birth (blue? dusky? pale?), any deformities or skin discolouration, strength of cry (loud and lusty, or weak),
and whether the baby moves spontaneously, or just lies still. This is important information for the baby's
subsequent medical examination. Repeat the examination after 5-10 minutes and note any changes. Keep
the baby under constant observation.
THIRD STAGE: DELIVERY OF THE AFTERBIRTH (PLACENTA)
The afterbirth, or placenta, was the source of the baby's blood supply in the uterus.
With no further use, it will be expelled through the birth canal by contractions, similar
to the birth of the baby. This usually occurs 15-60 minutes after the baby's birth.
During this time it is essential that you DO NOT APPLY PRESSURE, OR
STRAIN, ON THE CORD OR TOUCH THE MOTHERS ABDOMEN.
To encourage delivery of the placenta, ensure that the mother raises and parts her
legs slightly. Put the baby on the mother's breast, as this will stimulate the uterus to contract and slow any
bleeding. The placenta will be delivered by successive contractions.
After delivery, it is important that the placenta is retained for examination by a medical professional.
Massaging the mother's uterus may control any subsequent bleeding. This is another good job for dad!
CARE OF THE MOTHER
Wash the mother and place combines or sanitary pads in place. Take her pulse,
assess her colour and check carefully for any further bleeding and what you may
consider to be excessive blood loss. Provided she is conscious and not ill or drowsy,
give her warm, sweet drinks and encourage her to rest. Keep her under constant
observation.
Retain all bloodstained towels and pads for medical examination.
If requested by the mother, assist her with cleaning herself up and changing her clothing.
Asthma
Australasia leads the world in incidence and varieties
of asthma. In 1996, 730 Australians died from asthma,
and many of these deaths may have been preventable.
Asthma is a respiratory condition in which the casualty
suffers the onset of constricted passages in the lower
airway and it becomes progressively more difficult to
breathe. Trigger factors for asthma may
include:
Viral respiratory infections
Exposure to known allergens, eg:
dust mites, pollens, animal dander,
moulds
Exposure to chemicals or other
occupational sensitisers
Exposure to irritants, eg: cigarette
smoke, perfume
Reflux
Drugs, eg: aspirin and
beta-blockers
Foods, eg: nuts, seafood
Food additives - colourings,
metabisulphite, monosodium
glutamate (msg)
Changes in weather, exposure to
cool air
Exercise
Emotion
Asthma can be a life-threatening
condition that may develop suddenly, or
over several days. Asthma is usually
considered in three classifications of
severity:
SYMPTOMS
MILD
MODERATE
SEVERE AND
LIFE-THREATENING
Physical
exhaustion
No
No
Yes, may have
paradoxical chest wall
movement
Talks in
Sentences
Phrases
Words
Pulse rate
<100/min
100-120/min
>120/min
Central
cyanosis
Absent
May be
present
Likely to be present
Wheeze
intensity
Variable
Moderate-loud
Often quiet
As a first aid provider you
should Be aware that both
mild and moderate
asthmatics are subject to
unexpected severe attacks,
and that minor respiratory
infections such as colds and
flu, as well as seasonal
changes, may cause an
asthmatic condition to
worsen. Treat the condition
with care, as the effects are
sudden and serious.
OTHER SIGNS AND
SYMPTOMS
pale, cool, clammy
skin
coughing, especially
at night
pale, cool, clammy
skin
shortness of breath -
using all the chest and
diaphragm muscles to
breathe
wheezing - a high
pitched raspy sound
on breathing
anxiety
exhaustion
rapid, weak pulse
cyanosis
severe asthma attack:
collapse - leading to
eventual respiratory
arrest
CARE AND
TREATMENT
Conscious casualty:
sit the person
comfortably
upright. Be calm
and reassuring
give 4 puffs of a
blue reliever
inhaler (puffer) -
Ventolin, Respolin,
Bricanyl, Respax
or Asmol. Use the
person's own
inhaler if possible.
If not, use the First
Aid kit inhaler or
borrow one from
someone else.
Relievers are best
given through a
spacer, if available.
With spacer:
shake
inhaler
and
insert
mouthpiece
into
spacer
place
spacer
mouthpiece
in
person's
mouth
and
fire 1
puff
into the
spacer
ask the
person
to
breath
in and
out
normally
for
about 4
breaths
wait 4
minutes.
If there
is little
or no
improvement,
repeat
the
above
sequence.
repeat
until 4
puffs
have
been
given
Without
spacer:
shake
inhaler
place
mouthpiece
in
person's
mouth.
Fire 1
puff as
the
person
inhales
slowly
and
steadily
ask the
person
to hold
that
breath
for 4
seconds,
then
take 4
normal
breaths
repeat
until 4
puffs
have
been
given
Collapsed casualty:
call 000 for an
ambulance
if possible, assist
with 6-8 puffs of a
reliever
if little or no
immediate
improvement -
repeat reliever
medication every 4
minutes
reassurance
if in respiratory
arrest - expired
air resuscitation
(EAR)
No harm
is likely
to result
from
giving a
reliever
to
someone
who does
not have
asthma.
In a
severe
asthma
attack,
EAR will
require a
much
greater
force to
inflate
the
lungs.
Contact
number
for
Asthma
Foundation
1-800-645-130
PARASOL EMT first aid manual continued ( from http://www.parasolemt.com.au/Manual/afa.html )
Hyperventilation
Hyperventilation can be stress-related or deliberate over-breathing. By deliberately over-breathing, the casualty
causes the blood's carbon dioxide level to fall, resulting in distressing symptoms.
Hyperventilation may be precipitated by a number of causes, most of them related to anxiety, fear or irrational
emotional outbursts. Reassurance of the casualty and a calm approach often lead to the condition being relieved
spontaneously.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
rapid respirations
rapid pulse
a feeling of shortness of breath
pressure, tightness or pain across the chest
anxiety
blurred vision
In extreme cases which have continued for some time
‘tingling’ in fingers and toes
hand and finger spasms and pain
fainting
CARE AND TREATMENT
reassurance
remove the cause of anxiety if possible
if fainted, lay casualty supine with legs elevated
if no improvement, call 000 for an ambulance
Not every casualty who is breathing rapidly is suffering from hyperventilation due to anxiety. In some cases the
rapid respirations may be a sign of another, more serious, medical condition. It is important to eliminate more
serious causes such as asthma.
If the casualty doesn’t respond to your initial treatment, call 000 for an ambulance urgently.
Fainting (Syncope)
Fainting or syncope, is a sudden brief loss of conscious that may only last a few
seconds and is followed by full recovery within two minutes. Fainting is usually
caused by a relatively minor event such as the sight of blood or just prior to receiving
an injection. The casualty usually makes a full recovery once he or she is laid flat.
There are many causes of fainting, including:
standing for long periods
the sight of needles
the sight of blood
pain
emotional events
heat
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
dizziness or feeling light headed
nausea
pale, cool and clammy skin
anxious
collapse
loss of conscious
rapid recovery after being laid flat
CARE AND TREATMENT
Syncope
if unconscious - stable side position
raise the legs if possible
if conscious - lie the casualty flat and raise the legs if possible
call 000 for an ambulance if not fully recovered in a few minutes
Heat Syncope
stable side position
cool casualty by fanning
loosen and remove excessive clothing
DO NOT CONFUSE FAINTING WITH A LOSS OF
CONSCIOUSNESS FROM OTHER CAUSES
Note: Fainting in elderly people is often due to a more serious underlying
problem.
Stroke or Brain Attack
STROKE is the common name for a cerebral vascular accident. A stroke usually occurs
from either of two causes; a blocked blood vessel to the brain (an occlusion), or a ruptured
blood vessel causing bleeding into the brain (intracranial haemorrhage). Stroke is common
in the elderly, but people of any age and any level of physical fitness can suffer the injury.
Stroke occurs in two main forms:
Cerebral Vascular Accident (CVA) which causes permanent damage to the brain
tissue through oxygen starvation (blocked vessel), or pressure (bleeding). There is
permanent damage to the brain, resulting in physical and/or sensory impairment.
Transient Ischaemic Attack (TIA), sometimes referred to as a 'small stroke',
which is a temporary condition usually caused by a minor blockage of the brain's
blood vessels. The occlusion does not last long enough to cause permanent damage,
but long enough to temporarily show the signs and symptoms of a CVA.
Brain attacks should be treated with the same degree of seriousness as a heart attack.
For many brain attack casualties, sophisticated techniques of rehabilitation, supported by a will to overcome the
debility, usually means that a full, near normal, life style may be possible.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
sudden severe headache
sudden nausea and/or vomiting
warm, flushed, clammy skin
slow, full pulse - may have distended neck veins
absent, slurred or inappropriate speech
partial or complete blindness
blurred vision
may have unequal pupils
'facial droop'
paralysis, weakness or loss of coordination of limbs, usually on one side of the body
loss of balance
salivary drool
urinary incontinence
brief loss of consciousness
unconscious - `snoring' respirations
may have seizures
may show signs of rapid recovery (TIA)
CARE AND TREATMENT
DRABC
posture in position of comfort taking care that the airway does not become obstructed by drool or
mucous
call 000 for an ambulance
reassurance - talk to the casualty even if unconscious
stable side position if unconscious, constantly observe
maintain body temperature
Croup
Croup is a form of respiratory infection which constricts the upper airway. It usually affects children under three
(3) years of age. Its onset is slow, usually after another illness, such as a cold or a sore throat, and is caused by
either a viral or bacterial infection. A child may need hospital admission in cases of severe croup where the ability
of the child to breathe properly is compromised by the constriction of the tissues.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
signs and symptoms appear worse at night
cold like symptoms
hoarse, 'barking' cough
pale, cool, clammy skin
may have a slight temperature
may have breathing difficulty
may have inspiratory or expiratory stridor (a shrill, harsh sound)
CARE AND TREATMENT
reassure the child
seek medical aid - especially if the child has stridor
avoid examining the throat
Humidification of the air is often recommended but there is no information to prove that it does
benefit the symptoms of croup. The risk of burns from the way that steam is made is more
dangerous for your child than the croup itself.
Epiglottitis
Epiglottitis is the infection of the epiglottis, the `flap'-like valve that guards the airway. The
condition is usually due to infection by the Influenza B bacteria. It is a life-threatening
condition. It affects children in the two to seven year range with four years the most
common age affected. The infection of the epiglottis causes a gradual obstruction of the
airway by the swollen tissue. Epiglottitis is an emergency and requires urgent
ambulance transport to hospital.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
skin often flushed, with a high temperature
child is quiet, doesn't cough, leans forward, and won't talk
appears anxious
salivary drool, child is unable to swallow
rapid onset over one or two hours
child usually has an expiratory `purr', though other noisy breathing is common
CARE AND TREATMENT
call 000 for an ambulance
reassure the child, and avoid crying - keep calm
allow the child to sit in a position of comfort, usually leaning forward and nursed by a parent
the child should always remain in the sitting nursed position
attempts to examine the child's throat may cause complete blockage Epiglottitis
Diabetes
Diabetes is a condition, which is caused by an imbalance of sugar, or glucose, in the blood.
Because all human cells require sugars as food, the body takes in complex sugars in a
normal diet. So that the body's cells can use these sugars, the body, through an organ called
the pancreas, secretes a protein hormone, called insulin, which attaches to the sugars. This
allows the cells to recognise the sugars as food, and absorb the necessary glucose.
Diabetes is due to an imbalance in the production of vital insulin. Diabetes affects around
900,000 Australians and is expected to affect 1.15 million Australians by 2010. Diabetic
emergencies appear in two forms:
Hyperglycaemia, or high blood sugar, is an imbalance of blood sugar, which usually requires the
affected person to supplement his or her insulin requirements by periodic injections of the hormone. A
casualty who is unable to obtain this supplement is liable to collapse into a serious state called diabetic
coma. This condition is less common and has a slower onset than hypoglycaemia. Not all diabetics are
dependent on supplementary insulin, and many live normally on a controlled diet.
Hypoglycaemia, or low blood sugar, is a dramatic imbalance where the tissues, especially the brain cells,
become starved of essential blood sugar. This imbalance is especially dangerous as its onset is rapid. The
result of further deprivation of sugar is that the casualty becomes unconscious and death may follow within
hours.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
HIGH BLOOD SUGAR
hot, dry skin
excessively thirsty
frequent need to urinate
smell of acetone (nail polish remover) on the breath
drowsiness
unconsciousness, progressing to coma
LOW BLOOD SUGAR
pallor
profuse sweating
hunger
confused or aggressive
rapid pulse
may appear to be drunk
seizures
unconsciousness
First aid treatment for either type of diabetic emergency is the same. Definitive treatment for
the hyperglycaemic requires medical expertise. Low blood sugar is easiest to treat, and
treatment generally rewards the first aid provider with dramatic results.
CARE AND TREATMENT
call 000 for an ambulance
if conscious, give sweet drink
repeat if casualty responds
on recovery, assist with medication and encourage ingestion of food high in
carbohydrates eg., biscuits
DO NOT attempt to give insulin injection
avoid putting fingers in the casualty's mouth
unconscious casualty should be given nothing my mouth
'diet' drinks are to be avoided
Epilepsy
Epilepsy is a disorder that briefly interrupts the normal electrical activity of the brain. Normally, neurons,
which are cells that carry electrical impulses, form a network, allowing communication between the brain
and rest of the body. Neurons "fire" or send electrical impulses toward surrounding cells, stimulating
neighbouring cells to fire at one time, causing an "electrical storm" within the brain, which results in physical
changes called seizures. In the past, when little was understood about epilepsy, people suffering from
epilepsy faced quite a bit of prejudice. Thankfully these attitudes are changing in the Australia.
In 70 percent of all cases the cause of epilepsy cannot be identified. Head injuries, strokes, brain tumors,
infections such as meningitis, lead poisoning or injury during childbirth mostly causes the remaining 30
percent. There are many different types of seizures. Four of the main types of seizures are:
Tonic clonic, or `fits', also known as grand mal, are readily identified by the uncontrolled body
spasms which accompany an attack.
Absence, also known as petit mal, cause the person to lose contact with his or her surroundings for
a few minutes, with little or no outward sign that anything is wrong
A complex partial, which is also know as psychomotor or temporal lobe, is accompanied by
impaired consciousness and recall. It may also involve staring, automatic behaviour such as lip
smacking, chewing, tumbling, walking, grunting, repetition of words or phrases, or other symptoms
and signs.
A simple partial produces a sudden shock-like jolt to one or more muscles which increases muscle
tone and causes movement. These sudden jerks are like those that occur in healthy people as they
fall asleep.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
ABSENCES
fixed stare or apparent doze
very young or elderly sufferers may drool
no reaction to stimuli
rapid return to normal after two or three minutes
CARE AND TREATMENT
nil active treatment required
reasurrance
SEIZURES
the epileptic may feel an `aura' - a feeling of light-headedness heralding a seizure
seizure usually starts with a cry as the diaphragm spasms and forces air from the lungs
collapse and momentary rigidity
uncontrolled spasmodic movements of head, limbs and body
cyanosis - the casualty is not breathing
may be loss of bladder and/or bowel control
spasms usually subside after three minutes - casualty regains control of the tongue and commences
breathing normally
casualty remains in a drowsy state for a period after the seizure
The epileptic is usually unable to respond to stimuli during a seizure, though a person with a simple partial
seizures affecting only one part of the body may hear and understand you.
CARE AND TREATMENT
protect the casualty from injury by moving furniture, padding beneath head, etc.
discourage interference by untrained bystanders
allow the seizure to run its course
on cessation of the seizure, check airway, breathing
put casualty in stable side position and allow to recover in a quiet place. After the seizure, let the
person sleep if he or she wishes
ask what assistance may be required, and help if necessary
attempts to put anything in the casualty's mouth, including fingers, should be resisted
It is not necessary to restrain the casualty
One problem encountered by the first aid provider is that of the well meaning, but untrained, bystander.
This person will usually insist that the epileptic's tongue should be held before he or she `swallows it'.
The bystander should be discouraged from actively pulling the casualty's tongue out.
Epileptics, similar to the rest of us, cannot `swallow their tongue' because their
tongue is attached to their lower jaw. The tongue will relax back into the epileptic's
airway during a seizure, but as he or she cannot breathe due to the loss of control
over the diaphragm, it does not matter.
After three or four minutes, the casualty will regain spontaneous control over the
tongue and will commence breathing normally.
Most epileptics understand what happened to them, and as soon as they recover sufficiently, they continue
on with their business. They do not usually require ambulance care and may become quite agitated when
one is called. However, as the first aid provider, you must satisfy yourself that the person is recovering
normally, and that there appears to be no complications.
If you are concerned, then call 000 for an ambulance.
Should the casualty's seizures appear to subside then, after a short period, recommence, or if seizures are
prolonged (in excess of five minutes) - call 000 for an ambulance. This may be the onset of status
epilepticus and will have serious consequences if left untreated.
If the person starts to bleed from the mouth, do not panic. He or she has probably bitten the tongue and is
not bleeding internally.
Repeat, do NOT put anything into the mouth.
Febrile Convulsions
When a child has an abnormally high fever from an infection, the body temperature rises to
the point where the child's immature temperature regulation mechanism cannot cope. At this
critical point, the child convulses in what appears to be a seizure, or `fit'. The seizure only
lasts a few minutes, and generally has no lasting effect on the child. Febrile convulsions are
common and approximately three per cent of children aged six months to six years may
have a convulsion when they have a high temperature.
The seizure affects not only the child, but also parents and bystanders who may not have observed this
phenomenon before. As a first aid provider, it is part of your responsibility to reassure the witnesses. The greatest
fear parents have is that the child is not breathing, and they think that death is imminent. Panic becomes likely.
Because the child is having a seizure, it cannot breathe, but as the convulsions subside, the child begins breathing
spontaneously. Unfortunately, it does not appear this way to concerned parents. Often ambulances have arrived
on scene to find a distraught parent running down the road towards them, carrying a now screaming child. As a
precaution, a doctor should always assess the child to rule out seizures from any other cause.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
previous history of infection
child is usually quiet, and appears sick
flushed, hot skin
eyes `roll back'
may become stiff or floppy
child becomes prostrate, and begins convulsing
salivary drool
becomes cyanosed due to absent breathing
after one to three minutes, child begins breathing
recovers, commences crying
CARE AND TREATMENT
FOR CHILD
remain calm
while fitting, put the child in the stable side position
remove excessive clothing
on recovery, assess child's breathing - IF NOT BREATHING: EAR
Should the casualty's convulsions appear to subside then, after a short period, recommence, or if
convulsions are prolonged (in excess of five minutes) - call 000 for an ambulance.
FOR PARENTS/BYSTANDERS
reassure - explain what you know of febrile convulsions
discourage removal of child by persons other than ambulance personnel or under trained medical assistance
Heart Conditions
The HEART is a muscular pump, approximately the same size as its owner's fist. Its
function is to pump oxygen-rich blood from the around the lungs to various parts of the
body, and to pump the de-oxygenated blood from the tissues back to the lungs to take on
more oxygen. The mechanical pumping action of the heart is driven by a complex electrical
activity.
Due to factors such as sedentary life-style, poor diet and advanced age, and chronic
disease, the heart is sometimes compromised, and serious cardiac conditions develop. The four major conditions
are; angina, heart attack, heart failure, and cardiac arrest.
HEART ATTACK AND ANGINA
Also known as a CORONARY OCCLUSION or MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION, a heart attack can
occur at any time, at any age. Certain people are at greater risk, due to factors such as hereditary influence, lack
of exercise, smoking, poor diet, and high blood pressure. The onset of heart attack is usually due to the acute
constriction, or complete blockage, of a cardiac blood vessel. Urgent medical attention is vital.
ANGINA PECTORIS (literally `pain in the chest'), is a condition due to constriction of
the blood vessels supplying the heart muscle with blood. Angina sufferers may be aware of
their condition, and take medication to relieve the symptoms. Medication is usually in the
form of a tablet or spray, taken under the tongue.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
Angina and heart attack have very similar signs and symptoms
pale, cool skin
chest pain or discomfort, possibly after exertion, a heavy meal or stress
'crushing', or `vice-like' pain, usually in the centre of the chest, sometimes also in the jaw and arm
sweating
rapid, irregular, or weak pulse
rapid, shallow respirations, or difficulty breathing
partial or full collapse
nausea and/or vomiting
may feel the need to pass a bowel motion
lethargy
CARE AND TREATMENT
DRABC
call 000 for an ambulance
position of comfort, usually sitting
complete rest
reassurance
assist with medication
reassurance
discourage visit to the toilet
It is important to realise that angina should be relieved by rest or medication.
If, after three tablets or sprays over 10 minutes, the pain does not diminish, then the condition should be
considered a heart attack.
Hospital treatment should be sought without delay! Call 000 for an ambulance.
If the casualty collapses and appears to become unconscious, be prepared to provide resuscitation, as this is a
sign of impending cardiac arrest.
HEART FAILURE
When the heart is unable to perform its proper function, blood and fluid collects around the lungs and in the body.
This condition is called HEART FAILURE. It is typified by the casualty finding it difficult to breathe, and
swelling of the ankles and legs as fluid pools in the extremities.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
pale, cold, clammy skin
chest discomfort, difficulty breathing
'bubbly', gasping breaths
frothy sputum
swelling of the extremities, especially the ankles, which may show `dimples'
partial collapse
CARE AND TREATMENT
DRABC
call 000 for an ambulance
position of comfort, usually sitting supported
do not elevate legs
reassurance
CARDIAC ARREST
When the heart ceases to function, then the casualty is said to be in CARDIAC ARREST. Whether the heart is
at a complete standstill, or whether it is vibrating rapidly in a chaotic rhythm, it is no longer doing its task. The
condition may be due to heart attack, heart failure, electrocution, drowning, trauma or other medical condition -
first aid treatment is the same, CPR!
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
unconsciousness
no pulse
usually no respirations, though there may be brief irregular, `gasping' breaths
CARE AND TREATMENT
immediate CPR
call 000 for an ambulance
Choking
CHOKING is due to the lodgement of a foreign object in the casualty's airway
(trachea). In some instances, the object lodges at the epiglottis - the entry to the
airway - but does not actually enter the trachea. Both cases cause initial coughing,
the body's reflex action to dislodge the object.
If an object is firmly lodged in the airway, coughing at least keeps it high in the
trachea, though may not expel it. Coughing with an object at the entrance to the
airway, however, will generally cause it to be expelled.
Should you encounter a person with an apparent obstruction who is COUGHING EFFECTIVELY, DO
NOT SLAP him or her on the back. If the obstruction is at the entrance to the trachea, then reactions to
the slaps may cause the person to inhale the object and cause complete obstruction.
If a casualty initially coughs to no effect, and appears to be in increasing distress, then the object may be
totally obstructing the airway.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
difficulty or absence of breathing
inability to speak or cough
agitation and distress - grabbing the throat
cyanosis
eventual collapse
CARE AND TREATMENT
position the casualty - adults laterally, children head down
deliver four firm slaps between the shoulder blades
check mouth and clear any obstructions that may have come loose
reassess the casualty's attempts to breathe
repeat four firm slaps between the shoulder blades 4 if blockage has not been cleared call 000 for
an ambulance
If this fails to free the object and the casualty has collapsed, quickly roll the casualty onto his or her side,
place your hands over the ribs, and deliver quick, firm thrusts. This may expel the object through the
forcing of residual air from the lungs.
alternate slaps and lateral chest thrusts
if ineffective, and the casualty is in respiratory arrest begin expired air resuscitation (EAR)
immediately.
EAR may be effective, as the object lodged in the airway causes muscular deformity of the trachea.
Complete collapse of the casualty causes relaxation of the muscles, this allows some space around the
object through which EAR can provide essential oxygen.
PARASOL EMT first aid manual continued ( from http://www.parasolemt.com.au/Manual/afa.html )
Poisoning
Poisons are substances that if inhaled, ingested, absorbed or injected, harm the structures or functions of the
body. Some types of poisons may act immediately on the body, others may act more slowly. Some poisons, such
as cyanide, are so toxic they only require a minute amount to be harmful, while others, such as garden sprays, are
cumulative and require exposure over a long period to achieve the same level of toxicity. Some may be
carcinogenic, and cause fatal cancers some years after exposure.
Whatever the substance, remember that PREVENTION IS BETTER THAN CURE!
always ensure that poisonous substances are kept only if really necessary
pills and medications should always be locked away in a childproof cupboard
Substances are never decanted into attractive containers such as soft drink bottles
all substances are labelled and understood before use
prescription medications are used only by the person prescribed them
all poisons and medications are disposed of correctly.
The wide varieties of poisonous substances present with a similarly wide variety of signs
and symptoms. The list below is not exhaustive, but casualties may present with all, or at
least some, of them.
Obtain a history, look for empty bottles, containers, and sometimes suicide notes.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
May include the following:
pale, cool, clammy skin
rapid, weak (sometimes erratic) pulse
nausea and/or vomiting
cyanosis
headache
burns around the mouth
burning pain in the mouth or throat
blurred vision
ringing in the ears
smell of fumes or odours
stomach pains or cramps
drowsiness, which may lead to unconsciousness
seizures
breathing difficulties
CARE AND TREATMENT
call 000 for an ambulance
in Australia - ring POISONS INFORMATION on 13 11 26
EAR & CPR as required
monitor the casualty at all times
keep samples of poison, medication or containers
keep samples of vomitus
be careful not to contaminate yourself during contact
If possible, ascertain what poison or medicine has been taken, including how much and when.
POISONS INFORMATION 13 11 26
Environmental Conditions and Exposure
The human body maintains a temperature between 36-37o C. Any excessive variation to this range has a
detrimental effect on the functions of the body. As a general observation, it may be said that the human brain does
not react well to excessive body heat, and the heart is sensitive to cold.
The body has some natural defence mechanisms against excessive heat and cold. It
regulates body heat by sweating, releasing heat through the body surface (heat loss), and
through lung moisture evaporation. Cold is managed by shivering, which generates heat
within the body.
Often, environmental influences determine the stability of the human body's temperature. In
a country like Australia, subject to extremes of heat and cold, such influences are important
in relation to first aid. Either heat or cold related conditions may bring on serious functional impairment.
Heat related conditions are those conditions brought on by exposure to high temperatures and humidity. The most
spectacular example of a serious heat related problem, is the televised distress suffered by athletes during long
distance running events, conducted during hot and humid conditions. Heat may induce heat cramps, heat
exhaustion and/or heat stroke.
DEHYDRATION
Dehydration is a condition caused by the casualty's loss of fluids from perspiration and prolonged exposure to
heat and humidity. When the casualty's fluid loss exceeds his or her input through drinking, dehydration occurs and
the blood volume lessens. A prolonged period of dehydration will lead to shock and in susceptible casualties, such
as the frail elderly and very young, and the condition can be fatal.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
pale, cool, clammy skin
rapid breathing
profuse and prolonged sweating
thirst
loss of skin elasticity (`Pinch test' on back of hand)
sunken eyes in children
CARE AND TREATMENT
complete rest in the shade, no further exertion
remove unnecessary clothing
give cool water to drink
ensure casualty has assistance when recovered
HEAT CRAMPS
Heat cramps are caused by the loss of complex salts (electrolytes) through an imbalance in the body's fluid
requirements - the body is losing more fluids than it is replacing. This debit causes the hard-working muscles to
lose their vital electrolyte balance, causing muscular contraction.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
pale, clammy skin
sweating if associated with exertion
cramping pains in the limbs or abdomen
nausea
uncontrolled spasms of affected limb(s)
CARE AND TREATMENT
rest in the shade
gently stretch the affected muscle
apply ice pack
when nausea passes, give sips of cool water to drink (with caution)
avoid massaging affected limb
avoid any further exercise
HEAT EXHAUSTION
Heat exhaustion is caused by exertion accompanied by heat and high humidity.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
pale, cool, clammy skin
rapid breathing
profuse and prolonged sweating
cramps in the limbs and/or abdomen
thirst, nausea and/or vomiting
constant headache
hot, exhaustion and lethargy
CARE AND TREATMENT
complete rest in the shade, no further exertion
remove unnecessary clothing
cool casualty by sponging with water
when nausea passes, give cool water to drink (cautiously) 4 ensure casualty has assistance when
recovered
HEAT STROKE
This condition is not to be confused with `sun stroke', the common ailment of headache and
nausea suffered by children and careless adults who remain in the sun too long without a
hat. Also known as 'Core Temperature Emergency', heat stroke is potentially fatal. In
this condition, the body's temperature regulation centre in the brain has been rendered
inoperable, and the temperature continually rises, causing eventual brain damage. Immediate
active intervention is necessary to avoid coma and death.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
flushed, hot, dry skin
the casualty has ceased sweating
rapid pulse, gradually weakening
irrational or aggressive behaviour
staggering gait, fatigue
visual disturbances, headache
vomiting
collapse and seizures
coma - death
CARE AND TREATMENT
call 000 for an ambulance
complete rest in shade
remove casualty's clothing
cool casualty by any means possible - ice packs to neck, groin and armpits
cover casualty with wet sheet and fan to increase cooling
be prepared to resuscitate as required
fluids can be given if casualty is fully conscious
if unconscious or semi-conscious, nothing by mouth - rehydration is required by intravenous fluids
administered by a doctor or ambulance crew
EXPOSURE TO COLD
Exposure to cold has effects which are no less serious than exposure to heat and humidity.
Serious illness and death from exposure to cold and hypothermia is not as common in
Australia as in colder climates, but they do occur. Remember that an elderly person in an
unheated house during winter, who is incapacitated and unable to summon assistance, is at
risk from exposure to cold and hypothermia. This situation is a common occurrence.
This is the most common situation relating to persons suffering from low temperatures. It
may be due to being caught out in inclement weather during bushwalking, soaked in cold water and unable to
change, subject to cold winds (wind chill) without proper protection, or simply by being elderly, or not able to
afford proper heating and clothing.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
pale, cold skin
increasing lethargy, drowsiness, lack of muscular co-ordination
uncommunicative, poor judgement
shivering
CARE AND TREATMENT
warm slowly by adding additional clothing, heating source, body heat
if wet, change the casualty's clothing if in stable environment
if conscious, give warm, sweet drinks
when able to stand, encourage mild exercise
HYPOTHERMIA
Hypothermia is a potentially fatal condition that especially affects the elderly. The body's core temperature has
been lowered to the extent that the brain function is impaired and the heart's activity is about to be compromised.
Urgent first aid intervention is required.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
pale, cold skin - no capillary return when fingernails are pressed
slow pulse, sometimes irregular
slow, shallow respirations
blurred, or double, vision
casualty is silent, appears asleep, difficult to rouse; may be unconscious
casualty experiences a sense of `wellbeing'
absence of shivering
if very cold, may have non-reacting pupils and appear `death-like'
CARE AND TREATMENT
provide shelter from cold, rain, wet ground, and wind
call 000 for an ambulance
actively warm casualty, wrap in `space blanket' or similar
if wet, change the casualty's clothing
once casualty commences shivering, reassess heating
be prepared for sudden collapse and resuscitation
if conscious, give warm, sweet drinks
DO NOT rub affected area
DO NOT expose to excessive heat
DO NOT give alcohol
A casualty is not dead until WARM and dead
Resuscitation must always be attempted until medical advice states otherwise.
Near Drowning
NEAR DROWNING may be classified as either:
'wet' - where the casualty has inhaled water and the lungs' function has been affected; or
'dry' - a less common condition, but one that involves the closing of the airway due to spasms induced by
water.
The most important consideration to be made by the first aid provider is to avoid
DANGER. Do not attempt a rescue beyond your capabilities, and have the casualty
brought to you. Meet the rescuer in the water and begin resuscitation immediately.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
pale, cool skin
absent or laboured respirations
decreased level of consciousness
cyanosis
may have weak or absent pulse
CARE AND TREATMENT
DRABC
commence immediate EAR or CPR as required
on recovery, stable side position
treat hypothermia if present
suspect and treat spinal injuries
call 000 for an ambulance
It should be remembered that near drowning has a detrimental effect on the respiratory system, and on recovery,
the nearly drowned casualty may experience a build up of fluid in the lungs. This fluid can lead to, at best,
pneumonia, at worst, a fatal condition called 'late drowning'.
All casualties who have experienced near drowning MUST SEE A DOCTOR.
Venomous Bites and Stings
Venomous bites and stings are injected poisons. Many of Australia's creatures are particularly poisonous,
with eleven of the world's twelve most venomous snakes residing here. As for general poisoning, prevention
is better than cure, so take care when in an area frequented by snakes and spiders, and treat venomous sea
creatures with respect.
SNAKES
Australia's venomous snakes are regarded as dangerous because of the frequency
with which they come in contact with humans. Generally, the genus with the most
feared reputation is the variety of Brown Snakes. These snakes, Tiger Snakes,
and the Taipan are responsible for most of the fatal encounters with humans. Black
Snakes and Death Adders are also dangerous and are known to have caused
deaths. Anti-venom is generally available for all species.
In most cases, the snake strikes swiftly and injects venom below the surface of the skin into the tissues. It
is then absorbed by the lymphatic system. Only rarely does the venom penetrate directly into the blood
stream. As the venom is contained within the lymphatic system, the `John Wayne Method' of slashing
the wound and sucking vigorously, is of no value.
Should you see a snake, LEAVE IT ALONE - do not attempt to kill it as all snakes are protected by
law, and besides, the creature will defend itself vigorously. Stay clear of likely habitats, and always pay
special attention to young children playing near long grass and bush. Only approximately 15% of people
struck by poisonous snakes are envenomated, but always treat for the worst case, and assume that venom
has been injected.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
puncture marks, or parallel scratches on the skin - rarely any pain
anxiety
pale, cool skin with progressive onset of sweating
rapid, weak pulse
rapid, shallow breathing
breathing difficulties
blurred vision, drooping eyelids
difficulty swallowing and speaking
abdominal pain
nausea and/or vomiting
headache
collapse - progressing to a comatose state
CARE AND TREATMENT
DRABC
complete rest
call ambulance urgently
apply direct pressure over the bitten area
obtain a history
apply a firm bandage (pressure immobilisation bandage) starting from just above the
fingers or toes, and wind as far up the limb as the armpit or groin
immobilise the limb with a splint
send any evidence of the snake to the hospital only if safe to do so.
avoid washing the bitten area, as a venom sample may be obtained
DO NOT use an arterial tourniquet
DO NOT remove the bandage and splint once it has been applied
DO NOT try to capture the snake
SPIDER BITE
FUNNEL WEB SPIDER
The Sydney Funnel Web spider is considered to be the most venomous spider in
the world. It is found in the NSW coastal zone from Nelson's Bay to Nowra. Its
habitat is under rocks and houses, in a web-lined burrow. The spider is very
aggressive and will attack at the slightest provocation. Despite its fearsome
reputation, there are only 13 recorded deaths due to funnel web spider bite.
However, when the spider does inject a dangerous quantity of venom, the effects can
be rapid and severe, and death within an hour may occur.
A second type of spider called the Bush (or Blue Mountains) Funnel Web is also recorded as being
responsible for fatal bites. Its habitat ranges over most of the NSW coast and the Great Dividing Range.
This creature lives in trees behind the bark, or in holes in the trunk. Other types of related spiders such as
the Northern and Southern Tree Dwelling species, are suspected of similar venom potency, and are found
mostly along the south eastern area of Australia.
There are at least 35 species of funnel web spiders. All are medium to large, robust spiders, mostly dark or
black in colour, with stout legs and large fangs. Males search for female mates, a process which may
increase the chance of unwanted interaction with people, as they may get underfoot, or into shoes or
clothing left on or near the floor.
The Funnel Web will bite successively if in contact with the skin, and when bitten by the Funnel Web
Spider the venom enters the body similarly to that of snakes. Anti-venom is available.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
vomiting
abdominal pain
copious production of saliva and pulmonary fluids
mental confusion
collapse - coma - death
CARE AND TREATMENT
as for snakebite
RED-BACK SPIDER
This spider with the telltale red or orange mark on its thorax is the female of the
species. It is common all over Australia, and its preferred habitat is under any old
building material, or inside sheds and garages. The spider's bite is not generally
regarded as fatal, although there are recorded deaths, including a five year old boy
who died in 1952 from a red-back's bite. Less than 20% of bites actually result in
significant envenomation, but generally, the bite is very painful, and causes distress.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
intense pain at the site of the bite
may be localised redness, swelling and sweating
nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain
rapid pulse
rapid, shallow breathing
CARE AND TREATMENT
DRABC
obtain history
cold compress to relieve pain
observe casualty for any sign of deterioration
OTHER SPIDERS
Other spiders that have been associated with venomous bites are the White-Tailed Spider, Trapdoor
Spider and Wolf Spider. The bite of these spiders causes tissue necrosis, the death of the tissue around
the bitten area. A doctor should treat bites from these spiders and assess the bitten area over a period to
observe for any detrimental effects.
White-tailed spider
Trapdoor spider
Wolf spider
TICK BITE
Only the Australian paralysis tick or `scrub tick' causes envenomation in humans.
Ticks are capable of spreading diseases eg. scrub typhus. Ticks can be found
anywhere on the body, but hairy areas, skin clefts and crevices should be examined
carefully.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
local irritation
lethargy
muscle weakness, especially children
unsteady gait
double vision
difficulty in swallowing or breathing
rarely allergic reactions occur:
rapid local swelling
wheezing and difficulty breathing
collapse
Symptoms and signs generally develop over several days but allergic symptoms can occur within hours.
CARE AND TREATMENT
DRABC
find and remove the tick by spraying with tick killing repellent, preferable containing
pyrethrins or pyrethroids. If not available, kerosene can be used
if the victim has a history or signs of allergy:
- use pressure immobilisation if possible
- seek medical advice immediately
if tick repellent not available - slide the open blades of sharp pointed tweezers on each side
of the tick and lever it upwards
always check the whole body of the victim, including the ears, skin creases and hair for
further ticks
after removal of a tick the victim should be advised to see a doctor to check that no further
treatment is required.
avoid squeezing the tick because even slight pressure may inject more venom
BEE AND ANT STINGS
Bee and ant stings for most people are only a temporary irritation. For others,
however, these stings have the potential to cause death. The venom associated with
bee stings causes a severe allergic reaction in susceptible people, and can cause
respiratory and cardiac arrest. In most cases ant stings, while painful, rarely cause
serious problems.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
evidence of bee sting with the barb present
pain and itching at the site
swelling of the stung area
in allergic casualties;
onset of wheezing and breathing difficulties
facial swelling and hives
rapid pulse
collapse
CARE AND TREATMENT
DRABC
remove bee sting by scraping with fingernail or similar
cold compress to reduce swelling and pain
if onset of allergic reaction;
pressure immobilisation bandage
call 000 for an ambulance
avoid squeezing or touching the barb
EUROPEAN WASP
This introduced insect has been identified with at least one death. The European
Wasp is coloured yellow and black, with stripes similar to those of a bee. The yellow
stripes are brighter in colour than those on a bee, and the insect is slightly larger. The
insect is attracted to aromatic or sweet-tasting things, and will enter food containers
such as open soft-drink cans. The creature will then sting when inadvertently
handled. Similar to bees, the wasps become aggressive when their nest is disturbed.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
severe pain at the affected site
immediate swelling, especially if the throat has been stung
breathing difficulties
CARE AND TREATMENT
DRABC
call 000 for an ambulance or see own doctor
cold compress to reduce swelling and pain
if onset of allergic reaction;
pressure immobilisation bandage over affected limb(s)
call ambulance urgently
EAR if respiratory arrest
SEA CREATURES
Many sea creatures are venomous, and the best way to avoid envenomation is to give the creatures a wide
berth. As an example, don't pick up or handle creatures washed up on the beach or in rock pools, and
don't swim where Box Jellyfish or Portuguese Man-'0-War are prevalent.
BOX JELLYFISH
The Box Jellyfish, also known as `Sea Wasp' and `Stingers', are prevalent in the north of Australia during
the season from November to March. These creatures are deadly, and are responsible for many fatal
encounters. Warning signs at popular beaches should be complied with, and extreme care taken at
unpatrolled locations.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
immediate severe pain, with irrational behaviour because of the pain
rapid, irregular pulse
frosted pattern of sting marks
collapse
respiratory arrest
cardiac arrest
CARE AND TREATMENT
DRABC
restrain anyone from rubbing the sting for around 30 seconds
apply liberal quantities of VINEGAR
for major stings only, apply immediate pressure immobilisation bandage to areas treated
by vinegar
cold compress to relieve pain
call 000 for an ambulance or call lifesavers urgently - they have antivenom available
EAR and/or CPR as required
STONEFISH
The Stonefish is virtually invisible amongst rocks. The creature has venomous spines on its back that it
erects when threatened or stepped on. This fish lives in the tropical regions, and as far south as
Forster/Tuncurry in NSW.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
severe pain at the site of envenomation
swelling
open wound and/or bleeding
irrational behaviour
rapid pulse
breathing difficulties
collapse - coma
CARE AND TREATMENT
DRABC
call 000 for an ambulance
HOT water immersion of the site to relieve pain - ensure that the water will not scald the
casualty
EAR and/or CPR as required
BLUE-RINGED OCTOPUS AND CONE SHELL
The Blue-ringed Octopus is an attractive little creature that lives in rockpools on the shores of Australia.
When threatened, the creature `pulses' luminous bright blue rings on its body. Its bite is painless, and will
only occur if the creature is handled.
The Cone Shell is a variegated shell, usually brown and white, which is common on tropical beaches. The
shell contains a dagger-like spine, which can inject toxin into any unwary person who handles the creature.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
a spot of blood
numb feeling of the face and tongue
progressive weakness in the legs and body
eventual collapse
respiratory arrest
CARE AND TREATMENT
DRABC
reassurance
pressure immobilisation bandage
call ambulance urgently
EAR as required
PORTUGUESE MAN-'O-WAR (`BLUEBOTTLE')
The Portuguese Man-'O-War, or `Bluebottle', found on most beaches in Australia, is really a colony of
small creatures living as one. The creatures have small stinging cells, which when encountered as a group,
impart a venomous sting. People who are susceptible to bee sting are usually sensitive to Bluebottle venom.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
'trails' of blue `tentacles' adhering to the body or limbs
stinging sensation associated with the contact
reddening of the skin
pain for some hours
may cause severe allergic reaction (rare)
CARE AND TREATMENT
DRABC
remove the `tentacles' with a copious amount of sea water
dry cold compress to relieve pain
call ambulance or own doctor
if severe allergic reaction:
pressure immobilisation bandage
call 000 for an ambulance
FISH STINGS
Many fish, such as the flathead and the stingray, have poisonous spines that can inject venom deep in the
unwary victim, causing excruciating pain. Handle all fish with care, avoiding the spinous areas along the
backbone and around the gills.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
intense pain at the site
swelling
bleeding
often a grey/bluish discolouration at the site
there may be an open wound or barb in the skin
irrational behaviour or panic may occur
CARE AND TREATMENT
DRABC
HOT water immersion of the site to relieve pain or apply a hot compress - ensure that the
water will not scald the casualty
if heat does not alleviate the pain, try a cold compress for pain relief
call 000 for an ambulance or call own doctor
Also be aware that constant handling of fish may cause skin irritation due to the fluids and secretions of the
fish oils.
If handling fish without protective gloves, wash hands frequently to avoid skin problems.
ROAD TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS
Most modern vehicles are designed to withstand impacts of a certain force, and to
provide protection to drivers and passengers. Seat belts, 'crumple zones', collapsible
steering wheels, airbags, roll bars - all these and similar devices are designed to give
personal protection in an accident. Unfortunately, not all vehicles on Australian roads
are equipped with these modern design benefits, and many provide little or no
protection at all.
As a first aid provider, you may be required to render assistance at the scene of a road traffic accident. If
so, remember to be calm and methodical in your actions as others involved who have not had the benefit of
first aid training will look to you for support and guidance.
APPROACHING THE SCENE
DANGER!!.. Consider the danger to yourself, to others, and to the casualties.
Always take time to have a good look at the scene before you approach. Approach
the scene methodically, keep away from traffic, and ask someone to accompany you
as an assistant.
Examine the scene - give yourself time to think about your next move: Is the vehicle
stable; will it roll or move? Is there spilt fuel? Is there any danger of fire? Are power
poles involved? What about oncoming traffic? If a van or truck, is the load safe? Don't touch anything until
you are sure that no dangers exist.
CONTROL THE SCENE
As you move to the scene, ask bystanders to move back. Ask a responsible person
to slow down or redirect any oncoming traffic. Ask someone else to make sure that
bystanders (especially children) don't become involved with passing traffic. Ask
bystanders not to smoke near any damaged vehicles.
Unless there is someone else present with more advanced medical knowledge, YOU
become the person in charge of the casualties.
ASSESS THE SCENE
What are your initial impressions?
How many casualties?
Are they walking around?
Unconscious?
Talking?
Any obviously dead?
Any trapped?
After the initial quick assessment, ask the person who accompanied you to contact the ambulance service,
and provide information on location, number of casualties, estimated seriousness of injuries, and if road
rescue is required for trapped casualties.
Ask bystanders for help; 'Are there any first aiders here?', 'Did anyone see what happened?' 'Could
someone give me a hand?' It is at this point that you may be required to TRIAGE the casualties (refer to
Triage) - remember, first aid is provided to the casualties who will benefit most, eg., the unconscious, the
person bleeding profusely.
Without adequate help do not become committed to resuscitation of a cardiac arrest victim at the
expense of others who require urgent assistance.
APPROACH
CAREFULLY
ENSURE IT IS SAFE
BEGIN TREATMENT
ACCESS TO THE CASUALTIES
Ensure that any vehicle involved is safe. Do not touch the vehicle unless you are certain. Beware of the
vehicle being in contact with an electrical power source. If it is a new model vehicle (with electronic fuel
injection), DO NOT turn off the ignition as this may cause a spark. If the engine is running, turn it off but
leave the ignition on.
Road Traffic Accidents If you attempt to gain entry, do not wrench open the door unless you know that it is
not in contact with a casualty. In certain circumstances, casualties have become impaled or entrapped in
contact with a door. Be careful of broken glass if you insert your head through a window. Make sure that
you can gain effective entry beside and behind the casualty. Beware of sharp metal and broken glass.
ATTENDING THE CASUALTIES
Perform a quick examination of the casualties; DRABC, bleeding, burns, fractures, other injuries. This will
tend to confirm your initial TRIAGE. Use any helpers by providing assistance to move the casualties with
minor injuries ('walking wounded') away from the scene to a safe place. This will give you more room to
attend to the more serious cases.
Always try to have a responsible person to help you attend to serious casualties - it helps to have assistance
and support.
WHAT TO LOOK FOR
Always consider the effects of the accident; Was the vehicle struck on the side ('T-boned')? Did it roll
over? Was it a high-speed impact? Was the motorcyclist hit by his own bike? There are certain injuries that
appear associated with particular types of impact ('mechanism of injury'), and consideration of the
accident's effects may point you towards any suspected injuries:
Side impact. Fractured upper leg (femur) and/or lower leg on the side of impact. Consider a fractured
pelvis. Suspect a shoulder or upper arm injury on the side of impact, and if the 'B' pillar has been damaged,
suspect a head injury.
High speed impact. Deceleration injuries involving severe internal bleeding, multiple fractures, impacted
pelvis, head and spinal injuries, and multiple lacerations. Be alert for deterioration in unconscious casualties
with head injuries.
Rear end collisions. Cervical spine injuries ('whiplash' effect) and facial injuries.
Ejection from the vehicle. Head and spinal injuries, unconsciousness, multiple
fractures, multiple lacerations to top of body and head, and internal bleeding.
Roll over. This mechanism of injury provides for the complete
range of damage to the human body. Drivers and passengers
are usually thrown around, irrespective of their seat belt
restraints, and they have no control over their movements. Pay
particular attention to children, as they are not usually correctly
restrained by seatbelts designed for adults.
Motorcycle accidents. Injuries commonly sustained by riders and pillion
passengers are fractures of the femur, wrist and ankle fractures, head injuries, and
deceleration injuries resulting in severe internal bleeding. Motor cyclist's helmets
MUST NOT be removed unless the airway is obstructed or the casualty is not
breathing. Casualties should remove their own helmets wherever possible. If a helmet
has to be removed, it requires two rescuers to do so, and it should be done carefully
with no movement of the neck.
Bicycle accidents. Cyclists are liable to sustain multiple fractures, multiple
lacerations, and head injuries. Children are susceptible to 'greenstick' fractures of the
arms, and wrist injuries through falling off at relatively low speed.
Pedestrians. Generally, adults are struck on their side as they
try to turn away from the danger. Their injuries are usually
more pronounced on the side that has received the impact.
Children and the elderly are more likely to be struck as they
turn to face the oncoming vehicle. Most pedestrians are 'run
under' rather than 'run over' as they are forced off their feet
by the impact and may be thrown over the vehicle, or for
some distance from the point of impact. Head and spinal injuries are common, especially where the
casualty's head has struck the vehicle's bonnet or windscreen. Small children may be 'run over', and be still
under the vehicle when it stops.
PARASOL EMT first aid manual continued ( from http://www.parasolemt.com.au/Manual/afa.html )
TREATMENT OF CASUALTIES
Remember DRABC, with constant reassessment of DANGER
Treat any casualties in accordance with your training. DO NOT remove any seriously injured casualties
from the vehicle unless fire, fear of further collision, airway protection, control of severe bleeding, or CPR
are necessary. Wait for the ambulance to arrive. Provide what treatment and reassurance you can, keep the
casualties warm with blankets if available, and periodically check on the 'walking wounded' who have been
moved from the scene.
Remember that SHOCK is a life-threatening condition, and is common after trauma sustained in a road
traffic accident. Be ready to treat any signs and symptoms that indicate that a casualty is progressing into
shock. Do not confuse shock with the adrenaline 'rush' associated with the 'fight or flight' mechanism which
causes people involved to shiver, shake, cry and feel faint after an accident. This is not a serious condition,
and others can look after them while you attend to the needy casualties.
On arrival of the ambulance, give the crew what information you have and advise them of any treatment you
have provided. Your intervention will be appreciated by all concerned - especially the casualties.
COMMON MINOR SPORTS INJURIES
Most sports injuries are preventable. To assist in avoiding injuries, participants should maintain fitness,
train adequately, play to standard, use the correct equipment and clothing, and cease activity as soon as
a suspected injury occurs.
Most sports are either contact sports, like rugby and judo, or non-contact sports like tennis, swimming
and cricket. Some sports, such as netball and waterpolo, are essentially non-contact, but unavoidable
person-to-person contact does occur. Certain types of injury are particular to certain sports, and as an
example, facial injuries are more prevalent in contact sports such as rugby, than in non-contact sports such as tennis.
Most major sports injuries can be recognised by their attendant signs and symptoms, and treatment can
be provided as required. Head injuries, concussion, lacerations, soft tissue injuries and fractures, are
recognisable and can be effectively treated by anyone trained in basic first aid.
Certain other sports injuries are more common, and may require more specific first aid treatment. Some
common types are addressed below:
Chest cramps (or `stitches'). Usually caused by cramps of the intercostal muscles between the ribs,
or the diaphragm high in the abdomen. Brought on by exertion, chest cramps are identified by sharp,
spasmodic pain in the chest, difficulty in standing upright, and gasping respirations. A `Stitch' will
disappear with rest and concentration on deep breathing.
Dislocated jaw. A common injury in certain contact sports is dislocation, or
fracture, of the lower jaw (mandible). The casualty will have pain in the jaw, be
unable to speak properly, and may have trouble swallowing. This injury requires
a trip to hospital, and the casualty should sit, leaning slightly forward, and rest the
injured jaw on a pad held by the casualty.
DO NOT apply a bandage to support the jaw. Observe the casualty carefully for
signs of breathing difficulties and any indication that he or she is becoming drowsy or unconscious.
Groin and testicle injuries. Caused by a blow to the groin, or by overstretching the associated muscles. Characterised by
pain to the region of the groin, sometimes nausea or vomiting. The casualty will be unable to stand upright, and will `guard' the
injured area with his hands. The casualty should be placed on his back with knees slightly bent, and have an ice pack applied
with caution to the injury site. Seek medical aid.
Muscle cramps. Caused by overstretching muscles, or by abnormal muscle contraction. They may also be associated with
loss of fluid due to excessive sweating. Characterised by pain, tenderness, loss of power and stiffening or spasms of the
muscles. Muscles respond to rest, application of an ice pack, then subsequent gentle stretching. DO NOT massage the
affected muscles.
`Winding'. Caused by a blow to the abdomen which temporarily `paralyses' the diaphragm. Characterised by breathing
difficulty, gasping attempts to breathe, lack of chest movement, bending at the waist and `guarding' the abdomen. The casualty
should be placed in a reclining position and reassured until he or she regains the ability to breathe. DO NOT `pump' the
casualty's legs, as this delays recovery.
`Tennis elbow'. This injury is due to a strain of the tendons and muscles associated with the elbow.
Severe cases also involve the ligaments. It is usually a chronic condition, and presents when the elbow is
overused or overstretched. Characterised by pain usually centred over the bone on the outer side of the
joint that becomes more severe on movement. The casualty may need medical attention for pain relief,
so application of an ice pack and support in a sling, as well as a visit to hospital is advised.
`Shin splints'. This injury is due to a strain of the long flexor muscle of the toes, characterised by pain
along the shinbone. This is an injury common to track athletes and footballers. First aid is rest, application of an ice pack, and
elevation of the limb. Repetitive injury should be examined and treated by a medical professional.
Other sports injuries should be treated as they present, and medical aid sought as a matter of course. Injuries sustained by
many athletes are chronic, and recur on a regular basis. If these injuries are in the form of sprains and strains, they may require
support in the form of strapping or taping. Provided that a doctor has assessed the athlete, and that no other form of treatment
has been prescribed, strapping may be applied by a qualified person to support the injured part.
DIVING EMERGENCIES
The majority of diving accidents involve recreational divers using self-contained underwater
breathing apparatus (SCUBA). Accidents usually take the form of near drowning,
decompression (`the bends'), aural barotrauma (ruptured eardrum), pulmonary barotrauma
(ruptured lung), facemask squeeze, and less commonly, nitrogen narcosis (`raptures of the
deep' or `the narcs').
THESE CONDITIONS ARE PREVENTABLE BY ADEQUATE TRAINING
AND CARE, AND STRICT ADHERENCE TO CORRECT SAFETY PROCEDURES.
Observance for DANGER takes precedence over all first aid activities and casualties or
potential casualties should always be removed from the water prior to first aid assessment
and treatment.
NEAR DROWNING
The recognition and first aid treatment of this condition is covered at length elsewhere in this book. All qualified
SCUBA divers are required to show proficiency in the rescue and resuscitation of fellow divers, and the rescue of
a near-drowned casualty should be effected by other qualified divers. Resuscitation should be effected
immediately and a medical practitioner should always assess revived casualties to rule out the potential of further
complications.
DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS
Commonly called `the bends', decompression sickness is caused by the formation of
bubbles of gases (nitrogen) in the joints, circulatory system, and tissues of the body.
As the body of the diver is subjected to increasing pressures the deeper he or she dives;
nitrogen in the air breathed is dissolved into the blood. Should the diver surface rapidly, the
pressure on the body drops rapidly back to normal. This releases the nitrogen suddenly
from a state of solution in the blood to form bubbles.
The bubbles thus formed usually block the small blood vessels and cause an embolism. This is especially
dangerous when associated with the vessels in the brain. When similar blockages occur in relation to nerves in the
limb joints or spinal cord, an attack of the bends is the result.
Signs and symptoms of decompression sickness may be all, or some, of the following: joint pain, dizziness,
staggering gait, shortness of breath, itching of the skin, and sometimes partial paralysis. Onset is usually immediate,
though prolonged onset of symptoms is common.
First aid treatment is to remove the casualty from the water, lay him or her horizontal. Urgent ambulance
treatment is required. Should the casualty become unconscious, put him or her in the stable side position with
head level and observe closely for changes to condition. Maintain body heat by covering with a blanket.
A diver presenting with identified decompression sickness requires recompression in a medical hyperbaric
chamber. This is done under expert medical supervision, where he or she is recompressed, then gradually and
safely decompressed to normal. This allows the nitrogen solution to escape back into a gas without forming
dangerous bubbles.
Discourage attempts by others to take the diver back underwater to the original depth in a futile attempt at
`recompression'. THIS IS DANGEROUS and merely compounds any `bends' which the casualty has suffered.
Be aware that decompression sickness can manifest after air travel, where the body has
been decompressed by altitude to a pressure less than `normal'. This causes a delayed
reaction in the formation of bubbles.
RUPTURED EARDRUM
An aural barotrauma, or ruptured eardrum, is caused by unequal pressure in the ear. Divers
equalise pressure within the ear by flexing the eardrum with the valsalva manoeuvre; pinching the nostrils and
`blowing' into the nasal cavity. If a diver cannot perform this activity successfully, then the greater pressure on the
outside of the eardrum will cause the membrane to rupture.
Diving Emergencies Signs and symptoms of a ruptured eardrum are; a momentary sharp
pain in the affected ear, hearing impairment, vertigo, earache, and sometimes associated
sinus pain.
A diver presenting with this injury should be referred to medical aid to avoid complications
leading to potential deafness. First aid is to cover the ear with a pad, and discourage the
application of eardrops or earplugs. Discourage the casualty from attempting to perform the
valsava manoeuvre.
RUPTURED LUNG
When a diver descends to a given depth, pressure on the body increases. As this happens,
the volume of gas (air) in the lungs decreases by compression. When the diver ascends, the
volume of air increases or expands. If the diver ascends rapidly, and doesn't compensate
for this expansion by breathing out during surfacing, the expansion of the air exceeds the
capacity of the lungs, and causes a rupture of the membrane. This is called a pulmonary
barotrauma, and results in a collapsed lung (pneumothorax).
Signs and symptoms of a ruptured lung are; pain in the chest, difficulty breathing, cyanosis, pale clammy skin,
restlessness and anxiety. In extreme cases there may be evidence of red, frothy sputum, and associated back pain.
The affected lung will collapse and may lead to fatal air bubbles forming in the brain.
A diver presenting with a suspected ruptured lung will require urgent ambulance transport to hospital. First aid is
to place the casualty in a position of comfort (generally sitting), and provide reassurance. Should the casualty
show an altered level of conscious, put him or her in the stable side position, injured lung down, and be prepared
to resuscitate if it becomes necessary.
FACEMASK SQUEEZE
Facemask squeeze is caused by unrelieved pressure of the diver's facemask during descent. The volume of the air
within the mask decreases with depth, and the rubber or latex compound of the mask constricts the tissues of the
face. If the air space in the mask is not equalised, eye and facial tissue can be forced into the mask by increased
pressure. The diver breathing into the mask through the nose avoids the condition.
This condition also has an effect on the facial sinuses, spaces between the skull and the tissues. Severe facemask
squeeze can cause the sinuses and nose to bleed suddenly and copiously - a frightening effect on a diver
underwater.
Signs and symptoms of face squeeze may be all, or some, of the following; pain and discomfort around the cheeks
and eyes, ruptured capillaries in the whites of the eyes, puffiness around the upper face, headache, sinus pain, and
subsequent red mark indicating damaged facial tissues.
First aid is the treatment of any nosebleed (see control of external bleeding), and reference to medical aid if tissue
or sinus damage is suspected.
NITROGEN NARCOSIS
Although nitrogen is regarded as an inert gas, when breathed under extreme pressure it appears to take on an
anaesthetic quality. Generally associated with prolonged diving at depths greater than 35 metres, nitrogen narcosis
(`the narcs') is thought to be a pressure-related condition that affects nerve fibres.
As a first aid provider, you are unlikely to be involved in the direct effects of `the narcs' as the symptoms are
relieved by ascent to the surface. You are more likely to become involved in the secondary effects; injuries or
conditions caused to a diver succumbing to nitrogen narcosis.
Diving Emergencies
Signs and symptoms of nitrogen narcosis are; a feeling of euphoria, irrational behaviour, impaired concentration,
vertigo, tingling and numbness of the lips, mouth and fingers, and extreme exhaustion. Divers have been observed
removing their regulators, masks and fins, or to continue diving to dangerous depths. Affected divers are likely to
panic and surface too rapidly, or remain on the bottom, too exhausted to ascend. EACH OF THESE
IRRATIONAL ACTIONS CAN CAUSE SERIOUS INJURY OR DEATH.
Should a diver appear ill after a dive, and been witnessed to have shown the signs of "the narcs", he or she should
be dissuaded from re-entering the water, and encouraged to rest under observation for recovery. If the diver does
not appear to be recovering to your satisfaction, obtain medical aid.
Remember that nitrogen narcosis can be associated with `the bends' due to the inappropriate actions of
the diver at depth.
24 HOUR DIVER EMERGENCY SERVICE (DES/DAN)
'DES AUSTRALIA' 1800 088 200
CRUSH INJURY SYNDROME
A casualty being trapped by a compressive force causes CRUSH INJURY SYNDROME. This force, if
applied to a large muscle mass, eg. the thigh, causes the body to produce large quantities of acid and complex
electrolytes, especially potassium, around the affected muscles. On release of the compressive force, the liberated
blood takes the concentrated chemicals to the heart, with often fatal results. In addition, there is often a sudden
loss of blood on release of the compressive force.
Crush injury syndrome does not occur in every incident where a casualty is trapped, but its frequency is such that
the first aid provider should be aware of its existence. As a general rule, the requirement for consideration is based
on three criteria; involvement of a muscle mass, prolonged compression, and compromised blood
circulation. For instance, entrapment of a hand is unlikely to initiate the syndrome.
The major problem that faces the first aid provider when dealing with suspected crush injury is dissuading helpful
bystanders from attempting to remove the compressive force prior to the arrival of expert medical assistance.
Compressive force on head, neck, chest or abdomen should be removed immediately.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
compression in excess of 60 minutes
involvement of large muscle mass
absent pulse and capillary return in the distal limb
pale, cool, clammy skin
weak, rapid pulse
usually absence of pain in the affected region
onset of shock
CARE AND TREATMENT
call 000 for an ambulance
if compression has occurred for less than 1 hour - relieve the crushing force as quickly and gently
as possible, provided it is safe to do so
if compression has occurred for more than 1 hour - await medical assistance
reassure casualty
treat any other injuries
be prepared to assist medical support
nothing by mouth
DISTURBED BEHAVIOUR
Disturbed behaviour may be due to mental illness, or it may be due to a temporary emotional disturbance.
Generally, disturbed behaviour may be classified as:
PSYCHOSIS is a mental illness where the person loses touch with reality. Some forms are well known, with
schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and paranoia, being the most commonly associated forms.
NEUROSIS is usually a chronic condition where the person remains in touch with reality. The person may have
an uncontrollable compunction to act in a particular way, with phobias (fears), obsessions and compulsions the
most common neuroses. Anorexia nervosa and excessive anxiety are examples of neurosis.
TRANSIENT ABERRANT BEHAVIOUR are minor conditions of temporary mental instability due to a
particular emotional or physiological condition. Pre-menstrual tension, post-natal depression, inappropriate
reactions to emotional stress, are all common aberrant behaviour conditions which last only temporarily.
It is important to remember that mental illness is just that; AN ILLNESS. Similar to other
illnesses like diabetes and heart disease, mental illness has a regimen of treatment that is
designed to ease the symptoms. The mentally ill person cannot help doing or saying things,
which to others appears bizarre and sometimes hurtful. Mental illness is a frightening and
debilitating condition, and those who suffer it deserve our help and understanding - NOT
our pity.
PSYCHOSIS is where the psychotic is withdrawn from the world that you and I know and, from the depths of
his or her illness, will perceive things differently. If a schizophrenic tells you he is hearing voices telling him to do
certain things, then those voices to him or her are real!
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF PSYCHOSIS
mood swings
irrational behaviour and inattention
disjointed speech patterns
may refer to religious figures, or to intelligence services (CIA, ASIO)
inappropriate conversation and accusations
deep depression, crying
manic behaviour
known history and taking medication
the person may inform you that he or she suffers from mental illness
CARE AND CONTACT
LISTEN to what is said - remain objective
look, but don't stare, at the person when talking
ask `open ended' questions like, `Why do you think that?'
avoid platitudes; eg. `You will be alright, mate!'
keep your voice calm - never shout
always be polite, no matter what provocation is offered
don't make sudden moves the person may misconstrue as a threatening gesture
never laugh AT the person, and don't tell them YOUR troubles • if potentially violent, don't get
between the psychotic and the door - NEVER get into a physical confrontation or you will get
hurt
ask the person if they want help; eg. `Is there anyone you would like to see or talk to?'
give them any assistance you can, but don't make promises you can't keep
don't delay in a potentially violent situation and cause risk to the person, to yourself, or to others
- GET HELP
NEUROTIC BEHAVIOUR is a chronic condition, and the first aid provider is more
likely to be called on to attend the `by products' of the illness, such as the wounds of a
person who self-mutilates, or a person who attempts or threatens suicide as a plea for help.
If called on to assist in a case like this, treat any injuries objectively - don't comment on the
cause. Be sympathetic and provide support as required. Above all, be a good listener! In
conversation, the same rules as for conversation with a psychotic (above), apply.
TRANSIENT ABERRANT BEHAVIOUR is a temporary condition, but no less serious. Severe emotional
and physiological stress puts intolerable pressure on the affected person, and the resultant outburst has the
potential to be violent. Recognition of the onset of stress likely to cause aberrant behaviour is the key to caring for
a potential sufferer.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
history of recent emotionally, or physiologically, stressful situation
personality; does the person usually cope easily with stress?
mood swings, emotional outbursts
depression; indifference towards relatives, friends
deterioration in personal appearance
increased inattention to family/children
Care for a person presenting with these signs and symptoms is initially support and
understanding. Remember that this is a temporary condition, and that this is not the real
individual. Treatment for the condition is by reference to professional psychological help. It
may be difficult to persuade the sufferer to attend psychological counselling, but if all else
fails, refer them to their own, or a trusted, doctor. Prior to any appointment, contact the
doctor and relay your observations. The doctor will appreciate your concern.
MANUAL HANDLING - BACK INJURIES
Back injuries cost the Australian taxpayer, and commercial and industrial interests many millions of dollars
annually. Initial medical costs and the cost of prolonged rehabilitation of back injury patients, account for
the major proportion of industrial insurance payouts. As well as being an expensive injury, an injured back
is painful and debilitating. In most cases, the injury was preventable.
As previously discussed in the section dealing with `SPINAL INJURIES', the spinal
column is a series of interconnected bones, separated by cartilagineous shock
absorbers. Although the spine is flexible, it is not designed to withstand abnormal
flexion under load.
Lifting weights and carrying loads are normal functions for active humans, however,
care must be taken not to exceed the ability of the spine to adequately support this
physical activity. When this ability is exceeded, the resultant failure of the spine causes acute and chronic
pain, and a reduced capacity to function normally.
It is in everybody's interest, whether employer, employee, or individual, to avoid back injuries by the simple
expedient of `thinking before lifting'.
FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH BACK INJURY
OCCUPATIONAL. Constant manual handling, frequent bending and flexing of the spine, poor ergonomic
workplace, repetitive back movements, all provide a basis for acute injury or chronic complaint.
PERSONAL. Individual strength, age, conscious posture, and degree of fitness are important factors.
MEDICAL/HISTORICAL. Previous back complaints, evidence of scoliosis or similar medical
conditions, and previous education in back care procedures, will generally dictate the degree of abuse the
back can absorb.
The ultimate aim in the avoidance of back injury is TO IDENTIFY AND
ELIMINATE POTENTIAL RISKS before any injury is sustained. To do this
effectively, individuals should identify, assess and control any risk factors.
IDENTIFY risk factors by reviewing past procedures and comparing the injury
rates. Observe and analyse any existing or potential problems. Consider any
personal medical or physical limitations. Consult with other individuals or
organisations.
ASSESS the risks involved; Is manual handling essential? What options are available? Is the right person
involved?
CONTROL any risk by reducing the necessity for manual handling by using alternative means of handling,
by maintaining a SAFE work or home environment (no slippery floors, no obstructions), and by educating
all those involved.
When lifting or moving a load, consider not only the weight of the object, but its size and shape, the
distance it is to be carried, the height it will have to be lifted, and its position prior to lifting. In fact, does it
need lifting? Will it be better to push or pull the load?
LIFTING OR MOVING A LOAD
consider the load; size, awkward shape, etc.
consider need for mechanical or manual assistance
position legs apart - one foot level with the load
keep back straight, look up
bend from the hips, avoid `twisting' the body • tighten the stomach muscles, but don't hold breath
BEND THE KNEES
lift with the legs, not the back
keep the load close to the body
keep carrying distance short
avoid changing grip or `jerking' the load
deposit the load by bending the knees and keeping the back straight (reverse order of lifting)
if pulling or pushing, let the legs do the work
Pregnant women should take special care when lifting, as their spine adjusts to cater
for the physical changes of the body. A pregnant woman's ligaments are also affected
by hormonal changes and `soften' considerably. Any heavily pregnant woman who
lifts or carries a heavy, restless, wriggling child is at risk of back injury or worse.
Chronic back pain is a crippling condition - avoid it by lifting carefully.
SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME (SIDS)
SIDS is the sudden death of an infant due to unknown causes. It affects infants usually in the three months to
fourteen months age group. A great deal of research has been carried out on SIDS and, although no sure method
of prevention has been discovered, experts have devised a list of risk factors. These factors, while not definitive in
themselves, provide indications to avoid:
SLEEPING POSTURE. It appears from statistical evidence that babies who are left to sleep on their
stomachs are at a greater risk of SIDS.
OVERHEATING of the infant, whether by proximity to a heater, or by too many bedclothes, increases
the risk.
FORMULA FEEDING, rather than breast feeding, seems to present a greater risk.
SMOKING by the infant's mother during pregnancy has been linked to SIDS.
DRUG ADDICTION by the mother during pregnancy is associated with a higher risk of SIDS.
A SIDS death affects all who are involved. Parents and near relatives become distraught,
especially as there appears no reason for the death. Friends and neighbours are also
affected, and the attending ambulance crew, police and medical staff are not unaffected. It
is a highly emotional incident, and as a first aid provider, perhaps with initial contact, you
are also at risk of emotional involvement. It is difficult, but you will be expected to provide
support for others, and your objectivity may be tested.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
cyanosis, may be as far down the body as the nipple line
fixed dilated pupils
pale, cool skin
absent respirations
absent pulse
CARE OF THE INFANT AND PARENTS
quickly and carefully examine the infant
if in doubt, ATTEMPT RESUSCITATION
leave the infant as found, avoid disturbing bedclothes
contact ambulance and advise `suspected SIDS'
comfort parent(s), assist in obtaining support, relatives, etc.
remain on scene until police arrive and provide information
Police become involved because, in Australian States and Territories, an unexpected death automatically becomes
the subject of a Coroner's Investigation. The attending police officers will advise the child's parents of all
necessary formalities. They are not there to indicate or attribute blame. If you are unfortunate enough to become
involved in a SIDS case, you have been involved `at the sharp end'. Although you may not think so, you have
been emotionally affected. Ensure that you talk the incident through with somebody, especially with someone who
will understand. If you don't know anyone close with whom you may wish to share your feelings, contact the
ambulance crew who attended. They will be only too willing to share it with you - they understand your feelings
and know what an emotional trial it has been.
For more information, contact the Sudden Infant Death Foundation for written material, or the Sudden Infant
Death Association for support and advice. Phone numbers are in your local telephone directory.
CHILDHOOD ILLNESSES AND CONDITIONS
This section is not meant to be the definitive answer for the treatment and care of childhood
illnesses. It is meant to be an informative guide to recognising the common signs and
symptoms associated with the medical conditions. There is no substitute for a doctor, so if
any child you are involved with becomes unwell and exhibits unfamiliar signs and symptoms,
contact the family GP or the ambulance service immediately.
Most common childhood diseases are preventable, and prophylactic measures in the form
of immunisation are readily available. Unfortunately, incidences of some of the more serious diseases such as
Whooping Cough and Measles/Rubella are on the increase due to children in the `at risk' age group not being
inoculated against the diseases.
There are many social reasons why some children are not immunised, but few `reasons'
provide comfort to a child infected with a potentially fatal disease. It is true that there is a
risk that a tiny percentage of children have an adverse reaction to certain inoculations.
However, the risk of serious illness by not immunising children against diseases is far
greater. If you are unsure about immunisation and have any misgivings, contact your GP or
your local children's' medical health facility for advice.
Bronchitis
Bronchitis is an infection of the airway. It can be acute, with a rapid onset, or chronic, with
recurrent episodes. While not life-threatening, complications can lead to pneumonia.
Signs and symptoms are: dry cough, slight fever (approx. 38oC), mild chest discomfort,
wheezing and uncomfortable respirations.
Treatment is with medication, so contact your doctor for advice, especially when very
young children are affected, or if the condition is recurrent.
Chickenpox (Varicella)
Chickenpox is very contagious. It is a viral disease, usually mild in children. To date, no successful preventative
inoculation has been developed, so the disease is widespread throughout the population. Complications from the
disease are rare, and are usually restricted to infections of the Chickenpox blisters.
Signs and symptoms are; mild fever (38-40oC), illness for 1 or 2 days, skin eruptions or blisters that appear
anywhere on the body, including the mouth, nose, penis, vagina and the head. Limbs are least affected. The
blisters form scabs after 24 hours, and new blisters appear every 2 - 3 days.
The application of cool compresses reduces the `itchiness' of the blisters and discourages scratching by the child.
Contact your GP or local child health centre for advice.
Cold Sores (Herpes Simplex)
Cold sores are a common viral infection, and are very contagious. Generally, the lips, mouth, and sometimes the
genitals are affected. In some rare instances, the cornea of the eye is also affected. The virus is transmitted by
person-to-person contact, or by contact with an infected person's saliva or discharge from the sore. The blisters
are contagious until they heal. The virus remains dormant in the system for months before `flare up', and it is usual
for the disease to recur periodically.
Signs and symptoms are; eruptions of small blisters grouped together, pain at the affected
site, blisters are surrounded by reddened tissue. If the eye is affected; pain and redness to
the eye, eye discomfort and sensitivity to light. A `flare up' is common after prolonged
exposure to the sun.
Contact your GP, especially during the first incidence. Treatment is usually by medication to
hasten the healing of the blisters. It is crucial that a doctor is consulted immediately if you
suspect that the eye is affected.
Cradle Cap
Cradle cap is a yellow encrustation on the scalp of an infant caused by overstimulation of oil glands in the child's
skin. It is a mild form of dermatitis. It is NOT due to poor hygiene, and is generally caused by extreme weather
conditions, infrequent or incorrect (adult strength) shampoos, or associated skin disorders.
Signs and symptoms are; thick, yellowish scales on the child's scalp, associated reddening,
may be some discomfort and itching in extreme cases.
Use of baby soap and shampoo, with mild scalp massage will loosen the scale. If the
encrustation will not loosen easily, apply baby oil and warm cloths to the scalp before
massaging. If the condition does not respond to this treatment, contact your local child
health centre for advice.
Middle Ear Infection
Middle ear infections are usually associated with either viral or bacterial infections, which invade the ear from the
nose and throat. Other causes may be a blockage of the sinuses and tubes by infection, or by infection introduced
through a ruptured eardrum. This type of infection is common to infants and the very young.
Signs and symptoms are; earache, pulling at the ear, mild fever, irritability, hearing loss. BE
AWARE THAT AN INCREASE IN FEVER MAY LEAD TO FEBRILE
CONVULSIONS.
Contact your GP or local child health centre for advice. Antibiotics may be required to
arrest the infection.
Earwax Blockage
Earwax blockage is due to the overproduction of wax by glands in the outer ear. Wax is produced normally as a
form of protection for the ear canal and the eardrum. Overproduction of wax can cause a complete blockage of
the ear canal with associated hearing loss.
Signs and symptoms are; decreased hearing, visible quantities of wax in the ear canal, `ringing' in the ear, and
(rarely) pain in the ear.
Wax can be removed with non-prescription eardrops. Instil the drops into the child's ear in
accordance with directions on the container. Avoid `flushing' the child's ear with water or
other fluids by using pressure. Any fluids introduced into the ear should be carefully allowed
to `run' into the ear canal. If, after treatment, the ear does not appear clear, or hearing has
not returned to normal, contact your GP for advice. DO NOT attempt to remove wax from
the ear canal with cotton buds or other devices. This may cause damage to the ear and will
compact the wax further into the canal.
Head Lice (Pediculosis)
Pediculosis is inflammation of the skin caused by tiny parasites (lice) which congregate in the hairy parts of the
body, which in children is the scalp. The lice bite through the skin to obtain blood, causing red bite marks, and lay
their eggs attached to the hairs (`nits'). Head lice are spread by contact with an infested person or clothing. Head
lice are common to pre-schools and schools, irrespective of the social standing of the establishment.
Signs and symptoms are; itching and scratching, scalp inflammation, active lice and `nits' in
the scalp hair, (rarely) enlarged lymph glands in the neck.
Contact your local child health centre or GP for advice. Treatment is generally by
medicated shampoos and creams. Ensure that treatment is continued for at least five days
after the lice disappear, as they can recur. Be sure to tell the child's school or pre-school,
and playmates' families so that they can take precautions.
Measles
The common form of measles (`red measles') is a serious viral illness that infects the skin and, more importantly,
the respiratory tract. Measles is very contagious, and is fatal to those communities that have no historical immunity,
such as indigenous populations. The incubation period is 7-12 days after exposure, and possible complications
associated with the disease are pneumonia, meningitis or encephalitis. Measles is becoming more common in the
community after a period of low incidence. It is preventable by immunisation.
Signs and symptoms are; fever (39oC+), sneezing and runny nose, harsh, hacking, dry
cough, red eyes sensitive to light, white spots in the mouth and throat, red rash spreading
from the ears and forehead to the rest of the body.
Contact your GP for treatment and advice. Encourage the child not to watch TV or read as
this exacerbates the child's sensitivity to light and makes the eyes irritable. Keep constant
observation of the child's temperature.
German Measles (Rubella)
Rubella is a viral illness, usually mild in onset. The danger with this illness is in the spread to pregnant women. A
woman who contracts Rubella in the first 3 or 4 months of pregnancy is at risk of giving rise to severe defects in
the unborn child. Rubella is preventable by immunisation, and all non-pregnant females of childbearing age should
be immunised.
Signs and symptoms are; slight fever, muscle aches, stiff neck, fatigue, slight red rash on the child's head and body
after 2-3 days, swollen neck lymph glands.
Contact your GP for advice. Ensure that your child does not have known contact with pregnant women. The child
usually recovers within a week.
Meningitis
Meningitis is a term used to indicate inflammation of the thin membrane that covers the brain and spinal cord.
Meningitis can be caused by viral (Aseptic Meningitis), or bacterial (Spinal Meningitis) infections. It can also be
caused by exposure to certain fungi (yeasts), and by reaction to other viral infections such as Measles. Viral
meningitis is contagious, and becomes more virulent as it spreads.
Signs and symptoms are; fever (39oC or greater), sweating, chills, headache, irritability, eyes sensitive to light, stiff
neck, vomiting, confusion, lethargy, may have sore throat, may have red skin rash.
Should your child exhibit some of the above signs and symptoms, and you are suspicious of
his or her ability to respond appropriately, take the child to hospital. If the child is feverish,
vomiting and drowsy, CALL AN AMBULANCE. Remember that meningitis involves
hospitalisation, so the earlier you contact the experts, the better.
Mumps
Mumps is a viral disease which causes swelling of the salivary glands. The virus is transmitted person-to-person,
and has an incubation period of 14 - 20 days after contact. Mumps is most common in children between the ages
of 2 and 12 years, though adults are susceptible to the virus. Immunisation is available.
Signs and symptoms are; mild fever, headache, very sore throat, painful swelling of the salivary glands (between
the ear and jaw). Complications involve swelling of the testicles (males), and abdominal pain (females).
Contact your GP for advice. There is no definitive medication for the infection. The affected child requires careful
observation to ensure that complications such as meningitis or swollen testicles do not go untreated.
Thrush (Oral Thrush)
Thrush is a common fungus infection of the mouth, especially affecting the newborn and
infants. It affects the mouth, tongue, gums and soft palate. Occasionally, the lips and cheeks
are affected. Thrush is caused by a fungus called candida albicans, and is due to the
newborn picking up a yeast infection from the mother when passing through the birth canal,
or in infants, by acquiring some foreign substance which upsets the balance of organisms in
its mouth. It is likely to recur.
Signs and symptoms are; white/yellow patches in the mouth, dry mouth, and small ulcers if the patches are wiped
off.
Ensure that the child's eating utensils, teats, etc. are boiled to prevent passing the thrush on to others. Swab the
child's mouth with non-prescription mouthwash available from a pharmacy. If the thrush does not clear up within 3
days, contact your child health centre for advice.
Tonsillitis (Pharyngitis)
Tonsillitis is the inflammation of the lymph tissue at the back of the throat. Tonsils are at their largest, and most
susceptible to infection, between the ages of 4 years and puberty. Tonsillitis is contagious and is caused by either
viral or bacterial infection.
Signs and symptoms are; pain in the throat, difficulty swallowing, chills, fever (40oC or
greater), swollen glands above the jaw, headache, earache, (rarely) cough.
Contact your GP or child health centre for advice. Some infections indicate that antibiotics
may be required. Repeated bouts of tonsillitis may necessitate surgery to remove the tonsils.
Intestinal Worms
The common intestinal worms that infest children are; tapeworm, roundworm and threadworm. Worms are
intestinal parasites that have different breeding cycles and depend on the human host in order to live and
reproduce. Eggs of the worms are introduced into the child's body by various means, eg. pets, dirt, uncooked
food, contact with an infected person. The systems of the body affected are the stomach, intestinal tract, bowel,
and lungs. Although parents may deny it, most children at one time or another, become infested with the parasites.
Signs and symptoms are; loss of appetite, weight loss, restless sleep, nocturnal teeth
grinding, irritation and itching around the anus, diarrhoea, (rarely) abdominal pains/cramps,
and (in the case of roundworms) dry cough.
The most effective treatment is regular ingestion of non-prescription anti-worm medication.
Taken by the entire family on a regular basis, medication will break the reproductive cycle
of any parasites ingested by humans. Ensure that the household pets are dosed regularly
with animal worming medication.
PARASOL EMT first aid manual continued ( from http://www.parasolemt.com.au/Manual/afa.html )
DRUG OVERDOSE
Drugs are usually medicinal substances that come in a variety of forms; pills,
capsules, powders, liquids and pastes. They are chemical concoctions or refined
natural products that are used for specific purposes ranging from relieving headaches
to stopping the heart. Most are supplied under control, either by doctors'
prescriptions, or by government-controlled sale. Some, however, are illegal and
pose a danger to users.
Drugs are generally classified as either:
PRESCRIPTION DRUGS, require a doctor's authority to purchase
them. They are drugs to which the relevant government authority has
given a `Schedule Number', indicating the toxicity or cautionary usage of
the substance. Most prescription drugs are at least `Schedule 4', and
range up to `Schedule 8' which are dangerous narcotic-based drugs. The
associated (usually typewritten) label, indicating that a pharmacist has
dispensed them readily identifies prescription drugs. Some common
examples are; `Valium', `Normison', and `Anginine'.
NON-PRESCRIPTION DRUGS are those which may be purchased without prescription. They consist
of headache compounds, cough elixirs, and similar mild medications, and can be purchased at virtually any
chemist or retail outlet. Common examples are; `Panadol', `Aspro', `Vick's Cough Syrup', alcohol, and
nicotine (cigarettes).
ILLICIT DRUGS are drugs that are imported, grown or
manufactured illegally. All illicit drugs are dangerous and usually imply
a degree of dependence, or in some cases, addiction. Examples are;
heroin, cocaine, amphetamines, `ecstasy', marijuana, and LSD.
All drugs, even non-prescription drugs, are dangerous when taken as
an overdose. Many people have suffered severe renal and kidney
impairment from ingesting an overdose of what they considered to be an innocuous drug. As an example,
Paracetamol (`Panadol', `Panadeine') is an excellent analgesic if taken as directed, but is particularly
dangerous, even fatal, if taken as an overdose.
Using another person's medication is also a very dangerous practice. Elderly people are at risk of
accidental overdose due to memory lapses, and unsupervised children are also potential risks.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
evidence of empty containers, suicide notes, etc
altered level of consciousness
slurred speech
depressed respirations
slow pulse, or alternatively, rapid, weak pulse
irrational behaviour
'pin-point' pupils (narcotics)
injection (`track') marks on arms, behind knees, thighs, and groin
unconsciousness
respiratory/cardiac arrest
CARE AND TREATMENT
treat as for poisoning
urgent ambulance transport
psychological support
resuscitation as required
be aware of Hepatitis B/C and HIV
The first aid provider should be aware that care and treatment may not be restricted to the chemical effects
of drugs, but psychological disturbances and trauma are also associated with drug abuse and overdose.
Certain amphetamines and cocaine cause delusions and behavioural problems, which can lead to
self-inflicted injury or inadvertent serious trauma. Overdosing on alcohol (drunkenness) is also an example
of potentially injurious behaviour.
POISONS INFORMATION: 13 11 26
TRIAGE - THE PRIORITY OF TREATMENT
Triage (pronounced `tree-ahz'), is a French word used in the first aid and medical contexts to indicate the sorting
and classification of casualties, and the establishment of treatment priorities. It usually refers to a mass casualty
situation, such as an earthquake or bus accident. Even though triage generally applies to large numbers of
casualties, it is also relevant to other first aid situations involving two or more casualties.
There are times when members of the public, trained in first aid, have had to make
decisions on the treatment and care of casualties which normally would have been the
responsibility of ambulance officers or a doctor. This is especially relevant in country areas
where medical aid may be some hours away. A common example of this circumstance is
when a member of the public travelling a remote country road comes across a motor
vehicle accident involving several casualties.
Unfortunately, to effectively provide the best treatment for the most needy, some seriously injured casualties may
have to be temporarily ignored.
Basically, the requirement is for your limited first aid resources to be given to the casualties who will survive
because of it, and not to those who are likely to die.
To triage an incident, your approach has to be objective - who needs treatment to save their life? Who will really
benefit, and who won't? If I treat one person, will others suffer seriously from lack of attention? To assume the
responsibility for these decisions is an unenviable position to be in.
DRABC, control of severe bleeding, treatment for shock, and treatment for burns, are still the priorities when
attending multiple casualties with little, or no assistance.
Casualties in cardiac arrest are only given CPR if there are no other seriously injured casualties requiring
life-saving treatment.
If you become concerned with a casualty in cardiac arrest, you will be fully committed performing CPR (usually to
no avail), at the expense of another who may be saved by your active intervention.
An unconscious casualty on his back, a person with severe bleeding, a casualty with a head injury going into
shock - all are high priorities because without your intervention they may die. A conscious casualty with a
fractured leg is less urgent and can wait until the more serious casualties are dealt with. A conscious casualty
walking around, complaining of a sore shoulder, for example, is at the bottom of the triage list.
The most knowledgeable or experienced person present should undertake triage.
FIRST AID KITS
Possession of a personal first aid kit will equip you to provide emergency assistance if required. First aid
kits can contain different contents, depending on your requirements. Personal first aid kits should be
stored in a clean and dry area that is childproof. A periodic check of contents is essential to ensure that
the contents are present, in date, and in good condition.
Recommended Contents of a Personal First Aid Kit:
Adhesive Strips (Bandaids) - 10
Hand Towels 3
Adhesive Tape
Non-Adhesive Dressing - 2
Alcohol Swab - 3
Plastic Bag for Amputations
Combine Dressing - Large
Safety Pins - 5
Crepe Bandage 5 cm
Scissors _ Blunt/Sharp
Crepe Bandage 7.5 cm
Splinter Probe
Eye Pad (Sterile)
Sterile Eye Wash Solution - 10ml - 2
First Aid Pamphlet
Triangular Bandage - 2
Gauze Swab - 3
Wound Dressing No 14
Gloves Disposable - 2
Under state and territory legislation, first aid kits must be kept in any workplace. The contents of these
first aid kits vary in each state or territory. If you would like more information on first aid kits, call
PARASOL EMT on 1300 366 818 or see uour pages on first aid kits here.
End of Data from PARASOL EMT first aid manual ( http://www.parasolemt.com.au/Manual/afa.html )
Scroll down to read the next item in the Laptop Friendly Disaster Survival Library
The Defensive Use of Firearms (From http://www.recguns.com)
(E-mail missing from their site)
The pages below are copied directly from rec.guns.com, http://www.recguns.com/topOutline.html
Although the data seems credible enough and is moderate in tone, I am seeking a more well-known source for firearms info. E-mail me at gamecampone@aol.com if you can recommend such a source for this, the LAPTOP FRIENDLY DISASTER SURVIVAL LIBRARY
_________________________________
V. Defensive Use of Firearms
C. Home Defense
By Anonymous
Legal Disclaimer:
The information in this section does NOT CONSTITUTE a recipe for
defense of your home; instead, it is only intended to give you an idea
of the issues that you must think about, and the questions that you
must ask of your lawyer and the local police.
-----
In the event that you have to "defend your home," a wide variety of
things might happen:
(a) you might be arrested and charged with crimes
The police might find that you acted improperly and arrest you, much
to your surprise. Before firing or even brandishing a weapon at
someone, you should be very knowledgable about the laws of your state
*and* with their interpretation in the courts. You may not agree with
the laws and courts in your state, but you will be subject to them,
just as the intruder(s).
(b) you might be subject to a civil law suit
You will likely be sued in civil court, whether or not criminal
charges are pressed against you, and whether or not you end up
mortally wounding someone. (His or her estate can often sue you in the
case of a mortal wound.) You will have to pay for your own defense,
and it *will* be expensive.
(c) you might make an error and kill/injure somebody by accident
You might mistake your target and kill a "good guy," or make a error
in handling your weapon, resulting in a fatal "negligent discharge,"
perhaps due to all of the the excitement. In any event, even if you
avoid financial and legal entanglements, this could result in severe
emotional problems due to guilt and remorse.
If you leave weapons unsecured in your house,
(d) they could be discovered and operated by your children
(e) they could be discovered and operated by your friends
(f) they could be used by an intruder against you
Therefore, given all of the things can go wrong in defense of your
home, we strongly advise you to:
-- SEEK THE ADVICE OF YOUR LOCAL POLICE
-- LEARN THE LOCAL LAWS THAT APPLY TO YOU
-- SECURE ANY PERMITS THAT YOU NEED FOR WEAPONS
-- TAKE CLASSES WHERE YOU LEARN ABOUT SHOOTING AND DEFENSE
-- READ A WIDE VARIETY OF BOOKS ON SHOOTING AND DEFENSE
-- PRACTICE YOUR HANDLING OF WEAPONS
-- SHOOT OFTEN AT THE RANGE
V.B: Literature
???
V.C.1: How to Defend your House
---Note---
NOTE: This section is written on the assumption that you wish to
protect yourself against "random intrusion" in your home. However,
there are situations where a person actually knows or suspects that
some specific individual intends to intrude into their home. One
example that comes to mind pertains estranged boyfriends/girlfriends
or spouses who get upset over unrequitted love and make violent
threats as a consequence. If the reader finds themselves in this
situation, they should immediately seek the advice of the police.
---End of Note---
There is an old adage which is well suited to home defense: "an ounce
of prevention is worth a pound of cure." We shall see that true
security comes from preventive measures, and that the firearm should
be viewed as the absolute last resort.
Consideration must begin from far outside the residence. The first
step is to attract the least amount of attention to you and to your
residence. Are there some public locations, like a bus stop, perhaps,
which provide a clear view of the inside of your residence? If one
can easily look inside your residence from a public area, then it is
possible that you or your belongings might catch their eye; perhaps it
is better to draw the appropriate shades.
Next, consider the grounds of your residence. They should have the
property that anyone on them can be seen or detected by someone in
your dwelling, or by a trusted neighbor. If your grounds are dark and
inviting, and covered with large amounts of dense cover, they might
encourage an uninvited visitor. It is probably wise to cut bushes
back so nobody can hide behind them. Another alternative is to use
bushes that grow very dense thorns. The yard should have good
lighting so that people cannot "lurk in the shadows." Electronic
lights which turn on when they detect motion (by means of infra-red
radiation emitted by the body) are both inexpensive and very useful to
put outside your residence.
It is also important that you know the phone numbers of your
neighbors, and that they know yours. This way, they can alert you (or
the police) if they notice something odd, and you can return the
favor.
Your residence should be reasonably difficult to enter. This includes
being careful not to leave the windows open, the alarm system off, the
key under the front door mat, etc. Bars can be placed on both
basement and first floor windows to make entry through a window
difficult. You must also give consideration to somebody climbing upA
some simple path and gaining entry on the second floor. However, make
sure that you can exit in the event of a fire! It would be most
unpleasant to be trapped in a burning house due to window bars that
cannot be opened from the inside.
You should be sure that your locks are of reasonable quality. Low
quality locks can be opened in moments. How many other people have
copies of the keys to your residence? For example, if you have just
moved into an apartment, was it re-keyed for you? What is to
guarantee that the prior tenant and his or her friends do not have a
key to your residence? The locks, door, and frame should be very
stout to prevent easy entry with a kick or two. You would like the
door to provide a significant delay before somebody can gain forced
entry, so you have time to take protective measures.
Inside your residence, you should have an alarm system. You should be
sure to have infra-red (or microwave) motion detectors, switches on
the various doors, breakage detectors on patio doors, etc. Your
should use your system in "perimeter" mode when you are at home, and
turn on all of the detectors when you are out. A dog makes a loving
pet and a fine addition to your security.
If you return home and disarm your system, it should make a special
noise to warn you that it has been triggered. It might be wise to
call the police instead; it is not a
good idea for you to investigate, since you are probably not trained
or equipped for the job. Also, you must consider the possibility that
whoever might still be inside has gained access to your own weapons,
in addition to their own. (Therefore, it is wise to store your
weapons in a secure and heavy safe. In some states, your firearms
license may be revoked if your weapons are stolen, under the theory
that you are not responsible enough to keep them.)
Next, you must consider the other residents of your abode. If your
housemate is a drug user who is behind on his crack payments, you
might consider kicking him out, or moving, before somebody comes over
to collect the money that they are owed. If you are not happy with
some of your housemates, or the company that they keep, replace them.
Finally, if one is in their home, and the alarm system goes off, or
there is the sound of forcible entry, the following procedures could
be employed:
(a) Run to your saferoom (often the bedroom), collecting your family
(b) Lock the saferoom door, which could be strengthened
(c) Secure your shotgun, and load it
(d) Call the police
(e) Wait behind cover
If the person who enters your residence knocks an extension phone off
the hook, you might be unable to dial. In this case, it is useful
that your home is wired in such a way that you can disconnect all
extensions from your saferoom and still dial. (Of course, if you have
a cellular phone, you can use that.)
If you can hear somebody on the other side of the door, don't be sure
that it must be the intruder(s). Could it be
-- the police, trying to help you?
-- a fireman?
-- something else?
If you are not sure about who the intruder is, don't be too quick to
assume that it is a serial killer. Could it be:
-- the police, looking for somebody else?
-- a fireman?
-- a frightened and frantic neighbor running to you?
-- a drunken friend of a housemate?
Is somebody starts to break into your saferoom, you probably should
*NOT* shoot through the door. In general, it is wise to hold your
fire until you can *CONFIRM* your target. At the very least, you
should loudly demand that the person on the other side of the door
identify himself or herself.
If their entry appears to be inevitable (say the door has just broken
down), you have to decide if you wish to stop their actual entry. The
laws that cover these issues change from state to state, but if you
are confident that the person who is attempting entry has the intent
of causing serious bodily harm or death, it might be a good idea to
fire upon them.
If you choose to stop somebody's entry, fire repeatedly using either
"0" or "00" buckshot loads. Your shotgun comes with sights for a
reason---use them. You should fire at the intruder's torso until they
cease being a threat to you; then, you should *STOP* shooting.
If your shotgun does not seem to be having much effect after a few
rounds, is it possible that they are wearing body armor, so you could
then fire at their pelvis or head, which is probably not guarded.
Your intent is *NOT* to kill them; it is only to defeat their entry,
in an attempt to protect yourself and family from harm. Once you stop
them, render aid if it is safe to you to do so. The safest way to
render aid is to call an ambulance. The fact that you rendered aid
can be used to demonstrate that your intent was simply to stop someone
from harming you.
Of course, it is difficult to know how many intruders are in the
house; so, you must be very careful and attentive. The sound of your
shotgun going off will probably deafen you, and your ears will be
ringing, so be careful that somebody else does not enter---you may be
unable to hear them. Some argue that you should wear active hearing
protectors in your safe room; see the literature section.
When the police arrive, you have to be very careful that they will not
shoot you by accident, particularly if you are running around with a
weapon; it must be very difficult for them to tell the difference
between a "good guy" and a "bad guy."
In the event that you are involved in a shooting, it is probably wise
that you speak with legal counsel before saying too much to the
police. In any case, depending on the state you are in, your weapons
may be seized and your license may be revoked pending a full
investigation into the matter. Do not resist these actions, as
resistance may be used against you when you try to recover your
weapons and license. Instead, seek out legal counsel immediately.
V.C..2. Shotgun or Pistol?
In a word, shotgun!
The pistol has two advantages: it is portable and compact. However,
these advantages are irrelevant in the home, *unless* you carry it at
all times on your person. If you are going to store your pistol in
your saferoom, its compact nature is irrelevant. If you spend all of
your time with a pistol, you must be *extremely* careful that you do
not make an operating error and shoot somebody by accident.
The pistol fires a single bullet which lands at a point, so you must
aim very well in order to hit a target with a damaging shot. If you
must fire in a darkened room, it is very difficult to see the sights
and aim properly. Therefore, you must be sure to secure tritium
sights, which glow in the dark so you can aim with them. These sights
have to be replaced every five years, since they become dim. You
might also consider a laser sighting system, but make sure that the
batteries are good and fresh!
The shotgun is an extremely powerful and flexible weapon, and it is
reasonably forgiving in terms of errors in aiming, since the buckshot
will spread. Be sure to select the choke that will adequately spread
the shot pattern given the distance from your saferoom's place of
cover to your saferoom's door. The shotgun is considered by most
experts to be the ultimate defensive weapon, since it can be fired
rapidly, with great terminal effect. Shotguns can be fitted with
"magazine extensions" that let them hold up to eight rounds of
ammunition. (Some state and local laws place an upper limit on the
number of rounds your shotgun can hold.) The shotgun can also be
fitted with tritium sights, which are a very good idea, as well as
flashlights, lasers, etc., even though most of these options are not
needed.
The rifle is also another extremely powerful weapon, but it is not
well suited to home defense. The rifle round is so powerful that it
will go through a considerable number of walls, possibly killing
innocent people elsewhere. At short distances, the shotgun is a more
effective weapon than the rifle; there is no "home defense" situation
that I can think of that would require the long-range accuracy of a
rifle.
Finally, no matter what weapon you select, you must be sure that your
children or friends cannot get their hands on it. This is very
important, since some states have laws that punish the owner of a
weapon if a child gains access to it, and since jurors in a civil
court may consider an improperly secured weapon as gross negligence on
the part of its owner. Many people play with weapons even though they
don't understand them, and few things could be more tragic than your
defensive arm being responsible for the death or serious injury of a
friend or family memeber. You might wish to consider a cabinet with
an electronic lock on it to keep your weapons secure, and you might
consider training classes for the adult members of your household.
V. Defensive Use of Firearms
D. Out-of-Home Defense
1. Carrying Outside the Home
by Anonymous
Just as in home defense, the first idea is that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. By
this, one should stay out of trouble, or situations that might lead to trouble. For example, if you are
in the middle of a heated argument over a parking space, give it up. How did you get in such an
argument in the first place? It's not worth it. Don't worry, you're not a "wimp."
If somebody calls you scumbucket, or whatever, don't take the bait and fight. Don't feel that you
must "defend your masculinity" or demonstrate how "tough" you are.
Maintain your car and be sure that it will not break down in a bad neighborhood. (Try to stay away
from bad neighborhoods, in passing.) Always leave 1-2 car lengths in front of you when you stop.
That way, you may have room to manuver and get out. Your car windows should be rolled up and
doors locked. Do not leave valuable things like a purse on the front passenger seat, as somebody
can "smash and grab"---keep it on the floor, or in the trunk. If somebody bumps you from behind at
low speed, think twice before you stop and get out; could it be a carjacking? Keep all shooting
supplies, targets empty ammo boxes, radios, etc. out of sight; don't invite attention to your car or
belongings.
Some of your "nasty" friends might be a lot of fun, but you should stay away from them---in the long
run, they might get you in some serious trouble. Don't invite criminal attention: don't wear excessive
jewelry, flash stacks of hundred-dollar bills, etc. Don't put stickers on your car that advertise
expensive things that might be inside it. Ask your local police for advice about safety.
If you obey rules of this nature, it is relatively unlikely that you will be threatened. However, it is
possible that even though you try to stay out of trouble, it might come to you.
Carrying a pistol provides you with a last means to protect your life if you feel that you are about to
be killed or seriously injured. Many people---mainly males, for some reason---confuse a pistol with
a means of defending their virility, a guarantee that they can tell other people to "f*** off" with
confidence; they mistakenly think that flashing their "piece" is a means of saying "don't f*** with me,
I'm one tough S.O.B." These people are confused, and *their* pistol is merely a means of getting
them killed or imprisoned, because such behavior is both *illegal* and *dangerous*. If one breaks a
law with a pistol, it is *very* easy to end up in prison. Would you want to go to the big house over
something as stupid as pulling your gun out to scare an obnoxious drunk patron who spat upon you
in a bar? Of course not....
If you decide that you want to carry a pistol, first you must see about securing the required
concealed carry permits from the police. In some places, they are very hard---or impossible---to
obtain. If you are in this unfortunate situation, you can do nothing more than try to lobby your local
government, or consult a lawyer, depending on the specifics of your case.
Next, you have to attend a safety/defense classes. The pistol is such a difficult weapon to use that it
takes a lifetime to master. You should constantly practice shooting if you are serious about carry, at
distances that are typical of gunfights---3ft to 30ft. You should take as many classes as possible.
V.D.1.a.: Selection of Weapon
You should fire a wide variety of pistols in order to decide what you wish to purchace. Your pistol
should probably be a self-loading "automatic," in either 9mm, .40S&W, or .45acp. Calibers that are
smaller than 9mm are questionable unless you are an extremely good shot. (If you can place two
shots on an index card in about one second at 20 feet, you should carry whatever you want, even a
.22lr; everybody else is probably better off with 9mm.)
Your pistol should have tritium sights. These sights contain an isotope of hydrogen (3H) which is in a
capsule that glows in the dark. If you have to shoot at night---which is the case in 70% of all
gunfights---they let you use your sights. If you have a pistol like a Glock 17, you probably don't
need a second magazine, as the weapon can hold up to eighteen rounds. If you have a smaller
pistol, like an HK P7, which can hold up to eight rounds, you might want a second magazine.
Your pistol should have a modern "jacketed hollowpoint" (JHP) rounds inside it. Brand names like
Golden Saber, Black Talon, and Gold Dot are typical of this type of ammunition.
You should resist impractical pistols like Desert Eagles and the like. Unless you are massive, you
probably will never be able to hide them. Huge revolvers are very difficult to shoot rapidly and
accurately, and the muzzle blast can blind you, making it difficult to use the sights---this is
*unacceptable*. Finally, if the round is too powerful, it will pass through the target (assuming that
you hit them), and through lots of other things, too, which is also unacceptable. You have a
responsibility to be reasonable in your selection of ammunition.
You should get a high-quality pistol. Pistols are described elsewhere in this FAQ. Consider pistols
from HK, Glock, SIG, Taurus, Colt, etc.
V.D.1.b: Concealment
Where should you put your pistol? For men, the best place is in an "inside the pants" holster. If you
wear a suit, you might be able to get away with a shoulder holster, but you must be very careful that
it does not show through. Your co-workers will probably get very upset if they realize that you have
a pistol, particularly if you work in a city, where most people do not shoot or understand guns. If
you get an "inside the pants" holster, you probably should get a few pairs of larger pants and see
your tailor. Be sure to wear the empty pistol in a holster to insure proper fit.
Women can put their pistol inside a bag, but it might be difficult to reach. (The pistol should not be
free inside the bag; it should be in a special holster.) Also, an aggressor might be very interested in
the bag. A woman can also use an "inside the pants" holster, but it is difficult to look stylish this way.
While quite ugly looking, one of the best choices for women is a "fanny pack" holster. If you can get
something like this custom-made for you, it is probably a good idea, since the common brands can
be recognized by people with a good eye, which is to be avoided.
There are numerous other places to hide a pistol---like ankle holsters, belly bands, etc.,---but they
are not very useful or practical. Unfortunately, the right holster for you depends on the shape of your
body, the amount of clothes that you wear, etc. This issue is often discussed at length in gun
magazines, but you should study some catalogs to see what is possible.
If you buy a holster, you should get a custom high-quality leather model which is specific to your
pistol. A list of holster makers is provided elsewhere in the FAQ.
V.D.1.c.: Mode of Carry
There are several ways to carry a pistol, C-1, C-2, C-3, and C-4.
C-1: This holds for pistols like the Colt .45. The pistol is "cocked and locked," meaning that you
draw it, flip off the safety with your thumb, and start shooting.
Many people advocate C-1 carry, but I think that they are mistaken, for reasons that will be
discussed shortly.
C-2: This holds for pistols like the SIG/Sauer. The pistol is loaded, but the hammer is down. When
you draw the pistol, the first shot demands that you pull the trigger though a very long motion. The
remaining rounds can be fired with a lighter trigger. C-2 carry is considered safer than C-1 carry,
and there are no safties to take off. Most modern designs are C-2.
C-3: This mode of carry can be used for any pistol. The pistol is kept with an empty chamber, with
all of the safeties off. When the pistol is drawn, the slide is "racked" back and released to put a
round into the chamber moments before shooting. This is an extremely safe mode of carry, since
even a malfunction of the pistol will not result in an accidental discharge.
C-4: This mode of carry has an empty pistol with no ammunition in it. The pistol must be drawn, the
magazine inserted (putting it into C-3), and then the slide must be drawn back and released before
the weapon is ready to fire. C-4 demands the operator to find two things, the pistol and the
magazine, and combine them; this might not be a good idea under a high-stress situation.
C-3 is probably the best mode of carry. Correct presentation of the pistol involves putting your
hand on the butt, clearing the holster, putting your hands together, pulling the slide back as you bring
the pistol in front of your line of sight, obtaining the "Weaver" stance, and then using aimed fire.
Because the "racking" of the slide is "pipelined" with the presentation, C-3 does *not* take longer
than C-1.
The major problems with C-3 carry is that you need two hands to do it, and it might therefore be
useless if you are jumped at very short distance. However, if you opt for C-3 carry, you must
*ALWAYS* practice it, and nothing else. (Racking the slide on a draw must be a habit that you
don't have to think about.)
YOU SHOULD ALWAYS INSPECT AND CLEAN YOUR PISTOL, so it is clean and happy,
no matter what your chosen mode of carry is.
V.D.1.d.: When to draw or shoot?
Three conditions have to met before you can even consider drawing your pistol:
somebody has the *intent* of killing or severely hurting you
they have the *means* of doing so (a knife, pistol, shotgun, their hands, etc.)
they have the immediate *opportunity* to do so
Can you escape without danger? If so, DO IT! In some states, this is required of you.
If there is nothing that you can do to escape without making your position more desparate, in one
smooth motion you draw your pistol, rack the slide while bringing it up to eye level, and shoot until
you stop the person. Shoot for the center of the torso. Do not issue any warnings; you should not be
shooting unless the situation is very grave, and there is nothing more that you can do for them.
If the first few shots are not having any effect, either you are missing (very easy to do with a pistol),
or they are wearing armor; in this case, you must shoot for the head or perhaps the pelvis. Your
intent is *NOT* to kill the person, it is only to stop them. Do not try to "shoot for the leg," since you
are probably not good enough to hit a small moving target. The moment that you stop them, STOP
SHOOTING! Render your gun safe, holster it, and call the police and an ambulance.
Of course, you should aways remember that there may be people behind both you and your target.
You should try very hard to be careful not to kill a bystander by accident.
Be very careful about what you say to the police without your lawyer, and see if you can get the
name of any witnesses who might have seen what happened.
Here are some examples of when you should *NOT* draw your pistol:
somebody stole your purse or briefcase
Resist the temptation to shoot them in the back, it's illegal!
somebody is kicking your car in a parking lot
Don't draw and try to "hold them for the police;" just back off and call the police.
somebody is exposing themselves to you, or playing with themselves
This will not kill you, so don't draw!
a gang of youths are walking towards you
Back off, cross the street, etc. Don't look scared, since you know what to do if they force
you.
somebody is mugging you
Don't shoot to protect your wallet. Only shoot to protect yourself. So, if some heroin addict
is demanding your wallet, hand it over. If they try to hurt you, however, you must draw and
shoot to stop, as outlined above.
somebody is trying to cut you with a knife from behind a big fence
If they can't reach you, you are not in immediate harm, so DO NOT SHOOT! ALL THREE
CONDITIONS must be met before you shoot.
As mentioned above, it is very difficult to shoot with a pistol, so you should take as many lessons as
possible. As always, you should be *intimately* familiar with the local laws of your state. If you
carry a pistol, you must be on your best behavior, trying very hard to stay out of fights and
arguments.
V. Defensive Use of Firearms
G. Ammunition Information
1. Ammunition for the Self-Defense Firearm
[FAQ Maintainer: Note that this article covers some very subjective topics. Any
recommendations given are based only upon the opinions of the author of this article, and
the rec.guns FAQ nor its maintainer necessarily endorses or denies any claims or statements
made below. Others (including manufacturers) are welcome to submit articles that provide
alternative viewpoints.]
by Author Anonymous
AMMUNITION FOR THE SELF-DEFENSE FIREARM v. 1.6
INTRODUCTION
This is a guide to help you select the best ammunition for your
defensive firearm. Most of these opinions are based upon the work of
Massad Ayoob, Evan Marshall and Ed Sanow, police officers who have
extensively studied the issue of firearms, ammunition and stopping power.
I refer all interested parties to the excellent series by Ayoob ('In the
Gravest Extreme,''Stressfire,' 'The Semi-Automatic Pistol in Police
Service and Self-Defense', 'Stressfire II: Advanced Combat Shotgun') and
the comprehensive book 'Stopping Power' by Marshall and Sanow. In
particular, it cannot be stressed too heavily that all gun owners should
own a copy of 'In the Gravest Extreme' and re-read it periodically. Once
you have read it you will understand why. Buy it. (The Ayoob titles - and
other items like Cor-Bon ammunition and Spyderco 'Clipit' folding knives
- are available mail order ($9.95@ and $3.95 shipping and handling) from
"Police Bookshelf," P.O. Box 122, Concord NH 03302; telephone #
1-800-624-9049. American Express, VISA, Mastercard, and Discover cards
gladly accepted. Order today - you will be grateful.)
These three policemen are the world's foremost authorities on
choosing ammunition for real-world defensive use. Their views are based
on exhaustive review of thousands of police and civilian shooting
incidents, autopsies, and ballistic tests. Some other authorities rely
entirely on the latter (e.g. Dr. Martin Fackler, the FBI Wound Ballistics
Lab, the National Institute of Justice Ballistic Research Laboratory)
which is insufficient to make reliable predictions. Human beings react
differently to being shot than gelatin, goats, or other test media, and
bullets that perform spectacular feats in the laboratory sometimes give
mediocre results on the street. A perfect example of this are the silly
1989-90 FBI tests which resulted in the FBI choosing the mediocre 10mm
S&W Model 1076 and the 180 grain JHP round. For this reason, I have
chosen to rely on Ayoob, Marshall, and Sanow when it comes to selecting
my ammunition and strongly advise you do the same. What follows is
essentially a distillation of their opinions. I urge you to research the
sources listed for a more detailed discussion than is possible here.
I cannot stress too heavily that the primary determinant of
stopping power is BULLET PLACEMENT. A cool, deliberate marksman with a
little .32 Walther PPK will beat a panicky, inaccurate man with a .357
Magnum or $1200 customized .45 auto every time. Whatever firearm and
caliber you select, you must practice firing hundreds - thousands - of
rounds in realistic defensive scenarios until you can confidently make
disabling hits on your target. Tactics and marksmanship win gunfights -
not having the latest 'wonder bullet' in your gun. Unfortunately, I
cannot teach you tactics in this short essay, only recommend proven
ammunition. You MUST seek out competent training in tactics and
marksmanship from a qualified instructor in your area. In the meanwhile,
studying Ayoob's great book 'Stressfire' will get you off to an excellent
start.
SELF-DEFENSE AMMUNITION GENERALLY
American ammunition is the best in the world. Stick to Federal,
Cor-Bon, Remington, Winchester or CCI (the Big Five) ammunition. Some
foreign stuff is pretty good (PMC, IMI-Samson, Fiocci), some foreign
stuff is great (Dynamit-Nobel, Norma, GECO), some foreign stuff is
practice-only junk (e.g. CDM - Mexico, military surplus), but no foreign
stuff is anywhere near as good as domestic ammunition when it comes to
vanquishing hostile attackers. Buy American.
Never use hand-loaded or re-loaded ammunition for self-defense!
You may encounter some joker who says he can hand-load ammunition so
powerful it will knock anything on two legs down for the count, but don't
buy it. This junk will either misfire or ruin your gun. Use only fresh
factory-loaded cartridges, period. There are NO EXCEPTIONS to this rule:
use factory-loaded cartridges only.
Handguns
One should carry only hollowpoint ammunition in a defensive
handgun. Hollowpoint ammunition has much better stopping power than full
metal jacket or round-nose lead, and stopping power is what you need when
being assaulted. The point is not to wound or kill the adversary: the
point is to stop him in his tracks and make him cease attacking you.
"Stopping power" (sometimes called "knock-down power") refers to a
particular bullet's ability to incapacitate an attacker - the greater
that ability, the less chance that your attacker will be able to continue
shooting, stabbing, or beating you after you have shot him. Handguns are
not death-rays; despite what you see in the movies, the vast majority of
people shot with handguns survive (over 80%). Handguns are weak compared
to rifles and shotguns, and thus you want every edge you can get. Great
ammunition is no more expensive than mediocre ammunition, so carry the
best. Rifles and shotguns have stopping power to spare; handguns do not.
Thus you must select your handgun load very carefully, and the detail of
the handgun ammunition section reflects this.
Hollowpoint ammunition is NOT more lethal than ball (full metal
jacket) ammunition. You may have seen media hype about "killer dum-dum
bullets" but this is nonsense. Hollowpoint bullets usually expand and
stop in the human body, and thus the attacker absorbs much more of the
bullet's kinetic energy than if the bullet had merely zipped through him
and left two small holes. Hollowpoint ammunition is also safer for all
parties concerned.
* You are safer because your attacker is more likely to be
incapacitated after one or two shots and thus unable to fire back, stab
you, or whatever. The decreased likelihood of your attacker dying from
hollowpoint bullets saves you the moral and legal complications and
expense you will experience from killing a man.
* Innocent bystanders are safer because hollowpoint bullets are
less likely to exit the attacker's body and go on to injure anyone else.
The ricochet danger is also much lower than that of ball ammunition, and
hollowpoint bullets are less likely to penetrate walls or doors and
strike uninvolved third parties. Furthermore, if your foe is
incapacitated quickly he won't be spraying wild bullets around,
endangering uninvolved third parties.
* Lastly, your attacker is safer because he is far less likely to
die from one or two hollowpoint bullets than the five or six round-nose
slugs you would have had to fire to put him down. Most gunshot deaths
occur from shock and loss of blood, and ball rounds tend to make entry
and exit wounds, whereas hollowpoints go in and stay put. An attacker
shot twice with ball ammo will probably have four holes in him rather
than two, and is thus in far greater danger of death from blood loss. If
you can avoid killing your attacker you should, for both moral and legal
reasons.
There are some exceptions to the "carry only hollowpoints in a
handgun" rule.
Some older or cheaper automatic pistols, will jam with hollowpoint
rounds. With these guns one must use ball rounds (or "full metal jacket"
rounds - the terms are synonymous), and I specify "reliable with ball
only" models by caliber. It is crucial for you to test your pistol to
make certain it is reliable with specific loads - don't rely on my
advice. My life will never depend on the reliability of your handgun.
Your life may.
Rifles
Generally speaking, hollowpoint bullets are the best choice for
rifles. Some soft-point designs are recommended, and these will be
specified.
Shotguns
Use buckshot. Slugs and birdshot are useful in some limited and
uncommon situations.
A NOTE ON EXOTIC AMMUNITION
There are several exotic ammunition designs on the market today,
such as the Glaser Safety Slug, Mag-Safe, GECO BAT 9mm, Thunderzap, et
cetera. Generally speaking, I recommend that you avoid them. Exotic
ammunition is expensive, inaccurate, and often unreliable. These rounds
cost so much ($2-$4 each) that you will never practice with them and thus
will not be certain of their reliability and accuracy in your gun. This
is a big mistake: you should not carry a particular type of ammunition
until you have fired at least 150 rounds through your semi-automatic gun
to ensure reliable feeding (this doesn't really apply to revolvers, but
you should still fire the ammunition you intend to carry to assure
yourself of its accuracy).
'Glaser Safety Slugs' are one exotic round I can fully
recommend, but only for revolvers in a few scenarios. The Glaser is a
proven man-stopper and has very good quality control, but may not feed or
cycle reliably in your automatic pistol. Because you cannot afford to
fire enough Glasers to establish that it feeds reliably in your pistol
(i.e. 100 test-fire rounds will cost $300), I cannot recommend them for
pistol owners (if you insist on Glasers, carry one in the chamber and
load the magazine with a proven hollowpoint. Be aware, however, that the
Glaser may not have the power to cycle your slide, and thus you may be
carrying a single-shot gun. You can always cycle the slide manually, of
course, but this takes time and both hands; two things you may not be
able to spare when fighting for your life. The Walther PPK, H&K P7
series and SIG P230 are notorious for this failure-to-cycle problem with
Glaser Safety Slugs).
With revolvers feeding is not an issue, of course, but there are
other factors to consider. The Glaser is designed for easy break-up and
minimal penetration, which is great for cutting down ricochet and
over-penetration dangers but drastically limits its ability to penetrate
light cover between you and your foe. A car window, hollow-core door, or
even thick winter clothing between you and your assailant can cause the
Glaser to disintegrate and leave him unharmed. Bad news for you....great
news for him.
There are some situations where the Glaser is a good choice,
however. I keep my bedside .357 revolver loaded with .38 Special+P
Glasers because I live in a thin-walled apartment building and want to be
able to put down an intruder rapidly without worrying about injuring my
neighbors. I chose .38 over .357 Magnums because I am likely to be in a
just-awakened daze and would rather not be blinded and disoriented by the
flash, kick and blast of firing a .357 Magnum in a (probably darkened)
room. You may have a similar situation (e.g. retail store defense) where
injury to third parties is of concern, and you'll likely be facing an
assailant at extremely close range where the Glaser's inaccuracy and
inability to penetrate cover will not be drawbacks. In these narrowly
defined scenarios, the Glaser is a good choice, but keep a couple of
speedloaders of hollowpoints handy, just in case. I do.
Glaser Safety Slugs are available in "Blue" or "Silver" versions.
The latter are a little heavier for better penetration, but performance
is similar. I would be happy with either, but Sanow prefers the Silver.
It's up to you.
Mag-Safes are imitations of Glasers, and I cannot recommend them
due to poor quality control. Reliability is the number one requirement of
a self-defense handgun, and Mag-Safes don't make the grade.
GECO "Blitz Action Trauma" or BAT 9mm rounds from Germany are a
proven design. Called the "GECO Action Safety" in Europe, this is a high
velocity (1400 feet per second) lightweight (86 grain) hollow bullet that
has proven itself to be very reliable and successful on the street. I
recommend them, but they are very tough to find. Save yourself the
trouble and use a good American-made hollowpoint.
Thunderzaps are ultra-lightweight bullets made of aluminum. They
are made in .38 Special caliber only, as of this writing, and have not
yet been proven on the street.
Other exotics are best avoided. You may occasionally encounter
"Omni-Shocks," "Terminators," "Annihilators," "Kaswer Law Grabbers," and
other such marginalia in gun shops. Stay away. If you want to gamble, go
to an Indian reservation. Don't gamble with your life, or the lives of
others. Glasers and GECO 9mm BATs are the only proven exotics.
TERMINOLOGY
I have tried to keep specialized technical jargon to a minimum,
but it will be helpful for you to understand a few terms and acronyms:
- "Ball" is round-nosed metal jacketed ammunition. It is used for
self-loading firearms like pistols. All military pistol and rifle
ammunition uses full metal jacket bullets. Synonyms for ball include FMJ
("full metal jacket"), MC ("metal case") and TMJ ("totally metal
jacketed," a term used only by the ammunition maker CCI). Ball rounds do
not expand and are always the worst choice in a defensive round. The
military uses ball because it feeds well (i.e. rarely jams), penetrates
far, and the military is required to use ball under the Geneva
Convention. Fortunately, you are free to choose better ammunition, and
should use ball for practice only.
- 'Wadcutters' and 'semi-wadcutters' are sharp-shouldered revolver
bullets with an odd cylindrical appearance. True wadcutters are very weak
rounds used for target shooting only. Unless you own a .38 or .357
revolver, forget about these.
- 'Jacketed soft-points' are jacketed bullets with exposed lead at the
tip. These make poor defensive rounds for handguns but may be effective
for rifles, due to the latter's high velocity. Never use JSP rounds in a
handgun for self-defense. Never.
- 'Jacketed hollowpoints' are the best choice for handguns and most
rifles. JHP rounds have a hollow cavity in the nose and usually expand
(and stop) in the body of your attacker, transferring all their kinetic
energy for maximum stopping power. They are the safest and best bullets
available. JHP bullets are always best for self-defense.
-'Round-nose lead' (or RNL) are generally revolver bullets without any
metal jacket around the bullet. These are worthless for self-defense, and
I don't even use them at the range. If you come upon a bargain lot of RNL
ammo, feel free to buy it for target practice. You will be scrubbing out
your barel until the wee hours, however, as all-lead bullets scum up
barrels something fierce. Use 'Flitz' metal polish to scour out the grimy
residue.
HANDGUN AMMUNITION BY CALIBER
(note: for an excellent and comprehensive look at the best handgun rounds
by caliber, see the article 'What Are The Best Loads For Defense?' by Ed
Sanow in the July, 1995 issue of Petersen's 'HANDGUNS' magazine)
.22 Long Rifle
You should really be using something bigger than a .22 for
self-defense, but even a .22 beats nothing. There are some really nice
.22 pocket autos, and they make a lot of sense for women reluctant to
tote a bigger gun around. Choose any Federal, Remington, Winchester or
CCI metal-plated 37 grain (or lighter) high velocity hollowpoint round. I
recommend CCI "Stinger" 32-gr. or Remington "Yellow Jacket" 33-gr.
hollowpoints, as they have been very reliable in my Beretta 21A and
Walther TPH pistols. Shoot a lot of rounds through your self-defense .22
- the ammo is cheap and you want to be sure to pick a reliable round. If
high-velocity solids don't cycle reliably try standard-velocity. There is
little difference in power but it may improve your gun's reliability
(e.g. Jennings J-22 pistols are more reliable with standard-velocity
solids). Marksmanship is crucial with such a tiny gun, so practice
drawing your .22 and firing it rapidly into a melon at ten feet or so.
Also keep your .22 autoloader meticulously clean - these tiny guns cannot
function reliably with much gunk in them. If you carry your .22 in a
pocket, purse or ankle holster inspect it daily and brush off any dust or
grit with an old toothbrush. Lubricate it properly, too. This is very
important.
.25 ACP (6.35mm)
The best .25 load is the Hornady 35-gr. XTP-HP round. If it
jams, use any Federal, Remington, or Winchester 50 grain ball round.
Winchester has an odd 45 gr. "Expanding Point" round that should be OK if
it is reliable in your gun (it seems to work fine in Beretta 950 pistols,
for example), but don't expect any improvement in performance over the 50
grain ball rounds. The excellent Walther TPH .25 should be loaded with
ball. The Hornady 35 grain JHP should be considered only if it is 100%
reliable in your pistol - fire 200 rounds through your gun to see.
Ed Sanow recommends the MagSafe 22 grain "Defender" and Glaser 40
grain Safety Slug.
.32 ACP (7.65 mm Browning, 7.65x17mm)
Use the Winchester 60 gr. Silvertip Jacketed Hollow Point
(X32ASHP) if it is reliable in your gun. I personally would only carry
Silvertips in a Seecamp LWS .32. Most of the common .32 autos on the
market are only reliable with 71 grain ball: Llama, Walther PP and PPK,
Czech CZ-24 and CZ-70, Davis P-32, Colt Pocket Model, Mauser HSc, etc.
.32 Smith & Wesson Long
The best defense load for this obsolescent revolver caliber is
the Federal 98 gr. lead wadcutter (32LA). Shoot carefully.
.32 H&R Magnum
Federal 85 gr. Jacketed Hollow Point (32HRB). Stock up; this
ammunition won't be available for long. Federal will drop it soon due to
lack of demand.
7.62x25mm (a.k.a. 7.63mm Mauser)
If you're using this obsolescent communist caliber I can only
assume that you have an old CZ-52 or Chinese Tokarev. Only 87 gr. ball
ammo is available, so leave the cheap Chinese military stuff for practice
and carry Fiocchi 7.63 Mauser ball in your gun.
.380 ACP (9mm Short, 9x17mm, 9mm Kurz)
Now we're getting into some decent stopping power. The three or
four best .380 JHP rounds have better stopping power than ANY bullet
fired out of 2" barrel .38 Special snub-nose. All of the Big Five make
good hollowpoints for this caliber. The Remington 88 grain JHP is the
most reliably-feeding hollowpoint but slightly less effective than the
Hydra-shok or Cor-Bon. Reliability is crucial, and thus you must test the
rounds before carrying. I recommend the following two cartridges above
all others:
-Federal 90 gr. Hydra-shok (P380HS1) - the best standard-pressure .380
JHP load, period.
-Cor-Bon 90 gr. JHP (the most powerful .380 hollowpoint, bar none)
These are the two best .380 loads, and I recommend them for these guns:
SIG/Sauer P230, Beretta 84/85, Browning BDA, CZ-83, H&K P7K3, Walther PPK
and PPK/s. The Russian, East German, Chinese and Bulgarian Makarov
pistols are apparently perfectly reliable with the hot Cor-Bon, and the
strong all-steel construction of these guns should stand up to an
infinite amount of these potent rounds. I have heard that the Colt does
also well with the hot Cor-Bon JHP, which you should definitely look into
if you own a Colt .380.
You have better stopping power than any .38 snub-nose revolver (the
long-time favorite concealment sidearm) when you load your .380 with
these two rounds.
Other good .380 ACP jacketed hollowpoints:
- Remington 102 gr. Golden Saber BJHP (GS380M) - Another excellent .380
load (the BJHP stands for "Brass Jacketed Hollow Point"), the heaviest
one available. I prefer the Cor-Bon and Hydra-shok, but many (including
Sanow) like this new Remington round for its deeper penetration. I'll
stick with the Cor-Bon and Hydra-shok, but the choice is yours.
- CCI-Speer 90 gr. Gold Dot JHP A good all-around hollowpoint.
- Remington 88 gr. JHP (R380AI): A good high-velocity hollowpoint that
feeds well in:
Colt Government Model .380, H&K HK4, Taurus PT-58, older PP and
PPK, Bersa .380, Beretta 70s, Makarov and Hungarian FEG. These are all
good guns that might choke on other hollowpoints but they will probably
feed the Remington fine. This hollowpoint was redesigned in 1993 and
gives excellent performance while retaining its rounded shape for
positive feeding. If your .380 chokes on other JHP loads, try fifty
rounds of the Remington 88 gr. through your gun and see if it improves.
.380 ACP hollowpoints to avoid
-Winchester 85 gr Silvertip (X380ASHP)
I really cannot recommend this weak and jam-prone round. It works
reliably in a few modern European guns (e.g. SIG 230, Beretta 84F), but
every load named above offers better performance. The Silvertip will
likely jam in any American-made .380 automatic. Russian .380 Makarovs and
PPK series guns may jam with the Silvertip, as well. The .380 Silvertip
was once state-of-the-art, but has since been superceded by superior
designs. It is also quite expensive. Look elsewhere.
- PMC-Eldorado Starfire 95 gr. JHP
This round is similarly weak and jam-prone.
- Federal 90 gr. JHP (380BP) (see below)
- Hornady 90 gr. XTP-HP (9010) Both the Federal 380BP and the Hornady
XTP-HP never expand and may jam many guns due to their truncated-cone
bullet nose profiles. Pass these two by.
- 95 gr ball:
Davis P-380, Accu-Tek, EAA .380, Tanarmi, AMT/OMC/TDE "Back-Up,"
Heritage, FIE, Jennings, Bryco, Lorcin, Llama, or "other." Hollowpoints
should never be used in these low-priced guns.
9mm Makarov (9x18mm)
Cor-Bon makes the only 9mm Mak hollowpoint on the market, an
excellent 95 grain JHP that is totally reliable in all East Bloc pistols.
Go buy it. If you cannot find it, order it by mail. Use ball only as a
last resort, or for practice.
.38 Special
Loads for Full-Sized .38 Revolvers With 4" or Longer Barrels
The Numero Uno .38 Special defense load for your 4" barrel
revolver is the Cor-Bon .38 Special+P 115 grain JHP. It is very
high-pressure load and should be used only in modern six-shot revolvers.
It has less felt recoil and muzzle flip than the #2 choice, which
follows. When I carry a 4" .38, I want it loaded with this cartridge.
The second-best choice is the .38 Special+P 158 grain lead
semi-wadcutter hollowpoint (LSWCHP) available from Federal, CCI,
Winchester and Remington. Ayoob has found the latter to have the greatest
expansion, so I would choose Remington (catalog #R38S12). This
unjacketed all-lead round (often called the "FBI load" or "Chicago
load") is a proven manstopper, about on par with .45 ball, when fired
from a 4" barrel. Your fixed-sight .38 revolver it will shoot to
point-of-aim with this load: lighter bullets will shoot low (some very
low). All fixed-sight .38s are regulated at the factory to shoot
accurately with 158 grain bullets, as this was the weight of the
long-time standard American and Canadian police load.
* Federal makes the FBI load in their Nyclad line covered with a
thin Nylon jacket (#P38G). I don't know why you would want this over
their all-lead version (#38G), but if you like it, fine. It works as well
as the all-lead round, and you won't have to worry about airborne lead
particles clogging up your lungs, or whatever.
* CCI offers the famous FBI load in their economical aluminum-cased
Blazer line (#3523). This is a bargain. What I really recommend, however,
is that for practice you use the CCI Blazer 158 grain JACKETED
hollowpoint (#3526) because it duplicates the ballistics and recoil of
the FBI load without fouling your barrel with hard-to-scrub-out lead
deposits. These are a bitch to clean (I use 'Flitz' metal polish with
good results. It will also remove unsightly "burn rings" from the
cylinder face of your stainless-steel revolver).
Note: .38 Special ammunition is loaded to two pressure levels: standard
pressure and +P.
Standard pressure loads may be used in any .38 Special revolver, but +P
loads should be fired extensively only in steel-frame .38 Special
revolvers. Firing a few (under fifty) +P loads in your aluminum-framed
.38 Special revolver will not destroy it or cause it to explode, but will
damage your aluminum-framed revolver if you fire more than a hundred
rounds. If I carried an aluminum-framed .38 Special revolver for
protection, I would not hesitate to carry +P .38 Special loads yet use
mostly standard pressure loads for practice. The main problem with
carrying +P .38 Special loads in an aluminum-framed .38 Special revolver
is that the kick is nasty and slows repeat shots. Thus I recommend
standard pressure ammunition for aluminum-framed .38 Special revolvers,
as it is much easier to score fast hits.
Other .38 Special Loads for Your 4" Barrel Revolver:
IMI-Samson also offers a lightweight, very high pressure load,
the 110 gr. +P+ JHP. This is said to be a ballistic duplicate of the
law-enforcement-only "Treasury" load that T-men used to carry. Who cares?
The Cor-Bon 115 gr. +P load is superior. And never use any 147 grain
bullet in any caliber. They are cursed.
All major manufacturers catalog light .38+P hollowpoints, from
95-129 grains. None of these are as successful as the Cor-Bon .38 Special
+P 115 grain JHP or 158 grain +P LSWCHP, so why carry them? Light +P
loads only make sense in a 2" barrel snub (more on this later). The
Federal Hydra-shok and Winchester Silvertip may look cool, but the
boring-looking Cor-Bon and FBI loads do the job in a 4" revolver. Stick
with them.
PMC makes a bizarre 66 grain tubular hollow bullet load. Some
enthusiastic gun-shop salesman may try to sell it to you. Refuse
politely. Stay the hell away from the weird and idiotic Remington
"Multi-Ball" (R38SMB) - I have no idea what they were thinking when they
created this worthless load. Also avoid the Remington 95 grain +P SJHP
(R38S1) : inadequate penetration.
The Glaser Safety Slug is a good choice for self-defense in a .38
revolver of any barrel length (see caveats under "exotic ammunition,"
above). It is crucial to keep the chambers and frame interior absolutely
free of oil or solvents when carrying Glasers, as you don't want any
Breakfree CLP or Hoppe's #9 solvent seeping into the primer pocket and
deactivating the round. This is important for all rounds, of course, but
the Glaser isn't known for particularly good sealing against such
mishaps. You may also want to consider carrying two Glasers as the first
rounds to be fired, and JHP loads for the rest. This gives you a bit of
insurance if your assailant tucks himself behind a sheet rock wall or
doorway or some other flimsy cover that JHP rounds can blast through.
A Special Note on Snub-Nose .38 Revolvers With 2" or 3" Barrels
The Cor-Bon .38 Special+P 115 grain JHP and 158 grain LSWCHP FBI
load are not the best choice for 2" or 3" barrel revolvers. The short
barrel does not provide enough velocity to ensure reliable expansion with
these load, and the unpleasant and hard-to-control recoil hurts snub-nose
accuracy (as well as your hand). Controllability is crucial, and I
ility is crucial, and I
recommend lighter +P loads, or even non +P standard pressure loads, for
the .38 snub-nose. Good +P choices for a steel-frame 2" .38 snub-nose
revolver are:
* Federal 125 grain +P Nyclad LSWHP (P38N) - my preferred .38 2"
barrel snub-nose revolver load (a.k.a. the "Chief's Special Load")
* Federal 129 grain +P Hydra-shok JHP (P38HS1)
* Remington 125 grain +P Golden Saber HPJ (GS38SB)
* Cor-Bon 115 grain +P JHP - I would recommend this
ultra-high-pressure load only for the sturdy (and heavy) Ruger SP101
snub-nose .38 or .357 Magnum revolver.
Standard Pressure (non +P) Loads
If you carry an aluminum-frame snub nose .38 (e.g. S&W Model 38
Bodyguard, 642, 442, 37, or Colt Cobra) I urge you to carry a standard
pressure (non +P) .38 round. Firing a few +P rounds won't ruin your gun,
but extended +P use will cause some damage (say, over 100 rounds).
Lightweight snubbies kick like a mule with the FBI load or other +P
rounds, and more controllable standard loads will enable you to get more
hits in rapid fire (remember - only hits count). The best standard
pressure .38 load is the Federal 125 grain Nyclad lead hollowpoint
(P38M). This P38M hollowpoint - known as the "Chief's Special load" - was
specifically designed to expand at lower velocities and is the industry
leader in standard pressure .38 rounds. I particularly recommend this
round for women who carry .38 snubs (steel- or aluminum-framed), as women
tend to be weaker and more sensitive to blast and kick. This may seem
sexist, but it's also true. Another acceptable standard pressure .38 load
is the Winchester Silvertip 110 grain JHP (X38S9HP), but I strongly
prefer the Federal Nyclad P38M .38 Special.
Note well: if you have a J-frame Smith & Wesson snub-nose .38
(i.e. the five-shot Model 36/37 Chief's Special, Model 38/49/649
Bodyguard, the 640/642/442/940 Centennial) you can greatly improve the
controllability of your gun by installing Uncle Mike's "Boot Grip." This
is a $14 godsend. The skinny little wooden grips that come on these guns
are worthless. Installing good grips does wonders for your ability to
control your .38 snub-nose revolver in rapid fire for more hits.
9mm Parabellum (9mm Luger,9x19mm, 9mm NATO, or simply "9mm")
This is unquestionably the world's most popular pistol round. For
this reason it has been the subject of a lot of experimentation, because
9mm ball - used by every army in the Western world - is a mediocre
manstopper. Jacketed hollowpoints are a must if one wishes to rely on the
9mm as a defense round. Use ball ammo for practice only.
9mm ammunition is available in two pressure levels: standard and
"+P." The latter should only be used in newer guns (made since 1985 or
so), and is best used sparingly. I will deal here with only commercially
available ammunition: there are specialized loads available only to law
enforcement personnel. Civilians should not worry, as there are
commercial loads as good or better than anything restricted to law
enforcement usage.
I will now tell you the best 9mm Luger load for self-defense: it
is the Cor-Bon 9mm 115 grain +P Jacketed Hollowpoint. This is the most
powerful and street-proven manstopper available in this caliber. It is a
high velocity (1340 fps) and high pressure round, and more effective than
any load restricted to law enforcement use (such as the Federal 9BPLE).
Unfortunately, it is also likely to jam many older guns. For this
reason I add a table at the end of the 9mm section discussing round
suitability for different guns. Modern hollowpoints may either (a) jam,
or (b) be too powerful for some older guns. This load is suitable only
for First Class pistols (see table).
The best standard pressure 9mm load is the Federal 115 grain JHP
(9BP). Its effectiveness and accuracy make it the world standard. Buy
several boxes. Other excellent standard pressure 9mm loads are the
Winchester Silvertip 115 grain (X9MMSHP), Federal 124 grain Hydra-shok
(P9HS1) and Federal Nyclad 124 grain (P9BP) JHP. The Nyclad may feed
better (than the metal-jacketed 9BP) in some older guns - such as
Browning Hi-Powers - which is good enough reason to use it in your older
pistol. It is nearly equal to the excellence of the 9BP in terminal
performance.
For guns that may jam with the Cor-Bon or Federal 115 grain
hollow-points, the Remington 115 grain +P JHP is a good choice (R9MM6).
For older guns I would use the Remington standard pressure 115 gr. JHP
(R9MM1).
Now it is time to impart some crucial information: NEVER use 147
grain ammo in a 9mm pistol! There was a stupid fad for 147 grain
hollowpoints a few years ago, and many were suckered into buying these
weak, worthless and malfunction-prone rounds. I don't care what you've
heard: never use any 9mm hollowpoint heavier than 125 grains. 147 grain
hollowpoints often jam in many popular 9mm guns like the Browning
Hi-Power, SIG, Beretta 92, S&W and Glock. Ignore the gun magazine hype
and stick to what works. If you want to gamble, go to Reno. Don't gamble
with your life. 147 grain ammo sucks.
German GECO "Blitz Action Trauma" or BAT 9mm rounds are a
proven man-stopping design. Called the "GECO Action Safety" in Europe,
this is a high velocity (1400 feet per second) lightweight (86 grain)
hollow bullet that has proven itself to be reliable and successful on the
street. I recommend them, but they are very tough to find. Save yourself
the trouble and use good 115 grain hollowpoints like the Cor-Bon or
Remington +P or Federal 9BP.
Bad 9mm Loads to avoid (and certainly NEVER carry). Numbers given.
Federal Gold Medal 9mm 147 grain JHP (9MS)
Federal Hydra-Shok 9mm 147 grain JHP (P9HS2)
Winchester 147 grain 9mm Silvertip Subsonic JHP (X9MMST147)
Winchester 147 grain 9mm Black Talon JHP (S9MM)
Winchester 147 grain 9mm Super-X Subsonic (XSUB9MM)
Remington 147 grain 9mm JHP (R9MM8)
Remington 147 grain 9mm Golden Saber JHP (GS9MMC)
Remington 140 grain 9mm JHP (R9MM7)
Remington 88 grain 9mm JHP (R9MM5) This bullet is far too light.
CCI Lawman 147 grain 9mm PHP "Plated Hollow Point" (3619)
TABLE OF 9mm PISTOLS
(note: just because your pistol appears in Class 3, say, doesn't mean it
is unreliable: it may indeed feed hollowpoints. But you must fire at
least 200 rounds of your chosen JHP carry load to determine if your
pistol will feed them properly. I have placed pistols in each category
according to reputation and experience. These are only meant as
guidelines - your pistol may feed JHP rounds better - or worse - than
this table indicates)
First Class pistols are ultra-reliable and high-quality new guns than can
feed any hollowpoint and tolerate +P loads with no problems:
SIG/Sauer P220 series. Czech CZ75 and CZ85. Walther P5, P5C, and
P88. Heckler and Koch USP and P7 series. All Glocks. All Ruger 9mm
pistols. Taurus PT-99, PT-92 and PT-92C. Steyr GB. Beretta 92 series.
Browning BDM and Hi-Power (if it says "Portugal" on the slide). All Smith
& Wessons with a four-digit model number (e.g. 5906, 3913, 6904, 5903)
and the Smith & Wesson 900 series. Star M28, M30, M31, and all Firestars,
Megastars, and Ultrastars.
Second Class pistols are high quality guns that may not feed all
hollowpoints reliably. Remington 115 gr. hollowpoints are recommended for
these guns:
Smith & Wessons with two or three digit model numbers (e.g. 659,
39-2, 469, 59, 39). Heckler and Koch VP70 and P9S. Beretta "Brigadier"
M1951 and the Egyptian copy, the Interarms "Helwan." Colt M2000
"All-American" (now discontinued, for good reason), Colt Series 70
Government Model, Series 70 Commander. Astra A-70, A-75 and A-100. AMT
"On Duty." Daewoo. Bersa 'Thunder 9'. EAA Witness, and all other CZ-75
copies (e.g. Tanfoglio, Tanarmi, Springfield Armory P9). Taurus PT-908.
Walther P4. Star BK, BKM, Model B and 'Super.' Browning Hi-Powers
without the word "Portugal" on the slide. Llama Model 82. IMI "Jericho"
and "Kareen."
Third Class pistols should generally be loaded with ball for best
reliability - experiment with your gun extensively before carrying JHP:
Walther P38, P4 or P1. Luger. Llama. Maverick. MKS Model JS.
Intratec CAT-9, DC-9, KG-9, etc. SWD Cobray Model 11/9 and similar
models. Scarab Scorpion. Kimel AP-9. Bryco Jennings Model 59. All KBI
Hungarian pistols (e.g. GKK, PJ9C, P9HK and other "FEG" products).
"Norinco" or "Sportarms" Chinese Tokarev pistols. Lahti. Radom. MAB P15
and Model 1950.
.38 Super
Cor-Bon, Winchester and Remington all make good jacketed
hollow-points in .38 Super. I like the Cor-Bon 115 and 124 grain
hollowpoints the best. The Remington will feed more smoothly in many
guns, however, especially Colts and Colt M1911A1 copies like the
Springfield Armory and Auto-Ordnance. The Llama .38 Super tends to jam
with anything except ball.
.357 Magnum
The most effective handgun round on the market - regardless of
caliber - is the Federal .357 Magnum 125 grain jacketed hollowpoint
(357B). This load has more stopping power than any other handgun bullet
(and this includes more powerful rounds like the .41 and .44 Magnums). I
advise all experienced revolver men to carry the legendary Federal 357B
in a .357 revolver, or the equally good Remington full-power 125 grain
semi-jacketed hollowpoint (R357M1).
There is one caveat, however. The 357B and other full-power .357
Magnums have a lot of blast and kick. If you are not comfortable with the
buck and roar of full-house .357 Magnums, I would strongly suggest that
you use a lower-recoil round. Controllability is important, and you will
be able to fire lower-recoil rounds more rapidly and accurately. All of
these .357 loads have excellent stopping power, so don't worry that you
are giving up too much. In descending order of severity of recoil (i.e.
the Silvertip kicks the most) I recommend the Winchester Silvertip 145
grain JHP (X357SHP), The Remington Golden Saber 125 grain JHP (GS357MA),
Federal 110 gr. JHP (357D), Remington Medium Velocity 125 grain
Semi-Jacketed Hollowpoint (R357M11) and the Cor-Bon 115 grain JHP. The
latter two are excellent rounds I strongly recommend for .357 Magnum 2.5"
and 3" barrel snub-nose revolvers like the S&W Models 66, 19, 65, 13, the
Colt King Cobra, the Ruger GP100 and especially the small-frame Ruger
SP101. If you still find that your .357 kicks too much, carry the Cor-Bon
.38 Special+P 115 grain JHP discussed above. Two or three hits with good
.38+P slugs beat any number of misses with .357 slugs.
(Note well: if you are using the factory wood stocks on your S&W
or Taurus .357 revolver, you are a fool. Ruger and Colt .357 Magnums
come factory-equipped with recoil-absorbing ergodynamic rubber grips, and
I have no idea why S&W and Taurus continue to put wood grips on their
.357 revolvers. The difference in control is enormous. Get some good,
compact rubber grips from Uncle Mike's or Pachmayr and slap them onto
your .357 revolver ASAP. I used to cringe every time I fired a full-power
load in my .357 Magnum snub-nose. Once I put some compact Pachmayr grips
on it, however, I had no problem firing the 357B accurately and rapidly.
These grips only cost twenty bucks. Buy some.)
Other good .357 Magnum loads
The 125 grain jacketed hollowpoints by Cor-Bon, Winchester, and
CCI are all good stoppers. The CCI Blazer 125 grain jacketed
hollow-point is a very good buy, both for practice and self-defense use.
The 110 grain jacketed hollowpoints by Winchester, CCI and Remington are
all good for use in snub-nose revolvers, or for those sensitive to
recoil. You never go wrong with a 110-125 grain .357 jacketed
hollowpoint from the Big Five. All are great stoppers.
Crappy .357 Magnum loads you should not carry for self-defense
Never carry soft-points, semi-wadcutters, or any of the 158 grain
or 180 grain jacketed hollowpoints - these are solely for hunting or
target use. Stick to jacketed hollowpoints under 150 grains in weight.
The heavier bullets kick heavily and will shoot high and confuse you.
All-lead bullets are okay for practice but you will have to spend twice
as long cleaning your gun. And stay the hell away from the bizarre and
idiotic Remington "Multi-Ball" (R357MB) - I have no idea what they were
thinking when they created this worthless gimmick load.
.357 SIG
There is only one .357 SIG JHP available, the Federal 125 grain
jacketed hollowpoint, so use it. I am unsure what advantage this caliber
is supposed to have over the .40 S&W, but it should prove to be a good
stopper on the streets. .357 SIG ballistics are quite impressive.
.40 Smith & Wesson
This new caliber is establishing an excellent track record on the
street. Smith & Wesson and Winchester really did their research when they
invented the .40 S&W. Your choice comes down to either the 180 grain
jacketed hollowpoints or the 135-155 grain jacketed hollowpoints by
Cor-Bon, Winchester, Federal, CCI or Remington. All are good stoppers,
but the lighter weight bullets have the best stopping power records on
the streets.
The real-world shooting database is small, but clearly favors
the lighter 135-155 gr. JHP loads. I personally would carry the potent
Cor-Bon 135 or 150 grain jacketed hollowpoint or the Winchester Silvertip
155 grain jacketed hollowpoint (X40SWSTHP). The 135-155 grain JHP kicks
less and has higher kinetic energy and stopping power than the 180 gr.
JHP loads. The 135 gr. JHP appears to be a real stopper.
In short, you cannot go wrong with the .40 S&W - unless you carry
ball. Choose a good hollowpoint and stick with it. Leave the ball for
practice (the CCI Blazer 180 grain TMJ is a good inexpensive practice round).
10mm Auto
The 10mm is not living up to expectations. It was thought to be
the ne plus ultra of pistol rounds when introduced in the late 1980's,
but hasn't turned out to be superior to the better 9mm, .40 S&W or .45
ACP jacketed hollowpoints. This isn't to say that the 10mm Auto sucks -
it is a fine stopper. It's just that we hoped for so much more.
10mm Auto ammunition is available in two power levels -
"full-house" and medium velocity, as used by the FBI (sometimes called
"10mm Lite"). The "full-house" loads should be left for hunting use: they
kick heavily, blow right through assailants, and are very hard on your
gun. Stick to the medium velocity ammo. I would pick the Cor-Bon 135
grain Nosler JHP, Federal 155 grain JHP (10E), or Federal Hydra-shok 155
gr. JHP (P40HS2). The "FBI load" is the 180 grain subsonic JHP, and
Federal, Winchester, and Remington all produce good ones. Take your pick,
but you are silly to ignore the superior real-world performance of the
lighter 135-155 grain jacketed hollowpoints.
The potent Winchester Silvertip 175 grain JHP (X10MMSTHP) is
close in power to the "full-house" loads, and may be a good choice for an
experienced shooter who is used to heavy recoil. I personally would only
carry the Silvertip or "full-house" loads in the field, where I might
have to shoot big, cranky animals that seem interested in munching on my
bodily parts. In this role the 10mm auto excels.
.41 Magnum
The best defense choice for this hard-kicking caliber is the
Winchester Silvertip 175 grain JHP (X41MSTHP2). The Remington 170 grain
Semi-Jacketed Hollowpoint (R41MG3) is also a good round.
.44 Special
By far the best choice for your .44 Special revolver is the
Cor-Bon 180 grain JHP. Glasers or the Winchester Silvertip 200 grain JHP
(X44STHPS2) are also good rounds, particularly for any 5-shot .44 revolver.
.44 Magnum
The blast and kick of this powerful caliber make it less than
optimum for defense use, despite what you have seen in the movies.
Cor-Bon's 180 grain or Federal's 180 grain (44B) medium-velocity JHP are
the hands-down choices in this caliber. Glasers, the Winchester Silvertip
210 grain JHP (X44MSTHP2) or the Federal 240 grain Hydra-shok (P44HS1)
are also acceptable choices.
.45 ACP (occassionally called "11.43x23mm" by some silly Europeans)
The .45 ACP is a recognized manstopper, and there are many
excellent loads in this caliber. Some of the best:
- Federal 230 grain Hydrashok JHP (P45HS1): a great load, and my #1
choice. It gives the most stopping power in this potent caliber.
- Federal 185 grain JHP (45C) another top-notch load from Federal. I
would choose this round for a compact, short-barrelled .45 like the Colt
Officer's ACP or the S&W 4516. It has lighter recoil than the Hydrashok
or CCI 200 JHP, and its higher velocity makes it more likely to expand
out of a short 3.5" barrel.
- Cor-Bon 185 grain Sierra JHP
- CCI Lawman 200 gr. JHP (3965). a.k.a. the "Inspector" or "Flying Ashtray."
- CCI Blazer 200 gr. JHP (3568). The "Flying Ashtray" in an economical
aluminum case.
Both of these CCI loads use a wide-mouth hollowpoint bullet that
may jam some guns. It is 100% reliable in newer guns like the current
production "enhanced" Colt 1911A1, the SIG/Sauer P220, Star M45 Firestar
and Megastar, and all Smith & Wesson, Para-Ordnance, and Ruger .45
automatics and the Smith & Wesson Model 625 revolver. (Note well: if you
are one of those knuckleheads who install light springs in your gun to
get a lighter trigger pull you are asking for trouble. Never use CCI ammo
in such a gun, as CCI uses especially hard primers and your hammer might
not be able to detonate the round reliably, now that you have monkeyed
with it.)
- Remington 185 grain JHP (R45AP2)
This is the best choice for older guns that may jam with other
hollow-points. I would select this load for the Heckler and Koch P9S,
Browning BDA, Springfield Armory, AMT and Thompson M1911A1, Llama, Star
PD, etc.
- Cor-Bon and Remington .45+P 185 grain JHP (R45AP6)
These are very powerful and hard-kicking rounds best left to the
experienced shooter. They are pretty hard on your gun, especially an
aluminum-framed pistol like the SIG/Sauer P220 or Colt Lightweight
Commander. If you are sufficiently expert to confidently carry the .45+P
you certainly don't need my advice on load selection. That being said,
these +P rounds are second only to the famed Hydra-shok in stopping
power. They really sledgehammer the bad guys down.
Other good .45 ACP loads
The Winchester Silvertip 185 grain JHP (X45ASHP2), CCI Gold Dot
and Remington Golden Saber (GS45APB) are all good choices. If you like
them, fine, but they have no edge over loads mentioned above. Stick to
the tried and true, I say.
Ball
The .45 ACP "hardball" load (the standard military 230 grain full
metal jacket) is a pretty good stopper, the only FMJ round I would feel
comfortable relying on for defense. Save the ball for practice, but if
you must carry it (because your gun jams with hollowpoints) feel
confident that you will put any assailant down rapidly with one or two
well-placed hits. The Llama, Federal Ordnance, AMT, and Auto-Ordnance
M1911A1 copies often jam with anything except 230 grain ball. Never
compromise when it comes to reliability: if your gun only feeds ball,
then ball is what you carry.
.45 Colt
I hope your self-defense .45 Colt is a good double-action design
like the Smith & Wesson Model 25 and not some single-action hunting gun.
Load your revolver with the Cor-Bon 200 grain JHP. The Federal 225 gr.
Lead Semi-Wadcutter Hollowpoint (45LCA) or Winchester 225 gr. Silvertip
JHP (X45CSHP2) are also good.
SHOTGUN AMMUNITION BY CALIBER
The shotgun is the ne plus ultra of manstoppers. No other weapon
will put a man down as reliably as a shotgun, and no other weapon is as
likely to hit your opponent as a shotgun filled with buckshot. No doubt
you have heard a lot of nonsense about the lethality of "assault rifles"
and "Uzi sub-machine guns" and the like. The fact is that the shotgun is
by far the deadliest and most effective firearm for short-range personal
defense. For example: an Uzi or Heckler & Koch sub-machine gun has about
340 ft-lbs. of impact energy - a 12 gauge shotgun has 2500 to 3100
ft-lbs. of impact energy, and it is a heck of a lot easier to hit your
target with a shotgun than a sub-machine gun.
The shotgun is not a magic weapon that will slay all foes, but it
is simply the most effective man-stopping firearm yet devised. I invoke
the Ascended Master, Massad Ayoob: "It is perhaps the most efficient
close-range killing machine in the world's arsenal of small arms." For a
discussion of the shotgun's strengths and weaknesses I refer all
interested parties to Ayoob's excellent and comprehensive book 'The
Truth About Self-Protection' (truly the best $8.95 investment you'll ever
make), which discusses every element of self-defense from locks, chemical
sprays and alarms to defensive driving, firearms and defending yourself
against dogs. A more in-depth treatment of the issue may be found in
Ayoob's book-length volume on shotgun technique, 'Stressfire II: Advanced
Combat Shotgun'.
A NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY
Shotgun ammunition falls into three general categories:
BUCKSHOT - shell loaded with large-diameter lead balls (.24" and up) used
for big game hunting and self-defense. The number of pellets in 12 gauge
buck-shot varies from eight .36" balls in "000 buck" to 27 .24" pellets
in "#4 buck". Buckshot ratings are archaic and hard to understand (as are
shotgun specifications and ammunition in general), but thankfully there
isn't much you need to learn. Simply write down the recommended loads,
walk into your local gunshop and announce your desired ammunition (note
that "00" is pronounced "double ought" and "000" is pronounced "triple
ought." Don't say "zero zero" or "oh-oh-oh buckshot" in front of gunshop
employees - they will snicker and mock you cruelly behind your back).
Then practice with both your selected defense load and low-cost birdshot
to fully familiarize yourself with the operation of your gun and its
terminal performance (e.g. patterns at various distances, the startling
effects of buckshot on ballistic melons).
BIRDSHOT- small-diameter pellets used for bird hunting. Its stopping
power is poor, except when used at very close range - out to 20-30 feet.
For that reason it is not generally recommended, except for home defense
use.
SLUGS are solid lead bullets for shotgun use. These are big, heavy, fat
hunks of soft lead that have enormous stopping power (e.g. a typical 12
gauge slug is .73" caliber and weighs 438 grains - a 9mm bullet is .355"
and 115 grains). Use of slugs ruins the shotgun's main advantage -
superior hit probability - as slugs must be carefully aimed to be
effective. It is important to remember, however, that shotguns must be
aimed with shot, too - do not for a minute think that you can simply
point your shot-loaded shotgun at the foe and let loose. Shotguns must be
skillfully aimed and fired just like hand-guns and rifles. The shotgun is
simply much more likely to hit the attacker.
.410 Gauge
None of the above really applies in this weak caliber. The .410
is only a half-way decent manstopper with slugs. Choose the Federal
Classic (F412RS) or Winchester Super-X (X41RS5) 1/5 ounce (88 grain)
hollowpoint slug. Never use birdshot. American Derringer Corp. has
produced an odd buckshot load for the .410 (withthree 000 pellets), and I
advise you to ignore it. Lose the .410 and buy a 20 gauge pump shotgun.
20 Gauge
The 20 is an excellent self-defense caliber, particularly for
those who dislike the recoil of the 12 gauge. I recommend the 20 gauge
over the more popular 12 for home defense. Choose the 20 gauge 3" shell
Federal "Classic" #2 buckshot (F207-2-5PK) with 18 pellets, or the
Winchester "Double XX" Magnum #3 with 24 pellets (X203C3B). If your gun
cannot accept 3" shells choose the Remington #3 with 20 pellets
(SP20BK5PK-3). All of these loads provide definitive short-range stopping
power. I specifically recommend the 20 gauge for women and
recoil-sensitive men who dislike the blast and recoil of the 12 gauge.
"Delivering roughly the ballistic force of two .44 Magnum rounds at
once," comments the knowledgeable Ayoob, the 20 "delivers 75% of the lead
for only 50-60% of the recoil". Many police departments have found their
officers shoot much more accurately in realistic training exercises with
the lighter-kicking but still potent 20 gauge. If you are new to
shotgunning and considering getting one for self-defense I strongly urge
you to buy the reliable and reasonably-priced "Mossberg 500 Special
Purpose" 18.5" barrel 20 gauge pump shotgun (catalog #50451). This
tried-and-true workhorse is the standard shotgun of the U.S. Armed Forces
and costs a little over $200. You'll be much happier with the
lighter-kicking 20 gauge than the 12 gauge version used by the military,
and - most importantly - you'll shoot the 20 more accurately and rapidly.
For an in-depth look at the 20-versus-12 gauge issue I recommend all
shotgun owners (and potential shotgun owners) read 'Stressfire II:
Advanced Combat Shotgun' by Massad Ayoob. Perhaps I am beginning to
sound like a broken record on the theme of Ayoob's books, but once you've
read them you'll understand why I recommend them so highly (and
repeatedly). Note: Ayoob dislikes the 20 gauge Remington 870 pump shotgun
and recommends you choose the Mossberg 500 in 20 gauge for general
self-defense and home-defense use. So do I.
For ultra-close range home defense birdshot will do the trick.
Choose any #4, BB or larger high brass lead hunting load, and have the
balance of the magazine filled with #3 buck in case the birdshot doesn't
put them down fast enough.
Avoid slug use in 20 gauge; you are better off defending yourself
with buckshot. If you must use slugs, pick the Dynamit/Nobel or Federal
"Classic" (F203-RS) rifled slugs. Using slugs requires careful aiming and
rifle sights: few 20 gauge shotguns have the latter.
16 Gauge
The 16 has never caught on with Americans. As a result, no
shotguns made specifically for defense are available in 16. If you have a
sporting 16, however, it can do double duty as a great defense gun.
Choose the Federal "Classic" #1 (F164-1) or the Remington #1 (SP16BK-5PK)
buckshot load.
12 Gauge
If you have a 12 gauge shotgun you own the most effective and
devastating short-range firearm ever created. If you simply want to know
the best defense load, go out and buy: 12 gauge 2 3/4" shell 00 buckshot.
You shall live happily ever after, as this is the most effective
man-stopping firearm cartridge yet devised by man. I recommend the
Federal "Classic" (F127-00), Winchester Super-X (X12RB5) or Remington
Buckshot (SP12BK-5PK00) as the best double-ought buckshot defense rounds.
One of these rounds is virtually equal to a nine-round burst from a
submachine gun, with every round hitting. Effective shotgun technique,
of course, requires that one hits with each shot. Don't think that you
can merely point the shotgun in the general direction of your attacker
and let fly. Read Ayoob's book 'Stressfire II: Advanced Combat Shotgun'
for the low-down on good shotgun skills and then practice, practice,
practice.
Many experienced shooters prefer #4 or #1 buckshot to 00. I
really cannot argue, but Lt. Marshall is on record as stating that 00 is
superior, both in penetration and stopping power. Good enough for me, but
if you have a #4 or #1 buckshot jones, go ahead (Ayoob favors #1). Stay
away from 2 3/4" Magnum or 3" Magnum loads, however - the brutal kick of
these rounds makes them a bad choice, and you gain nothing in stopping
power over the 2 3/4" standard loads. Controllability is important, and
standard 12 gauge shells have quite enough kick as it is.
A note on shotgun spread: firing your shotgun does not create a
diabolical cone of doom destroying all in its path. If you have a typical
defense or "riot" gun with an 18"-20" open-choked "cylinder" barrel, the
pellets will spread out about 1" for every yard of range. This means that
the spread of pellets fired across a large room (18') will be 6" or so, a
circle the size of a coffee cup saucer. At 50 feet, the spread will be
the size of a large pizza (16"). Test-fire your shotgun at various
ranges, using big white butcher paper targets to get an idea of the
pattern you can expect. It is a common misconception that blasting at
foes ten feet away will take out two or three of them. The spread at that
range is just three inches, so you can see that I meant it when I said
that the shotgun must be skillfully aimed and fired just like handguns
and rifles. The shotgun is simply much more likely to hit - and stop -
the attacker.
Slugs are potent manstoppers, but have limited application for
self-defense. Slug use loses the one big advantage of the shotgun - its
high hit probability. Slugs have ferocious recoil and often
over-penetrate. There are special situations where slugs might be
preferred over buckshot (e.g. road-blocks, barricaded foes), but if you
are interested in such esoterica I again direct you to Ayoob's masterful
tome 'Stressfire II: Advanced Combat Shotgun'. This guide is for general
civilian readers; policemen, soldiers, and gun enthusiasts should rely on
Ayoob's in-depth expertise.
Don't be a knucklehead. Stay away from weirdo rounds like rubber
buckshot or neoprene slugs. These are riot-control rounds designed for
massed police use against violent mobs. Don't rely on such marginalia to
save your life.
Two things to keep in mind about birdshot. The first is that
birdshot is as lethal as buckshot at close range. Don't believe for a
second that you can just wound someone with birdshot and he'll go on to
live another day. If you aren't justified in killing a man, you aren't
justified in wounding him, either. Never "shoot to wound." I once again
direct you to read Ayoob's 'In the Gravest Extreme' and learn the truth.
The second thing is that birdshot makes a lot of sense for home
defense. I keep my home-defense 12 gauge loaded with two #4 birdshot
rounds followed by 00 buck. Birdshot is much less likely to penetrate
thin interior walls and kill innocent people on the other side, and has
lower recoil than buckshot for faster follow-up shots (I live in a
thin-walled apartment house, however - if I lived in a solid house with a
lot of land around, I would definitely choose buckshot instead). The
stopping power of birdshot should not be under-estimated: at ranges out
to thirty feet or so, birdshot is virtually a solid column of lead
(imagine an angry swarm of bees chasing Elmer Fudd and you'll get the
idea). Choose any #4 or BB high brass lead hunting load. I like the
Federal "Classic Lead Hi-Brass" #4 birdshot (HI26-4) and Winchester
"Super-X" #4 high brass birdshot (X12-4), but there is little difference
between the various choices. Buy whichever you please. If you're a bird
hunter, use your favorite hunting shells as long as they are #6 or larger.
10 Gauge
Yow. Load your 10 gauge with whatever the hell you want.
RIFLE AMMUNITION BY CALIBER
Rifles aren't a great choice for most self-defense applications.
Quoth Ayoob: "The rifle is not well suited to the sudden, close-quarters
deployment and maneuvering that is required of a defensive firearm. On
the battlefield, yes. In civilian close combat, no way." Ayoob adds that
"the rifle is too bulky for maneuvering through doors and hallways, too
long to quickly and surreptitiously pick up when the attacker drops his
guard, and too easy for the criminal to take away if the homeowner's
attention is diverted."
That being said, if all you have is a rifle then a rifle is what
you use. Some liberal-infested cities ban handgun ownership (Chicago, New
York, Detroit), so you are stuck using shotguns and rifles for home
defense. Take some comfort from the fact that rifles have better stopping
power, are a strong visual deterrent, and are much easier to hit with
than any handgun.
Never use ball (FMJ) for self-defense in a rifle.
.22 Long Rifle
A good semi-auto .22 rifle like the Ruger 10/22 or Marlin Model
60 can do the job when nothing else is available. Use any high-velocity
round (I like the CCI "Stinger" or CCI "SGB" hunting load, #0058) and
fire repeatedly. Multiple hits are crucial with a .22: shoot and shoot
and shoot some more. Stay away from the after-market large-capacity
magazines made by Ram-Line, Eagle, Hot Lips, etc: these plastic
nightmares are unreliable, jam-prone and easily breakable. Use factory
magazines only for self-defense, and keep a few spare loaded magazines handy.
.22 Magnum (.22 WMR)
Any high-velocity hollowpoint. Try the CCI 'Maxi-Mag' 40 grain
hollow-point (0024), CCI 'Stinger', Remington 'Yellow Jacket', or
whatever you prefer.
.223 Remington (5.56x45mm NATO)
This is the standard NATO rifle round and the best choice for a
self-defense rifle. Many top-notch rifles are (or were) available in this
caliber: the Colt AR-15, Ruger Mini-14, Steyr AUG, FN FNC, et cetera. All
good .223 defense rifles have been banned as "assault rifles" - Thank
you, Democrats - but you may already own one. If so, lucky you.
All .223 hollowpoints are good stoppers. I really like the
Federal 40 grain P223V high-velocity hollowpoint (formerly called the
"Blitz" round). Marshall says this is the #1 urban defense load. It is
lighter than other .223 bullets, however, so you'll need to adjust your
sights if you carry the P223V (it shoots lower than all other .223 loads).
If you want better penetration than the P223V offers, choose any
good 55-69 grain hollowpoint from a big name manufacturer (I like
Federal). Softpoints offer even greater penetration, probably more than
you need.
Note: older .223 guns with a 1 in 12" rifling twist shoot more
accurately with 55 grain bullets (as they were designed for the old U.S.
Army M193 ball round). Newer rifles with a faster 1 in 7" twist (this
includes the AR-15A2 and nearly all European models) prefer the heavier
60-70 grain bullets (like the M855/SS109 ball round). Ruger Mini-14
rifles have a 1 in 10" twist and do well with either bullet weight. This
is only important at longer ranges.
Save the cheapo ball rounds for practice.
7.62x39mm Soviet(7.62 mm Russian Short, 7.62 mm M43 Combloc)
Some prefer this East Bloc cartridge to the .223 for defense use.
It is an excellent round, most commonly used in SKS and AK-47 derived
rifles, as well as the Ruger Mini-30. Use any 123-125 grain softpoint
from Cor-Bon, Federal, Winchester, or Remington. PMC makes a good
low-priced 125 grain softpoint (PMC762B) you might like if you have a lot
of magazines to fill. Russian hollowpoints have been imported recently,
but I know little of them.
.30 M1 Carbine
Never use ball in your M1 for defense! .30 Carbine ball sucks,
but .30 Carbine hollowpoints work very well. Buy the Winchester 110 grain
Hollow Soft Point (X30M1) and forsake all others. I mean it.
.30-30 Winchester
This hoary old round has survived so long for a simple reason: it
works. Load your Winchester or Marlin .30-30 lever-action rifle with any
hollowpoint - I recommend the Federal 125 grain (3030C). Leave the
soft-points for hunting and practice.
.308 Winchester (7.62x51mm NATO)
An excellent rifle cartridge, perhaps the best. The best .308
round in the world is the Federal Gold Medal 168 grain Boat-Tail
Hollowpoint Match (GM308M).
Other boat-tail hollowpoints are good, too. This is an excellent
rifle caliber, the world standard.
9mm Parabellum
Generally the same as for pistols, above. The neat and handy
Marlin Camp Carbine is totally reliable with Remington 115 grain jacketed
hollow-points (R9MM1), so use them. Heckler & Koch, Uzi and Colt 9mm
carbines will feed anything, so I recommend the Cor-Bon 115 or 124 grain
+P JHP. Any reliable hollowpoint is a good choice in a 9mm carbine, and
the long barrel makes for high velocity and effectiveness.
.30-06 Springfield
This excellent and time-proven cartridge has too many top-notch
loads to list. Knowledgeable men like the Federal Gold Medal 168 grain
boat-tail hollowpoint (GM3006M), using the superlative bullet that made
the .308 Federal Gold Medal a world-beater.
.357 Magnum
Follow the guidelines for revolvers, above. The .357 makes an
excellent carbine round for urban self-defense in a Marlin lever-action
or (my favorite) an Action Arms/Israeli Military Industries "Timber Wolf"
.357 pump-action carbine.
.44 Magnum
Pick any good hollowpoint, using the guidelines for revolvers
(above). Don't be tempted to use softpoints - these hunting rounds will
blow right through your foe.
.45 ACP
Select your hollowpoint according to its reliability in your gun,
using the guidelines for auto pistols, above. The neat and handy Marlin
Model 45 Sport Carbine is totally reliable with Remington 185 grain
jacketed hollow-points, so use them. The long barrel gives you +P
velocities without the damaging effects of +P pressure loads (which
should NOT be used in a Marlin).
Auto-Ordnance Thompson semi-autos are only reliable with 230
grain ball.
THE END
Full permission to reproduce and disseminate is hereby granted to any and
all persons. No copyright is claimed or applies.
V. Defensive Uses of Firearms
I. Self-Defense: Armed and Unarmed (2nd Edition)
by Shane C. Henry (shenry@umr.edu)
© Copyright 1993, 1995 by Shane C. Henry. Limited permission to reproduce for personal use
granted.
Disclaimer: Neither the author, nor the author's organization, nor the distributor accepts
responsibility for injuries or damages resulting from the following information. Some actions
described below may be illegal in certain localities or states, and as such, they are not supported by
the author nor any associations thereof. The reader should understand that he alone is responsible
for his actions.
Foreword: If you are reading this guide, you know that crime can happen to you. Neither I nor
anyone else need waste time documenting the prevalence of violent crime. My purpose here is to
provide information, ideas, and perhaps some persuasive arguments, not to present a single, all-
encompassing type of self-defense. Your job, as a reader, is to approach this document with an
open mind; when you hit a concept that you don't agree with, define the "why" of your
disagreement. Nothing says I'm absolutely right. I make no claims of being an "expert", only an
inquisitive and moderately experienced practitioner willing to share my insights. This isn't a multiple
choice quiz with one answer; there is more than one possible strategy or solution. But whatever you
choose to do, think about your reasons. I don't expect anyone to agree 100% with what I have to
say...but if it makes you think, I've done my job.
This isn't a "gun-only" document. I am personally a proponent of gun ownership for responsible
citizens, but if you don't like, don't want, or can't have a firearm, I'm not going to berate you. There
is still much valuable information to be garnered from this document. But the emphasis is on firearm
defense. The reason for this is two-fold; first, there is plenty of good information available elsewhere
on personal security without a firearm. The wealth of information makes it redundant to cover here
more than briefly. I trust that you can uncover information about securing your house or dealing with
international terrorists, and so the information here on those topics is presented only as an
introduction to make you think about the topic. The other reason is that while there is much
information on non-gun defense, there is very little on defense with a weapon, particularly with
firearms, and what does exist is often incomplete or contradictory.
I hope, in this guide, to provide you with a consistent philosophy and strategy for dealing with crime,
armed or unarmed. Again, I make no claims that the information is exhaustive, but it does at least
touch on most topics dealing with defense. This guide is aimed at the novice, the
non-defensive-trained gun owner, or as a refresher/reinforcer for a more experienced defensive gun
owner. I have tried to keep the details at a level where the novice isn't confused, and to explain the
terms completely, without patronizing a more advanced audience.
This is a "pro-self-defense" document, and for this I make no apologies. If you don't believe that
you should use force, and perhaps even kill, if necessary, to defend yourself, please don't waste
time reading this. Buy yourself a Nerf bat or a plastic flower, and hope that you don't ever become
the target of a violent crime. I'm not going to spend a lot of time convincing you to believe as I do--I
expect that if you are reading this, you already share the sentiment that your life is worth more than
th at of your attacker--but I make no attempt to avoid displaying that sentiment. I've also tried to
make the reading not too dry or pedantic. I make no promises that any piece of this information will
absolutely save you--as Marc "Animal" MacYoung points out, "There ain't no guarantees in a
fight,"--but I think it will equip most readers with enough information so they can, if they choose,
become better able to defend themselves.
Good luck, and good reading.
Shane C. Henry
December 1995
Contents
Introduction
I. Attitude
II. The Basics
A. What kind of weapon should I select for self-defense?
B. Types of weapons
C. Responsibility in gun ownership
D. Use of lethal force
E. Types of firearms
F. Selection of caliber/ammunition
G. Purchasing the firearm
H. Accessories
III. Training
A. Basic gun training and handling
B. Know your gun
C. Mental preparation
D. Basic marksmanship
E. Defensive Training
F. Melee and "empty hand" defense
G. Armed melee defense
IV. Strategy and Tactics
A. General strategy
B. Cover and Concealment
C. Predator Types
D. Concealed carry
E. Defense in the home
F. Defense while traveling
G. Defense for the store owner
H. Defense against stalking
I. Defense in a riot/looter situation
J. Defense in hostage situation
V. Aftermath
A. If you capture your attacker
B. Altering/leaving the scene
C. When the police come
D. Legal consequences/Demanding legal counsel
E. Civil liability
F. Social consequences
G. What if you get shot
VI. Appendicies
Appendix A: A true story of "defense" with a fake firearm by Tom Faller
Appendix B: Dan's Pepper Spray Challenge by Dan Day
Appendix C: Jeff Cooper's Rules of Gun Safety
Appendix D: Suggested Reading
Introduction:
Violent crime is not only pervasive in today's society, but it is also becoming increasingly random. If
is was ever true that a particular social position, occupation, or selection of domicile guaranteed you
safety, it certainly is not true today. One n eed not quote statistics; simply by examining the daily
paper, one can determining that violent crime is alive and well, and that criminals don't restrict their
targets to the poor or unvirtuous. Some blame this upon the courts and the police, on their i
neffectiveness at keeping violent predators "off the streets". Others argue that the lack of "family
values" or "social mores" is responsible for the current predicament. Some even blame the
proliferation of weapons for the actions of criminals and call for restrctions and bans upon these
tools. The masses scream for "those politicians in Washington and elsewhere" to solve these
problems through legislation.
While laws may be enacted prohibiting this and restricting that, by definition, it is the habit of
criminals to ignore these laws and perpetrate crimes. A law that prohibits stalking isn't much comfort
to the victim who can't identify her stalker. Similarly, there is little comfort for the rape victim that her
attacker might face longer sentances if she is unable to stop the rapist. The arguable deterrent value
aside, laws are only words on paper, with no physical manifestation except for the actions of police
and authorities who typically aren't around when a crime is committed and who aren't responsible
for your personal safety in any case.
Anybody can be a victim...but being a victim is a choice; you don't have to acquiesce. You can fight
back and defend yourself, though admittedly at risk to your tender hide. Some people will argue that
this is a foolish attitude; that if you fight back, a criminal might hurt you. This line or reasoning
ignores the fact that what criminals do is hurt their victims. Even when they don't perform physical
injury, the theft of possessions is synonymous with the deprivation of the time required to purchase
those possessions. Also, criminals aren't likely to acknowledge, nor abide by, the unspoken
contract, "If you give me what you want, I won't hurt you." Police files are replete with instances
where victims gave in and got a knife in the ribs or a bullet in the head.
The goal of this guide is not to convince you to purchase a firearm, or indeed, any weapon. It is,
rather, intended to give you the information you need in order to make informed, judicious decisions
about personal defense. After reading this, you may decide that you don't want a weapon; so long
as you understand the consequences of your decision, no one has any right to argue with it. But
you'll have made a decision, rather than default by indecision, and you'll know the risks. For some
people, this might be undesirable, but the rational, intelligent person, will welcome the addition of
more information and opinions.
The topic of self-defense could fill volume after volume with opinions, ideas, case studies, and so
forth. This guide is intended to give the user a basic familiarity with self-defense, and specifically the
tools of that act, particularly the firearm. Others may have differing ideas or opinions. This doesn't
mean that either are wrong. The bottom line is that you have to select the opinions and the tactics
that work best for you, and you are the best person to make that decision.
It is not my intention that you should do anything illegal. Quite the contrary, it should be stressed that
it is in your best interests to avoid any illegal act, particularly since all actions will be questioned in a
defensive shooting. In some areas, the very actions you may take to defend yourself effectively are
illegal. For people who live in these areas, their choice may be to prepare the most effective defense
legally permissable, and to work to change the law to something more rational.
I. Attitude
"There's no such thing as a dangerous weapon; only dangerous men..."
Robert A. Heinlein
While popular thought holds otherwise, the single most important aspect of self-defense is attitude.
With it, a lone, unarmed defender might hope to defend himself against multiple armed attackers.
Without it, the biggest, baddest .50 AE Desert Eagle with all the trimmings is of no use. In a
defensive situation (that is, a situation in which someone is threatening you with violent physical
harm) the attitude must be "It's him or me!"
But there is more to attitude than just saying to yourself, "If someone attacks me, I'll defend myself."
One must cultivate a sense of awareness and presence, an aura that, when needed, tells an attacker,
"If you mess with me you might win, but it won't be worth the piece of flesh that I will tear from your
hide!" This has little to do with macho, chest-out-
gut-in-get-the-hell-out-of-my-way-you-little-worm manner, and more to do with being aware of
your surroundings and convincing yourself of your own abilities in defense. Indeed, walking around
with a chip on your shoulder will cause you more trouble, but a polite demeanor in front of an
attitude of determined self-preservation may keep you from harm. Violent criminals are often bullies
who resort to physical bulk and weapons to subdue their targets, and when faced with stubborn
opposition, will often retreat. This isn't to say that puffing your chest up will cause a mugger or rapist
will leave you alone, but if you act, instead of reacting, you ta ke the initiative and you gain a
measure of control over the situation, hopefully to the extent of causing the attackerers to seek a
"softer" target.
Attitude is very simply the will to live, to persevere in the face of opposition. In order to persevere,
you must be willing to defend, and while this doesn't mean becoming a bully or inconsiderate louse
yourself, it doesn't call for half measures. Be polite, to the point of accepting verbal abuse--if nothing
else, should circumstances lead to a "situation", witnesses will be able to testify that you did
everything you could to defuse the situation--but when the time comes that blows are thrown or
bullets start flying, your sole interest is in the preservation of your self, your family, and your
acquaintances. (Note that there is a distinction between "social fighting" which is prevalent among
certain segments of society, and combat, which is an all-out, maim and kill scenario. The terms
"defensive situation" and "combat" refer to the latter.)
The topic of attitude will appear again and again, because it is the heart of self-defense, without
which all martial arts are ballet and all weapons are dangerous toys in the hands of the unwilling and
possibly incompetent. You don't "shoot to wound" (n or "shoot to kill") or "take prisoners" in a
combat situation; if the attackers surrender, fine, but don't expect or plan on it--you want to drive
them off, if possible, and incapacitate them if not. Your only interest is in your survival, and that of
your associates, not in punishing, or being merciful, to your attackers. There is no chivalry in
combat; once the gun clears the holster, it is a matter of survival, and prizes aren't awarded for
fighting clean or giving the other guy a chance. He had his chance when he decided to put the drop
on you. He isn't giving you any breaks, and you shouldn't do him any favors in return.
Keep the idea of attitude in mind while reading this document. Attitude is what allows a 40 poundto attack a 600 pound bear--or what allows a 120 pound woman to drive off a 250
pound rapist. A J-frame .38 Special doesn't hurt, either, but you'll find that it isn't absolutely
necessary. The tool isn't the key. A skilled defender should be able to defend himself with whatever
is at hand; dedicated weapons, like a gun or a club if possible, improvised weapons like a pool cue,
hairbrush, or bare hands and feet if not. It is the attitude, as much as any other factor, that defines
the defender's ability to survive. Cultivate it, and keep it in mind while reading.
II. The Basics
A. What kind of weapon should I select for self-defense?:
There are people who claim to support the right of individuals in self-defense, but are repulsed at the
notion of using a weapon for that purpose. For some, the selection of a weapon is acceptable if that
tool is not *primarily* a weapon, like a baseball bat or a kitchen knife. Others endorse some
weapons, like sprays or stunners, but reject the notion of using more effective weapons, like a
firearm, even when the situation is so dire that, both legally and morally, lethal force is condoned.
Others claim that individual self-defense isn't necessary; we have police to do this job. Even if this
were true, it isn't a very practial notion. Police officers are rarely around when a crime starts, and
even if you have the ability to immediately contact the police, there is no guarantee that the police
will arrive in time to stop the attack, or even protect you if they do show up. The theory behind the
current fast-response 911 systems is that a victim will have "instant access" to police assistance
--but even if you do have immediate access to a phone, the reality is that in major cities there are so
many 911 calls, and so few responding officers that you can expect to wait dozens of minutes
before response... and criminals are rarely thoughful enough to attack you while in reach of a
telephone, or to permit you to draw your cell phone and dial up the police. Even if you are put on
the top of the response queue, the police still have the delay of physical distance. They aren't going
to jump straight through the phone, nor stop criminals by telekinesis, and if you are lucky and they
can find you quickly, you can *at best* generally expect a five minute response, by which time the
criminal can easily have stolen your car, kidnapped your child, beat en you senseless or shot you.
It is a common misconception that police are obligated to protect individuals; even if they had the
man-power to provide individual protection to everyone under threat, they aren't required to do so,
and in fact you cannot successfully bring suit for dama ges if they fail to protect you. This has been
established in several court cases over the years, such as Riss V. the City of New York. (See Peter
Kassler's "Police Have No Duty To Protect Individuals" for summaries of multiple cases in which
courts hav e ruled that the police are not responsible for individual safety.)
These facts are not stated with the purpose of scaring the reader into purchasing a gun or other
weapon; in all fairness it must be noted that neither a firearm nor any other weapon guarantees that
the defender will be safe from harm. But it is an established fact that personal safety is a matter of
personal responsibility, and depending on police to do that job for you is not only pragmatically
foolish, it is also legally incorrect. Your local police chief or prosecutor may not want to admit it, but
th ey can't protect you, 24 hours a day, nor are they legally obligated to do so.
If you decide to purchase a weapon, the first thing you need to do is analyze your needs,
requirements, and limitations. There's no point in procuring a weapon that is unsuitable for your
needs, or that is more powerful than you can reasonable handle. T he average person clearly does
not need, nor can easily handle, a snub-nosed .44 Magnum. On the other hand, a .22 LR target
pistol or .25 ACP "vest gun" is probably inadequate as a main home defensive gun. With respect to
firearms, the best suggestion is to select the most powerful caliber that you can fire reliably.
You might, for instance, determine that you want a weapon to carry on your person, in which case
you'll probably select a compact weapon, like a handgun or a telescoping baton. Or you might
determine your needs to be for home defense, in which case a sho tgun might be well advised.
Whatever they are, your needs are best determined by you, and before decide upon and procure a
weapon, be certain that it meets the criteria of your situation.
If you already have a gun or other weapon, and don't wish to purchase another that might be more
suitable, then you'll have to alter your tactics accordingly. Any weapon is generally better than no
weapon, and while a scoped hunting rifle isn't the most desirable weapon for home defense, it will
certainly discourage most predators. You are better off with a defense-specific weapon, but if the
situation doesn't allow for such, or you are caught unprepared and must use what is at hand, then do
so while un derstanding the limitations of your selection.
On the other hand, after reading this document, you may decide that you don't want a firearm. That
is fine; some folks just don't like guns, and there are others aren't responsible enough to possess
them. If you feel that you fall into one of the above categories then the best advice is to arm yourself
with whatever weapon you feel most comfortable and hope for the best. But there is no practical
reason than any adult responsible enough to operate a motor vehicle can't safely handle and possess
a firearm. (Certain caveats exist; it may be impractical to safely keep a firearm in a home with
someone who is clinically suicidal or suffers from other mental trauma, but in the vast majority of
situations, including a household with children, there are enough products and safeguards to make
firearms, when stored properly, statistically less dangerous than cleaning solutions or the bathtub.)
Occasionally, someone desires to have a replica weapon, or a real, but unloaded gun, in order to
"scare off" attackers. This is an exceptionally bad idea. The person with the non-gun may choose to
draw the gun prematurely, with the mindset that "It's not a real gun, so nobody can get hurt,"
escalating an otherwise manageable situation. Even worse, an attacker might later justify shooting by
claiming that he was shooting in self-defense. Occasionally, someone gets the idea to load a weapon
with blanks to avoid harming his attacker; this is an equally bad, if not worse, idea for the same
reasons. If you aren't prepared to carry a real, loaded firearm, don't carry one, or something that
looks like a gun, at all. See Appendix A for an anecdote about using a non-gun for defense.
B. Types of weapons:
There is sometimes a confusion about what a gun or other weapon can do for you. No weapon can
"protect you"; it is simply a tool which you may use to protect yourself. All weapons require some
training to become proficient, and without both the attitude to use the weapon and the awareness to
deploy the weapon while you still have a chance, no weapon, be it firearm or pepper spray, is of
any use whatsoever. As previously stated, although the focus of this document is primarily upon
firearms, other weapons are covered as well; even if you choose to carry a firearm, a "non-lethal"
weapon is also desirable in circumstances justifiying the use of force, but not "lethal force", or
circumstances where drawing a firearm might escalate the conflict because the attacker decides to
shoot or stab you before you "do" him. Here is a list of the basic types of weapons suitable for
defense and their intrinsic strong and weak points.
Club, baton: The club or baton is, historically, the earliest of weapons. Even in our "civilized" days, it
is the most ready and the least restricted, for any solid object that is light enough to be handled but
heavy enough to inflict damage is suitable to use for defense. Clubs range from the PR-24 batons
used by police or the collapsible batons like the ASP to the baseball bat or two-by-four. One good,
but less than obvious baton is the C- or D-cell Maglite-type flashlights. One can carry these near ly
anywhere, with the ostensible purpose of illumination, while being relatively well armed. When
striking with an unlit flashlight, one should hold it just behind the head, striking with the cap end. If lit,
hold it near the base and use the reflector end to flash the attacker in the eyes, dazzling him, then
swing or thrust forward, inflicting lacerations with the reflector lip.
Whip, flail: The flail has a history in warfare, and has the advantage of being compact for its reach,
but anyone who has casually handled a whip or chain knows that such weapons are difficult to
control. One popular type of flail are nunchuku, or "nunchucks". They look impressive, but have
very little practical use in the modern world. They were used by the Okinawans because they were
a common agricultural implement (a flail for grinding rice) but they have no practical application
today. These are best left for the movies. Still, a belt, or doubled rope with keys makes a decent
improvised weapon.
Sprays: The most common sprays are Mace and Oleum-Capsicum "pepper" sprays. The pepper
sprays are unquestionably more effective than Mace (Mace takes a few seconds to react) and are
by far the most popular. Many of these sprays also incorporate a brilliant permanent dye to mark
the attacker for later identification. Sprays are fine as far as they go; however, they don't always live
up to their manufacturers' claims. (See "Dan's Pepper Spray Challenge" in Appendix B.) The
effectiveness of the spray depends upon concentration, type of spray (streaming or fogging), and the
ergonomics of the weapon. The dinky "keychain" models are difficult to manipulate--without a
natural orientation, they can easily be turned toward the user in a stress situation--and don't have the
range or duration to be reliable. The larger models, particularly those with a pistol-type grip, are
easier to use and have greater duration, but must be stored in a large purse or bag of some kind. In
any case, the effectiveness of sprays varies with the individual. Some people are barely fazed by
them, while others defecate in their pants. Aggressors who are intoxicated have a noted resistance
to sprays. Sprays are also very dependant on environmental factors; in rainy or humid setti ngs they
may not be so effective, and wind will disperse the spray, particularly the fogging kind, perhaps even
blowing it back into the defender. Some note that police carry these sprays, but the observation
springs to mind that these same police also carry handguns and batons. In short, while sprays can be
a valuable weapon in the arsenal of a defender, they are not to be relied upon as a sure thing. In
sum, the effectiveness of sprays is highly variable.
Electric stunners: These aren't just glorified cattle prods, they develop high voltage discharges that
are supposed to overload the nervous system. In reality, the effectiveness of these weapons is even
more marginal than sprays, and few police departments issue them. They are defeated by thick
clothing, mental state and distance. They are very unreliable weapons at best.
Knives: There is an old saying, "Never bring a knife to a gunfight." The knife, while enjoying a
reputation in literature and history, is particularly undesirable as a defensive weapon. It has all the
negative aspects of a firearm (potential lethality, vast unintelligable legal restrictions) without the
positive aspect of ranged defense. A knife requires the defender to engage the aggressor(s) at close
range, allowing similarly armed opponent an equal opportunity to wound the defender. Using a knife
well also requires significant training which is not widely available. A knife that is really suitable for
combat has a fixed blade of no less than 6" in blade length, like the Applegate-Fairbarn; one will
find that legal and social restrictions on carrying such a knife in public are often greater than those on
firearms. The smaller folding knives that can be opened with one hand, like the Spyderco and
Benchmade brands can be used for defense but all knives work as stabbing or slashing weapons
that cau se bleeding. Unless the wounds frighten an attacker away, gradual blood loss leading to
unconsciousness is the knife's only ability, and this is not instantaneous, despite the depiction of knife
attacks in the movies. The knife's real-world effect is to slow an opponent down rather than
stopping him with one or two forceful hits. Using a knife for defense is really a desperate situation; if
you have a choice, select a better weapon.
Firearm: A firearm is not a bulletproof shield; if a gun makes you feel ten feet tall and invincible, you
are better off without it. It will get you into trouble you should have walked away from. But the
firearm is the most efficient means of self-defense available, permitting a smaller and weaker
defender to effectively neutralize the size and strength of a larger attacker, or multiple attackers, at
long range and from behind cover. Against an attacker armed with a gun, a firearm is probably the
only effective response, unless your attacker is foolish enough to come withing grappling range.
Whereas a martial arts skill can take years to build to any degree of effectiveness, training to use a
gun effectively may take only hours. And some people who purchase a gun for self-defense find
shooting a pleasurable recreation they had not anticipated.
There are several obvious disadvantages to firearms, but these are often exaggerated by people
who don't "like" guns. Some will point out instances where people were accidentally injured by a
firearm, or quote statistics such as, "You are 43 times more likely to be injured by your own gun, or
to injure an acquainance than you are to defend yourself." While it is true that firearms are
dangerous if handled improperly, you are more likely to be injured in a car wreck or suffer any
number of household related injuries than to be shot with your own weapon, and you can reduce
this chance to negligible levels by practicing safe gun handling whenever you are around guns. Out of
the 200 million or more civilian-owned firearms in this country, only a handful are ever involved in an
accidental shooting, usually as the result of poor handling practices, and the number of accidental
shootings has decreased steadily since the begining of the century even though the number of
privately owned firearms has multiplied.
As for statistics "proving" than guns are more dangerous to you than to criminals, they are hotly
debated with are equivalent statitics "proving" the converse. The previously mentioned 43:1 is
addressed by Gary Kleck, in his book _Point_Blank_, where he demonstrates that more than a
million Americans use a firearm in self-defense every year, most without firing a shot, saving many
lives for each accidentally lost, by a factor possibly as large as 600 to 1.
It has been stated by certain feminists and gun control proponents that the gun industry has targeted
women for sales by using scare tactics, and that women are better off to rely on police rather than
using a firearm because they are more likely to hurt themselves than to use a weapon in self-defense.
One Congresswoman even stated that, "Women are virgins when it comes to guns. They should
stay that way." Aside from the fact that many women are not "virgins" when it comes to firearms,
one wonders at the logic of so-called proponents of women's liberation claiming that, while women
should in other areas strive for self-reliance, they should rely on the government to provide for their
personal protection. The claims that women cannot effectively use firearms are repudiated by the
many women who have used a firearm for self-defense, without harming themselves or bystanders in
any way. As for scare tactics, while it is true that the gun manufacturers have published statistics t
hat demonstrate that women are more likely to be victim of violent crime and have made appeals
based upon the woman's desire to protect herself and her family, the anti-gun lobby has certainly
used exaggerated scare tactics to argue against gun ownership. To claim that firearms ca nnot be
used for self-defense by a woman flies in the fact of facts and good sense, and for self-labeled
"feminists" to imply that an otherwise intellegent and responsible independant woman is incapable of
handling a firearm is preposterous. On whose side are these "feminists"? As this isn't a treatise on
the fallacies of gun control, we'll stop here, simply noting that, if handled responsibily, a firearm is
more dangerous to your attacker than to you, a belief shared by many attackers, according to sur
veys of convicted felons.
Other drawbacks do exist. Possession of firearms is restricted in some areas, and personal carry of
firearms even more so. Firearms, like most weapons, require a degree of proficiency, particularly
handguns. Firearms also require considerable responsi bility. Finally, the firearm is truly a "lethal
weapon"; that is, there is no way you can discharge a firearm at someone without a significant
chance of killing or maiming them. (This is true with all weapons of consistent effectiveness, but
particularly true with firearms.) The topic of firearms will be covered in considerably more detail
later in this document, but suffice it to say, the firearm is the most effective personal weapon, but
also the one requiring greatest responsibility, particularly in view of the perception of firearms in
society today.
C. Responsibility in gun ownership:
As previously mentioned, there is considerable responsibility involved in owning a firearm. This is
partially pragmatic--one must handle the firearm safely, and keep it secured so that children, and
other people of lessened responsibility can not access it--and partially social, in that gun owners are
often perceived as being insane or untrustworthy. Gun owners, therefore, have a responsibility to
demonstrate the stereotypes untrue. This means learning how to handle their weapon properly,
ingraining this behavior like an instinct. Many long-time responsible gun owners find themselves
handling water guns and staplers in the same fashion they would a "real" gun, out of habit. There are
a wide variety of rules about gun handling. Some are basic and inarguable, but in the quest to make
gun handling idiot-proof, there are other impractical (in terms of defensive value) and widely
disseminated "rules" like unloading a gun before entering a house, never chambering a round until
preparing to shoot, etc. Some of these "rules" had their origin in specific activities, such as
competition target shooting in an indoor range, or in a hunting camp, where all firearms are unloaded
at the end of a day's hunting before relaxing in a lodge. Anyone can list all possible ways to prevent
a firearms accident; one list had over 50 rules! Fortunately, most of these "rules" are either
redundant or extraneous. As defined by Col. Jeff Cooper (USMC, ret.) of GunSite and "practical
shooting" fame, there are four fundam ental rules for responsible gun handling. These rules are:
All guns are always loaded. (Note that it does not say to pretend the gun is loaded. It *IS*
loaded.)
Never let the muzzle point at anything you are not willing to destroy.
Keep your finger off the trigger until your sights are on the target.
Be sure of your target (and what is behind it.)
These rules are explained in greater detail in Appendix C. Suffice it to say that someone who
follows these rules religiously will be unlikely to have any kind of "accident" and should never have
one involving injury, save for a very rare catastrophic malfunction of the firearm.
When ever you pick up a gun, remind yourself of these rules. Never violate them. If you find
yourself violating them, set the gun down and walk away for a minute. If someone else is violating
them, call them on it, and if they persist in their activity, walk away, taking anyone you care about
with you. These rules should be as instinctive as "breath in, breath out," for any gun owner. In
pursuit of this goal, the NRA as well as many local clubs and hunting organizations offer classes on
gun safety, usually at a very inexpensive price. These are well worth the cost, even as a refresher for
the experienced gun owner, and especially as an introduction to safe gun handling.
You will want to secure your arms when not in use. This may mean a gun safe; however, safes are
slow to open and inconvenient from a defensive standpoint. For defensive use, the weapon must be
available, meaning either you maintain physical control over the weapon at all times (carrying it on
you) or invest in one or more of the safety devices on the market, ranging from trigger locks to
bedside safes that open via an easily mastered but difficult to deduce pattern. Under no
circumstances, does hiding the gun, storing the gun separate from the ammo, but readily available, or
keeping the weapon in a loaded but unready state (i.e. an automatic with a loaded magazine but
empty chamber) suffice. Children are quite clever and inquisitive; they will find hidden guns, climb to
get those that are "out of reach", figure out ways to manipulate the gun into action, and so forth.
With small children, the gun should be absolutely secured by a locking mechanism. With larger kids,
it's a judgement call as to whether they can handle having a firearm "available" in case of dire need.
In any case, children should learn about safe gun handling in a program appropriate to their maturity.
The NRA's "Eddie Eagle" program has several stages, in which children are taught not to handle
firearms without any of the ulterior anti-gun baggage of other programs. What it teaches is very
simple; when you see a gun, "stop, don't touch, walk away, tell an adult." Once kids are old enough
to handle firearms under direct supervisi on (this too is a judgement call) the parent should permit
the child to handle the gun and, when ready, learn to shoot it in a safe, responsible manner.
Permitting a child to handle firearms at a young age, to see them used in realistic, positive pursuits
like target shooting, and to learn the method of operation of firearms dispells the aura surrounding
guns that is projected by the media. They learn that a gun is a tool, and like a hammer or saw,
should be handled carefully. Older occupants should learn gun safety, too, if nothing else.
D. Use of lethal force:
The term "lethal force" is somewhat misleading; it doesn't mean that when you apply "lethal force"
that you are attempting to kill someone, but rather you are using a defense which has the potential
for lethality in order to incapacitate or drive off an a ttacker. Truth be known, any effective defense
has some measure of lethality; a large portion of murders occur with clubs, knives, and even bare
hands. Any time you put your hands on another person "in anger" you take their life into your hands.
It is amazing, and humbling, how easy it is to kill another person. While an experienced martial artist
or streetfigher can sometimes put down an attacker with little chance of permanent injury, there is
always the chance of maiming or death from an underestim ated strike or incidental damage. A
firearm is even worse in this regard; there is no place on the human body that one can place a shot
which doesn't allow for the possibility of death. Shots to the arms and legs may hit arteries that can
bleed a person to death long before medical help is available. It goes without saying that shots to the
head, heart, spine, or lungs can be quickly fatal. Drawing a weapon and pointing it at someone is
always a matter of life and death, to be done only when lesser options are unavailable. It should
never be a casual threat or a "warning". In the words of one wise instructor (who was talking about
knives but the same applies to firearms) "Don't draw it unless you intend to use it. Don't use it unless
you intend to kill. Don't kill unless you are prepared for the consequences."
E. Types of firearms:
There are three basic classes of firearms--rifles, shotguns, and handguns. The first two fall under the
legal classification of "longarms", which typically have different legal requirements. Each has a
particular range of applications to which it is suited.
A rifle is a long barreled, stocked weapon that is intended to be used at long range. Rifles for
defensive use are usually semi-automatic, or lever-action, and are designed for combat, like the
AR-15 or the FN-FAL. These guns lend themselves more to a riot-type situation than urban/
suburban home defense or personal defense, but for the rural home owner, those deep in bear
country, or those who are without the benefit of available law enforcement they may have their
place. Rifles are often described as offensive weapons, to be used at long range against a known
attacker, whereas shotguns and handguns are more defensive, close-in weapons.
A shotgun externally resembles a rifle in that it has a long barrel and a stock, but it fires a large
variety of projectiles, from birdshot and buckshot to slugs. Buckshot, #00 through #4 is a
commonly used as a defensive load, though those in urban environments who are worried about
neighbors may opt for a birdshot loading, which retains effectiveness close in while reducing
penetration. Shotguns, like rifles, are bulky, but they are the most effective personal defensive
weapons. Shotguns for defense are usually semi-automatic or pump action, but the side-by-side
"coach guns" are a reasonably good choice, and even the old over-and-under bird killer is a
devastating weapon which an intruder will not take lightly. A note about shotguns, however; some
people like the fact that the racking of a pump action shotgun, or the snapping closure of a
break-open shotgun makes a distinctive, threatening sound. These people argue that there is a
deterrent value in this. Be this as it may, it also tells your intr uder, "Hey, I don't keep my gun fully
loaded" and gives away all tactical surprise, not to mention the inherent risk of feed jam by manually
working the action in a crisis. Unless you have some other reason for keeping a shotgun with a
chamber empty, you are better off keeping chamber loaded and preserving the element of surprise.
When the time comes, a verbal warning, "Get out!" should be sufficient. Why give your attacker any
breaks? (The same holds true for an autoloading handgun...how many times have you racked the
slide and had the bullet jam...in the dark...drowsy from sleep...under pressure?)
Handguns are the most common weapon for self-defense. Despite the relative ineffectiveness of
even the most powerful handguns (when compared with a shotgun or high-powered rifle), they are
often selected because their size and low bulk permit them to be stored and carried far more easily.
Handguns for defense are usually classified as revolvers, either double action or double action only,
and pistols, autoloader, or semi-automatics (sometimes miscalled "automatic") which come as single
action, double ac tion, and double action only. Revolvers carry the ammo in a cylinder which
contains several chambers, while an autoloader keeps its ammo in a magazine, typically inserted into
the grip frame of the gun and feeding of ammo into the chamber is accomplished by a reciprocating
action of the slide from recoil or exhaust of the previous firing.
The terms, single action (SA), double action (DA), and double action only (DAO) are often a cause
for confusion, even by experienced gun handlers, as they have different meanings for revolvers and
autoloaders, and so these will be defined in greater detail below.
Single Action (SA):
Single action means pulling the trigger accomplishes one action, allowing an already cocked hammer
to fall and fire the cartridge. For a revolver, single action means that the trigger action does not cock
the hammer. As with "Old West" guns, the hammer must be cocked manually by the shooter before
every shot, and are also very slow to reload. This takes on a different meaning for an autoloading
pistol; it still is defined by one action of the trigger, that being the release of the hammer, but since
the reciprocating action of the slide recocks the hammer on every shot, there is no need to manually
cock the hammer except for the very first shot.
Double Action (DA):
A double action revolver is a gun in which the trigger action performs two actions; cocking the
hammer and releasing it, resulting in a longer, heavier trigger pull than a single action revolver. The
advantage is speed; one need not adjust his grip and cock the hammer each time in order to fire the
gun multiple times. A double action revolver can also be fired in single action mode, by manually
cocking the hammer each time, then pulling the trigger. This has an advantage in hunting and target
shooting, in that the trigger pull is lighter, giving greater potential for straight shooting, but has little
practial application in self- defense. Some experts claim that thumb-cocking the hammer on a
revolver creates greater liability.
A double action autoloader is a bit different. Like the DA revolver, the action of the trigger also
cocks the hammer when it is down; however after the first shot, the action of the slide cocks the
hammer, so that the gun then functions like a single action autoloader.
Double Action Only (DAO):
A double action only revolver operates in the same way as a DA revolver except that hammer
cocking in not available. A DAO autoloader operates like a DA autoloader, except that every shot
is in double action mode. In most cases, the hammer on a DAO weapon is bobbed, and in the case
of an autoloader, may be entirely concealed within the slide.
There are a few guns which defy the above classifications, like the squeeze-cocking H&K P7 or the
"Safe Action" Glock pistols, but for the most part guns fall neatly into the categories, and the rest
can be represented as one or more of the above. ( i.e. the Glock is essentially a single action pistol,
etc.)
The selection of firearm should be based upon need; a defender might find need for two or more
different types of weapons. One might select a shotgun for home defense, and a revolver for
on-the-road or concealed carry. However, if the budget is tight, one may have to compromise. An
option might be to select a snub-nosed "K-frame" revolver as a double-duty home
defense/concealed carry gun.
Selection of a rifle for defense is based upon a very narrow need; defense at a distance. Shotguns
are more general, but it is difficult to go wrong with any pump action or better quality autoloading
shotgun on the market. Handguns are another story; there is such a wide variety of prices, features,
and qualities, that it can be dizzying. The best advice is to do some research, rent some guns at a
range and try different features in a controlled setting, and take a class to be exposed to the various
types of firearms.
F. Selection of caliber/ammunition:
Selection of a firearm for self-defense is more than just selecting a type of gun. Generally with
shotguns and handguns, the selection of caliber and ammunition is important. Caliber refers to the
diameter of the bullet that a firearm shoots, or to the diameter of the barrel, though sometime
convention supercedes practicality, e.g. a ".38 Special" is 0.357 to 0.358 inches in diameter. Rifles
and pistols are usually classed by the measurement of the bullet, while shotguns are classed by an
older method.
The caliber of a firearms relates to several factors involving how the ammunition performs. Although
caliber is important, it is not critical and there are several other factors for a potential gun buyer to
consider. With regard to ammunition, there is penetration and rated effectiveness. There are many
effective calibers that are too powerful for some people to shoot for defense. Some types of ammo
may be inappropriate in certain situations; shotgun slugs in an apartment, for instance. And some
types of ammo are underpowered for effective defense. Still, good shot placement counts for more
than super-premium ammo, and the differences between one type of ammo and another are often
outweighed by the differences between one shooter and another. Below, the different factors in
ammo selection are considered.
Rifle ammunition: As previously stated, the rifle chambered in centerfire calibers is not a particularly
good defensive weapon, for home defense. A rifle chambered in a pistol caliber is more acceptable
and may be a good alternative for someone who, for some reason, does not want or cannot use a
handgun. However, the "rifle-caliber" rifles in chamberings like .308 or .223 provide far more range
and penetration than the typical homeowner needs for home defense, with the possible exception of
riot. Th e penetration from such calibers is such that it may pose a grave threat to others within
several hundred feet, even through intervening walls. Still, if a rifle is selected for the purpose of
self-defense, soft point, hollowpoint, or prefragmented ammo is strongly suggested, as it reduces
penetration and increases the effectiveness of the round. Any caliber above .22 rimfire is generally
potent enough for defense.
Shotgun ammunition: Shotgun ammunition comes in three basic types--slugs (basically, a big bullet),
birdshot, and buckshot. Slugs are used primarily to in hunting or long-range (for a shotgun) shooting.
Slugs suffer from the same overpenetration problem s as do rifle bullets. Sabot slugs are just slugs
encased in a plastic sleeve or "discarding sabot". Birdshot is finely sized shot (like tiny ball bearings),
ranging from the size of fine dust (#12) to fine gravel. This type of load delivers lethal ene rgy at
close range but loses energy quickly, making it appealing for the apartment dweller concerned about
overpenetration. #8 birdshot, for instance, is quite lethal out to 10 meters, but loses potency quickly
after that. The third type of load is buck shot. These are larger shot designed to penetrate the hide
of moderate to large wild animals at range, and so is quite effective on attackers. While #00
("double ought") is often the selection of police and the recommendation of gun store clerks, #1 or
#4 is a better general selection for both long range and close work.
The common defensive bores for shotguns are the .410, 20 gauge, and 12 gauge, although 28 and
16 gauge shotguns are sometimes pressed into service. The shotgun, in any gauge, is a devastating
close quarters weapon, though it should be noted that the myth that one need only direct the gun in
the general direction of the target is false. While the shot does spread or "pattern" as it travels, the
spread is not great enough to permit indiscriminate aiming; at ranges at which the spread is notable,
the penet ration has dropped off enough that the weapon is no longer effective. Chokes,
constrictions in the barrel, are sometimes used to guide the pattern. Chokes range from cylinder (no
constriction) to full (considerable constriction, resulting in a tighter p attern.) In general the pattern
won't make that much difference at defensive ranges with the 12 and 20 gauge bores, but a full
choke creates a more concentrated hit which is somewhat more likely to stop an aggressor. At
apartment or home distances, most shot patterns will only expand to about the distance between
two shirt buttons.
While there are "magnum" loads for the .410, 20 gauge, and 12 gauge (usually requiring a longer
than normal chamber), it is often better to stick with the "standard" loads for reduced muzzle flash
and recoil, particularly with the 12 gauge. At defensive distances, a solid hit with a load of #4
buckshot will almost certainly drop an intruder in his tracks, regardless of whether it is a magnum
load or not.
Handgun ammunition: Handgun ammo is a topic subject to frequent and often emotional debate
among defensive shooters. Because handguns are terribly underpowered when compared with any
shotgun or rifle and because handguns are more difficult to shoot, even the slight advantages of one
caliber or one load over another are perceived to be important. Some gun owners are great
proponents of a particular caliber and will demean all other calibers in favor of their preference. This
is particularly true of prop onents of the .45 ACP, the .357 Magnum, and the 10mm Auto. Some
prefer the "light and fast" loadings, while others prefer slower, heavier bullets with greater
momentum. While this can make for fascinating technical arguments, the truth is that any caliber and
load that can consistently penetrate deep enough to cause incapacitating wounds is sufficient for
defense; all else is a fiddling few percentage points of effectiveness. There is some argument as to
what caliber is the minimum for defense, but it is widely accepted that anything below the .38
Special, or perhaps the .380 ACP, is an abandonment of stopping power for concealability or cost.
The term "stopping power" is often used in reference to the relative ability of a particular caliber and
load to stop an assailant. This term is misleading for several reasons. For one, "stopping power" is
not a quantity measured in units of power (like watts), but is rather a statistical value that would be
more correctly referred to as "stopping potential". A second reason is that the typical measurement
use to determine stopping potential is the "one-shot stop". Of course, if an attacker continues
attacking, the defender shouldn't stop with one shot, but it also begs the question of the statistical
reliability of the number--the statistics are culled either from reports of actual street shootings, often
neglecting other factors, or from unrealistic tests on animals.
Finally, while the stopping power or stopping potential might represent the relative ability of the
load, it is the placement of the bullet, controlled by the shooter, that determines just how effective
the hit will be. A 10mm that misses the head isn't nearly as effective as a .380 in the chest,
regardless of the relative stopping potentials. The difference in skill between one gun wielder and
another is generally far greater than the differences in "stopping power" between one load and
another. A buyer is better advised to select a weapon that meets his criteria, and then learn to shoot
it well, rather than spend time agonizing over the fractional percentage points that one load has over
another.
The common defensive handgun calibers include the .380 ACP, .38 Special, the .357 Magnum, the
9mm Parabellum (also known as the 9mm Luger), .40 S&W, .45 ACP, 10mm Auto, and the .44
Special. These are listed not because they are inclusive; there are other calibers that will suffice quite
well, but these represent the most commonly available defensive calibers.
There is some overlap among the guns in these calibers and the ammunition noted above. The .38
Special is identical in diameter or caliber to the .357 Magnum but has a case length which is 0.1"
shorter than the .357. It can be fired in a revolver chambered for the .357 Magnum. The same holds
true for the .44 Special in a .44 Magnum, and the .32 Long in a .32 H&R Magnum. The reverse is
not true; magnum ammunition will not fit or fire safely in guns chambered for the Specials. Also, one
may not fire .22LRs in a .22 Magnum revolver, as the magnum cartridge has a larger outside
diameter as well as being longer.
Rounds like the 9x21mm, the 7.63x25mm, the .38 Super, and so forth are effective calibers, but
they are rarely found on dealer shelves, and are used mostly by competitive shooters who reload
their own ammo. Calibers like the .25 ACP and the .22 Long Rifle, while perhaps better than no
gun at all, cannot be relied upon to penetrate enough for stopping, and so are relegated to backup
or deep concealment weapons. Because the defensive guns chambering these rounds are often
cheap or simplistic, the most reliable type of ammo should be used, even at sacrifice to expansion
and nominal stopping potential.
It is better to select a caliber that you can afford to practice with regularly. The .357 Magnum is
widely recognised as being the "top stopper", but it is too powerful for many people to practice with
frequently. .38 Special revolvers, 9mm and .45 ACP autoloaders all have proven records of
defensive use. Their ammunition is available from military surplus or factories at reduced prices. The
.40 S&W, the 10mm Auto, and the .44 Special are effective defensive calibers, but the ammo is
less common, and therefore more expensive, and in the case of the latter two, firearms themselves
may be difficult to locate. One caliber might be marginally superior to another in stopping potential,
but more practice with less expensive ammo can more than make up the difference by improving
shot placement.
For handguns, the hollowpoint bullet has become the leader in defensive ammunition. Early (1st
generation) hollowpoint bullets were just lead slugs with a hole in them. They had problems feeding
in autoloaders, didn't provide reliable expansion, and were not highly regarded. Newer (2nd
generation) hollowpoints were designed out of softer materials, have smaller cavities to encourage
feeding in autoloaders, and were somewhat more reliable at velocities above 1100 feet per second.
The newest selection o f hollowpoints (3rd generation) are designed to be capable of expansion
below the older thresholds by using a variety of features. For instance, the Federal Hydra-Shok has
a post in the center of the hollow which keeps the cavity from becoming plugged. The ill-starred
Black Talon, recently reintroduced as the SXT, used a combination of a hard jacket, soft core, and
a sump drilled in the bottom of the cavity to release pressure and force expansion. Other designs,
like the Federal Golden Sabre, the PMC Starfire, and the CCI Lawman/Gold Dot, make use of
designs tailored to handgun velocities to assure performance.
There have been some claims that certain hollowpoints are "killer bullets", that they can "slice
through police armor." The "armor-slicing" characteristics can be easily dismissed; the soft,
expanding nature of these rounds actually makes them less likely to penetrate any kind of body
armor, and they don't expand before striking the armor in any case. There are others who feel that
hollowpoints do not belong in the hands of citizens who do not face life-or-death confrontations
every day. They argue that police, who face violence more often, need these bullets to defend
themselves, but that ordinary people don't need them at all. Such rationale has been used to pass
laws in places like New Jersey, where possession of hollowpoint ammunition is illegal. Frankly, this
implies that possession of these bullets is paramount to intent to kill. In reality, no handgun bullet is
designed to kill and none can be expected to do so on demand. What hollowpoint bullets are
designed to do is save lives.
This last statement bears elaboration. Hollowpoint bullets are designed to stop an attacker with the
least number of shots fired. They are designed to transfer as much of the bullet's energy into impact
and shock. Roundnose bullets, which may zip through tissue with minimal disruption may require the
defender to shoot his attacker more times in order to get him to stop attacking. The attacker shot
with roundnose bullets still bleeds, but he does not feel the same shocking, stopping impact that a
hollowpoint bullet produces.
Why does this effect of hollowpoints save lives? First, the sooner an attacker is stopped in his
attack, the less likely a defender is to be killed. If a shooting takes 15 seconds to stop an attacker,
that could mean the attacker still has time to stab his victim to death or return fire with his own gun.
Second, fewer bullets necessary to be fired, and the more of those which stay inside the attacker,
present less hazard to bystanders. In an intense situation, not every bullet will hit the intended target,
and of those that do, roundnosed bullets are more likely to travel through an attacker with enough
energy left over to kill a bystander. Third, one or two hollowpoints used to stop an attack means an
attacker with two to four holes to stop bleed ing and repair. Four or five roundnose bullets are likely
to mean six to ten holes, each leaking blood out and air in. Hollowpoint bullets are more likely to
result in a live attacker after surgery. This has been documented by several police departments who
switched from standard roundnose lead ammo to higher- powered hollowpoints. Their results: fewer
dead cops, fewer dead crooks, and fewer dead bystanders, including fellow cops.
It is your life on the line; police use these bullets because they are effective at stopping perpetrators,
and you should too. Realize that any bullet can kill, and any time you point a gun at someone your
intent is to stop, but the possibility of killing exists. Whether you are in one gunfight or twenty, you
want the best chances that you can reasonably obtain. If you are concerned about liability from
using "killer bullets" then select the same brand that the local police force uses. This way you can
always point out that you were just using what the police consider best.
Some people reload ammunition; while this doesn't generally "save" money, given the capital
investment and time spent reloading, it will let you shoot more ammo for the same cost. Reloads
should not be used for defense unless absolutely necessary, for two very good reasons. First, while
an experienced, conscientious reloader will rarely have a bad loading, it can and does happen far
more often than with commercial loads. Unless you trust your reloads 100%, they shouldn't be used
for defense. A second reason is one of liability; a lawyer might make an issue of the fact that you
"created a special, deadly round designed to kill, rather than wound an attacker." This is drivel, of
course, particularly since most reloaders use the same components and powder charges as do the
ammo manufacturers. However, the recent "Black Rhino" hoax should adequately demonstrate that
neither the news media nor the public at large understands the design and capabilities of various
types of ammunition, and a sufficiently motivated prosecutor or liability lawyer might convince a jury
to accept his twisted interpretation rather than the plain truth. Reloading is a good way to get more
practice for your dollar, and it will let you load practice rounds that are identical to commercially
available loads, but for defensive use, it is best to use factory loadings from reputable manufacturer.
It is unlikely that you could develop a significantly more effective load in any case; modern
hollowpoints have a velocity "window" outside of which the performance of the round drops, and
you certainly aren't going to improve upon the reliability of commercial ammo.
G. Purchasing the firearm:
So, as you can see, selecting a firearm is a multi-faceted decision. No one firearm can be all things
to all people, and many gun owners find it necessary to own several types for various needs. One
certainly wouldn't use a snub-nosed gun for target shooting, or a .22 target autoloader for deer
hunting. Different jobs require different tools. The same applies to defense; you may find it useful to
procure more than one weapon. As long as the purchase is within budget, there is no harm in this
and it gives you a "backup", in case your primary arm needs work, is stolen, or is otherwise
unavailable.
Whatever you do, do not select a gun based upon media appeal. The high capacity autoloaders are
popular on the big screen, but in reality that capacity is rarely used by the lone individual, and can be
difficult for those with small or even moderately sized hands to operate. Name appeal is something
to watch out for, too. With many guns, you are paying for the name in addition to the quality, while a
lower priced gun from a reputable, but not as "brand name" a manufacturer might be just as suitable.
The big name makers have had their problems in quality control in the last few years and have put
out some duds, while the smaller hardworking makers have consistently improved their quality.
Price is not a very good indicator of quality, particularly in handguns. Most good handguns range
from $250 - $800, with good guns at all price points. It is more important to get information about
the features of the gun or guns that you intend to buy than just relying on price as a guide.
For most people buying a firearm is a fairly major purchase. The investment of several hundred
dollars is not one that is taken lightly, and so you want to be certain that you get a gun that is
reliable, from a store and a manufacturer that will stand be hind their product. Some manufacturers
are very conscientious about customer service and will go above and beyond the required in order
to please a customer. Others, particularly some of the importers, are apathetic or even rude to
customers. The only way to find out which is which is to listen to other gun owners, participate in
forums where such information is available, or talk to the experts in the field. The problem with this
is that there is a plethora of conflicting information from all sources mentioned above. Some gun
owners become enthralled with a particular design and promote it above others, exaggerating the
strengths and ignoring the weaknesses. Others will, from one bad experience, completely forego a
manufacturer. The gun magazines might seem like a good place to get information, and indeed they
are a good way to pick up the jargon, but with respect to firearms reviews, they too often tend to
glaze over the sore points, or return a gun unreviewed rather than to give it a bad review. Gun
magazines are, in large part, supported by the advertisements of major gun manufacturers and
distributors who send them their guns to test, and so the results often end up like a Playboy
centerfold; you get to see all of Miss Monthly's prime assets, but what you aren't told is that she
snores in bed or blows milk out her nose at when she laughts. There are a few publications that
present test information in a more objective fashion but you are still left waiting for them to cover the
gun you want to buy.
A good source of information is a local, well-respected gunsmith. He can tell you of the problems
he's seen in different brands of guns, what to look out for and what is really useful. Still, the
purchase of a gun, like a car, is a somewhat chancey thing, so before you purchase a gun you want
to make certain that the dealer will work with you to make right any problems with the gun.
Before you go to the gun store, you'll want to select a few models to look at so as not to fall victim
to impulse buying. Be clear on what you need, set a budget for yourself, and know the brand
names, calibers, and model numbers. (Most gun publications publish an annual "Guide to Guns" type
magazine which will show you what is available. In addition, many gun collectors will have pricing
guides that will outline the cost, features, and so forth.) When you get to the store, don't let the clerk
or dealer push you around. This is a particular issue for women; although "Woman's Lib" has come
a long way, even in the gun store, one sometimes encounters a clerk who knows that a woman
*couldn't possibly* want a .357 Magnum. The same holds true for a novice man who doesn't know
the jargon. If you get such an attitude, be polite, but firm. If you feel pressured to purchase
something you don't want or need, leave and find another dealer. If the prices are higher than they
ought to be, try haggling down if it's your style, but if that is ineffective, shop around and try to get a
better deal. At this stage, even if you are interested in handling a particular model, your first words in
the store should be, "Just looking."
When you pick up a gun to try it out, first remember to follow the Four Rules of gun handling.
Check the chamber, don't point it at someone (point it at the floor, if necessary) and keep your
finger off the trigger. Check the pointability of the gun; pick out a target, close your eyes, point it at
the target, and then check the alignment of the sights. If you have a problem aligning the sights, the
gun may not point well for you. You may also want to try out the trigger; if so, ask first, as some
dealers are rather sensitive about this, and point it at the ground or some other barrier. Try a
selection of guns, and if there is one in particular that you like, you might ask to see another of the
same model if they have one on hand, to compare the trigger pull. If you are undecided or unsure,
consider your purchase for a day or two, and then go back if you still want the gun.
In a nutshell, a firearm for defense should satisfy the following criteria:
Reliability: It should go without saying that the gun should fire every time one pulls the trigger on a
loaded chamber. Most guns, even on the lower end of the scale, manage to do this, although every
manufacturer puts out the occasional dog, or even a b ad design. It is important that once you select
a gun, you train with it to ensure its reliability. Possessing a gun which can't be relied upon is almost
worse than having no gun at all. Revolvers come in first here. The mechanism is simpler, and there is
no problem with variances in ammo or grip. Some autoloaders, particularly the lightweight ones,
sometimes suffer from "limp wristing", holding the gun too loosely, which damps out the
reciprocating motion of the slide and results in a feed jam. Some auto loaders, particularly
straight-blowback guns, like most .380's, are very finicky about the ammo you use. You should fire
100 or more rounds of the defensive ammo you intend to use through your gun to ensure reliability,
accuracy, and so forth. T his is particularly true with an autoloader. On the other hand, autoloaders
can stand more abuse; the mechanism of a revolver is more delicate, exposed to dust and dirt, and
with extensive use will eventually get "out of time". This isn't a great concern with a defensive gun
that is fired a couple of hundred times a month at the range, but with a revolver bought used, it may
be a hidden problem.
Functionality: This is different than reliability, because functionality is a subjective measure of how
well the shooter likes and can use the gun. Some complain of the complexity of autoloaders, and
particularly the "wonder-nines" with slide release, safety, decockers, magazine release, etc. You
should be able to manipulate the gun you select in the dark and under stress. This ability evolves
with how much you practice with the gun; more practice reduces concerns about greater
complexity. The revolver takes points here, too, as most revolvers have only two controls; the
trigger and the cylinder release. Some double action only (DAO) and the Glock "Safe Action"
autoloaders come close to that level of simplicity, but one must still learn how to clear a jam or
misfire. With a revolver, there is little question of clearing jams; if a revolver jams up on you, it will
likely require the services of a gunsmith. A revolver won't jam up from a misfire though; if the round
doesn't go off, you pull the trigg er and advance to the next chamber. Misfires are fairly uncommon
with good quality ammo, but revolvers get points, particularly with novices, for simplicity.
Reasonable Power: Despite the fact that handgun ammo suffers in comparison with the stopping
power of rifle ammunition, the handgun is a much lighter package, and is held less securely than a
long arm. Above a certain level of power in a handgun, the amount of blast affects accuracy and the
recoil delays a followup shot considerably. An S&W .44 Magnum with a 2.5" barrel is probably
overkill. Still, there is a lower limit to defensive rounds; anything below a .38 Special is probably not
enough to ensure reliable stopping even with good accuracy. A .380 is a compromise; more power
than pocket pistols in .25 or .32 but (typically) smaller than a .38 snub, but unless small size is
demanded, as in a concealed carry situation, a .38 Special is as usually as low as one wishes to go.
In revolvers, the calibers which offer stopping power, controllability and availability are the .38 Spl.,
the .357 Magnum, and the .44 Spl. In semi-auto pistols, the best choices are the 9mm, the .40
S&W, and the .45 ACP. Other calibers are available, but these are the best first choices.
Accuracy: The gun rags often report how "Gun A groups 2.5 inches with Brand X ammo, and Gun
B groups 3.25 inches with Brand Y ammo." Setting aside the lack of scientific or statistical rigor in
the measurements made in gun reviews the truth is that in a defensive situation, which is likely to
occur at close range, in the dark, against a moving target, average group size obtained at 25 yards in
bright sunlight isn't going to mean a whole lot, and frankly the defender will be doing well to hit the
target in the torso. The defender may not have time or opportunity to adopt a two-handed "Weaver
stance" or even to look at his gun and align the sights. Practical accuracy is a measure of how well
the shooter can shoot the gun under a variety of realistic conditions. Much of this has to do with
training and most folks can become reasonably accurate with any weapon. Few will be capable of
as much practical accuracy as the intrinsic "bench rest" accuracy of the gun. Still, there are some
characteristics of a handgun that improve practical accuracy.
For instance, how good are the sights? Are they rudimentary "notch sights", or are they of usable
size and geometry? How well does the gun "point" naturally? How does the gun feel? Is the grip too
large or too small? Does the frame cut into your hand somewhere? Is the trigger way too heavy or
creepy? The more comfortable the gun is to handle, the more naturally accurate it will be for you.
Some of these characteristics can be altered; grip size can be changed by fitting aftermarket grips to
the gun. This is usually a very efficient move; the right grips usually makes a big change in pointability
and typically costs under $20.
Fitting your needs is the most important criteria, and this fact is often lost in the confusion of calibers
and grips and finishes. Once you are in a gun store, it is easy to forget which features you need in a
defensive firearm and which are unimportant or in the way. If you anticipate home defense only and
have decided on a shotgun, don't get sidetracked looking at revolvers. If you are anticipating
concealed carry, ignore the big .45's and .44 Magnums. If you are just learning to shoot, the blast a
nd recoil from a snub-nosed revolver or compact automatic may be a hinderance rather than a help.
H. Accessories:
You'll probably want to purchase some sort of accessories for your gun. There are a lot of
accessories that some gun advocates will define as "necessary". In truth, some may be, like extra
magazines or aftermarket grips, (depending on your circumstances) while others are just plain
useless for defense shooting, and overpriced as well. Some people like to customize their firearms in
the same way that others customize their car; it makes them feel like the gun is more personal. In
some cases, the confid ence this brings can even help their shooting.
Holsters: Holsters are only used for handguns, though there are scabbards for rifles. The primary
purpose for a holster is to secure the weapon and to protect clothing. While some people choose to
carry a handgun in the pocket or waistband, and this method will work in a pinch, if you have any
intentions of carrying a handgun for any length of time it pays to invest in a holster, both in terms of
protecting the gun and in comfort. Holsters range from the very inexpensive (around $10) to as
much as you want to spend (for custom holsters), and while price isn't a specific indicator, holsters
do tend to get more comfortable and easier to use as the price goes up.
Holsters come in two basic materials: leathers of various kinds (cowhide, horsehide, sharkskin) and
synthetic materials like nylon. The leather holsters are usually more expensive and require more
care, but for some applications leather is preferable to synthetic holsters, as leather can be molded
to the exact type of gun (elminating the need for retention straps) and is more comfortable to wear.
The nylon holsters generally come in "one-size-fits-all" for any general gun type, which while
convenient for the user who may holster several different weapons in the same holster, they are
usually not as sturdy (for keeping the weapon from flopping around during movement) and require a
retention strap to hold the gun. Synthetics definitely have the edge when it comes to durability and
resistance to abuse; while some types of leather are close to maintenance- free and are quite
durable, you won't see anyone wadding up a leather holster and throwing it in the trunk, to come out
as good as new.
The term retention strap has been mentioned several times, and it is significant enough a feature on a
holster to be worthy of mention: the retention strap is simply a strap that goes across the gun in
some manner to retain the gun while it is holstered. On inexpensive or low-threat holsters, this strap
is usually some kind of snap or loop that must be released as a separate motion from unholstering
the gun. On most duty and concealed carry holsters, though, the retention strap is actually two
straps th at meet and are arranged so that one can snap open the strap in the same motion as
drawing the gun.
There are three basic classifications of holsters:
Low-threat holsters are intended to keep the gun secure, but not to provide a particularly fast draw.
These are fine for occasional carry or plinking, in low-threat situations. There's no need to splurge
unless you really want a leather holster; for the se applications, the synthetics are just as good. Flap
holsters (that is, a holster where the flap covers most of the grip of the gun that would otherwise be
exposed) are good for carry in forests and fields, where rain is a threat and branches can snag the
gun. In this situation, if you need a gun, your awareness will give you time to open the holster
without need of a fast-draw.
Duty, garrison, or high-threat holsters are holsters which are worn on the belt and which are
designed for situations in which a quick draw might be necessary. Depending on your application,
you may go with an inexpensive but professional synthetic rig, or with a more expensive leather rig.
(Police usually wear leather holsters and belts, while private security tend to go more with the
synthetics...which is more of an indication of the purchasing practices of an open-budget
government organization compa red to a private, profit-making company rather than the relative
quality of one material versus the other.)
Most duty holsters, even expensive leather ones, have a retention strap so as to thwart attempts by
an attacker to take the wearer's gun. We'll talk about handgun retention later, but bear in mind that
retention straps do more than simply secure the gun against unintended dislodgement.
Duty holsters are good for police and security, as they are fairly secure, easy to draw from, and
tend to keep the weapon from flopping around too much, but they aren't very good for
concealment, as they usually ride fairly low on the hip. For concealment, a third type of holster is
required--a especially dedicated concealment holster. Concealment holsters come in a wide variety
of styles and configurations, which will be discussed more thoroughly in the Concealment section
later on, but suffice it to s ay that in selecting a concealed carry holster, cost is a secondary issue.
Concealment holsters are generally selected to be worn on a daily basis, under clothing, near the
skin, and usually on a narrow dress or jeans belt rather than a thick and wide duty-style belt. Most
folks who carry concealed on a regular basis agree that leather is superior to synthetics when it
comes to a "regular" concealment holster, though the "fanny pack" style holsters and some others
are exempt from this. Selection of a concealment holster is also something of a personal choice;
what works for one person may not work for another. Again, this will be covered in greater detail
later, but be aware that concealment holsters are generally more expensive than other types,
because of the more demanding requirements of that type of holster.
Of course, you need not purchase a holster at all, if the weapon is purely a home defense gun, or if
you intend to carry in the car, bag, briefcase, etc. Be aware, though, that if you keep the holster
near, but away from your body, you must be certain th at whatever you are carrying the gun in is
secure (i.e. don't lay it down in the daycare while picking up your kid) and it will be a slow draw.
Awareness will help to negate the "need for speed" in a crisis, but all things being equal, it is often
better to have the gun on the person, though this isn't always possible or convenient.
Aftermarket Grips: While some firearms come with excellent grips (the side panels on the "grip" of
the gun) others have grips that are poorly suited to defensive shooting, are the wrong size for a
particular shooter, or are too slick for some users. Fortunately, aftermarket grips can be had for
most handguns. These are made of wood, rubber, or nylon and other synthetics. Custom grips can
be had in various styles like exotic hardwoods or mother-of-pearl, among other materials, but for
defensive guns the first three are best. Rubber grips make the gun easier to maintain a hold on, and
many are designed to absorb some recoil as well, with excellent results. However, rubber grips can
sometimes be too spongy, and tend to "print" (show up) on clothing in concealment applications.
For those who like synthetic grips but find rubber too spongy, grips are made of nylon, derlin, and
other synthetics which are durable and may provide a better grip shape than standard grips and
don't print. Grips range from about $20 for rubber or synthetic grips, to $50 for plain hardwood
grips. (Custom wood grips can be had for as much as you care to spend, with proportional amounts
of decoration or gaudiness.) Even the polymer framed Glock and HK USP can be improved by the
addition of rubber slip-on grips. While aftermarket grips are a matter of personal preference, many
guns can be improved measurably by the addition of aftermarket grips and some manufacturers
have started putting them on their out-of-box guns. Adding af termarket grips is usually the most
effective and cheapest improvement one can make to a gun.
Aftermarket Stocks (for longarms): Aftermarket stocks can be had for many weapons. The
synthetics are popular because of their low maintenance requirements, and can be had in flat, neutral
colors that won't reflect light well. One feature that is popular is a pistol grip. While one often sees
actors in movies firing a pistol-gripped rifle or shotgun one-handed, the real purpose of the pistol
grip is two-fold; to make a magazine loaded weapon easier to handle while loading and unloading,
and to permit the shooter to maintain a tighter, more natural grip on the gun in close range shooting.
The pistol grip also arguably makes the gun easier to retain in a snatch situation. Another feature that
is even more poorly displayed in movies and less useful over all is the folding stock. While a folding
stock does allow the stock to be folded up, reducing bulk, firing the weapon with the stock folded
pretty much precludes the use of sights; on shotguns, this is detrimental to accuracy, and on rifles,
this makes the gun next to useless at any range. Furthermore, folded stock weapons, by their nature,
tend to be a little more delicate and don't absorb recoil nearly as well as a fixed stock weapon. The
stocks are often hard to manipulate and may pinch the user. Movie tactics aside, there is really very
little use for a folding stock on any weapon, save for the person who wishes to store the weapon
with the stock folded in a limited space. For most users, there is no everyday application. Shotguns
that have a pistol grip and no buttstock fall into the same catagory, except that there is no buttstock
to fold out. Such weapons can be used by specially trained people who require a low-bulk weapon,
but they are difficult to use, not nearly as accurate as a full-stock weapon, and essentially useless for
any normal defensive application.
Sights: Good sights are important for accurate shooting, and while some guns, particularly the small
caliber "pocket pistols" and derringers hardly need sights, most guns should be well equipped with a
good pair of sights. Fortunately, most modern firearms come with at least decent sights, but
sometimes a gun owner wants an upgrade.
Fixed sights are just that; fixed. On autoloaders, this usually means that the rear sight can be drifted
"for windage", i.e. to shift the point of aim to the left or right, but moving the point of aim up or down
requires the services of a gunsmith. Adjustable sights, while permitting the user to easily change the
point of aim, tend to be more delicate, more bulky, and more expensive. Defensive pistols are
usually seen to come with fixed sights, but for most guns aftermarket adjustable sights can be had
for a moderate price. A variety of "sighting systems" are available; while in the past standard "black"
sights were common, the current trend is toward "bracketed" or "three-dot" sights that show up
better in low light and are easier to align in combat. Also popular are tritium-filled luminescent "night
sights" which glow. While considerably more expensive than non-luminescent sights, they are
effective for low-light shooting, but some shooters worry about the visibility issue of having several
glowing dots on the gun.
Red-dot sights and laser sights are currently very popular with the competition crowd, and seem to
find their way into many movies, but contrary to what you might see and hear, they aren't
particularly desirable for defensive shooting. Red-dot sights tend to be fairly delicate, and because
they force the shooter to look through a tube, they limit vision to a tunnel, which is undesirable in a
defensive situation, not to mention that they are too bulky to fit in a standard holster and usually
deny the use of the regular iron sights in case the red-dot sight fails. Laser sights are even worse;
again, delicate (though the modern LED lasers are much more durable than the gas tube lasers of a
few years previous), the battery tends to go out with little or no warning, but worst of all, in any kind
of dust, smoke, or fog, a red beam will point straight back to you, making you an extremely visible
target. Plus, laser sights typically only work at dusk or darker; fortunately, most modern laser sights,
and nearly all that are promoted for carry weapons, are small and do not preclude the use of iron
sights. Still, they are mostly expensive toys, and the average user would be better advised to spend
the $200+ with which he might purchase a laser instead upon the equivalent purchase cost of
ammunition for training.
One other "sight"-type accessory that is somewhat popular is an underbarrel flashlight. This is, again,
a popular one with Hollywood directors, but isn't as useful as it seems, and as pointed out by one
firearm novice, "I wouldn't want to have a light shining which makes a perfect target of me!" Exactly!
The use of a flashlight in a combat scenario will be discussed later, but as for underbarrel flashlights,
they are, like lasers, an expensive toy which, if used improperly (or perhaps at all) will result in a
reduction of tactical capabilities. Plus, using the light as a flashlight, but not intending to shoot,
violates Rule II.
Rifle and shotgun sights are something of a different matter. Most standard rifle and shotgun sights
are pretty poor (either being intended as an aftersight on a scoped gun or for bird hunting, in the
case of a shotgun). The best recommendation is the "ghost ring" aperture sight which are like peep
sights but large, permitting a fairly wide field of view.
Magazines and Speedloaders: It is often quoted by many people that the average gunfight lasts less
than three shots. While the truth of this statement cannot be denied, it is also true that it is a statistic,
and you are not. It is desirable to have extra ammo available, in case you run out, and having the
ammo in a spare magazine or a speedloader makes it that much faster to reload.
A magazine is a device which holds and feed the ammunition into the chamber of an autoloading
weapon. (In contrast, a "clip" simply holds the ammunition but has no feeding device, and the clip,
ammo, and all, is inserted into the fixed magazine of a fire arm, as in the Broomhandle Mauser.)
Magazines vary in price, and because of the recent high-capacity magazine manufacturing ban, high
capacity magazines tend to be quite expensive, making it a definite consideration when purchasing a
gun. While magazines can be had from aftermarket suppliers, it is often better to purchase factory
magazines unless the quality of the aftermarket magazines is assured, as some (not all) aftermarket
manufactures use inferior materials.
A speedloader is a device that allows a shooter to load the five or six chambers of a revolver at
once, rather than one or two at a time. Speedloaders are somewhat bulky, but they do speed
reloading of the gun considerably, with practice. Speedloaders t end to run at about $6-$10.
For some guns, particularly the small backup guns, speedloaders or extra magazines may not be
necessary, or even available. For larger, defensive caliber guns, however, they are recommended in
most circumstances.
Compensators: The compensator (a port or ports cut into the barrel to bleed off gas in order to
reduce felt recoil) can be valuable on some guns, particularly if the shooter is arthritic or has low
hand strength, but they do increase muzzle blast and flash, as well as causing a moderate reduction
in bullet velocity. Some manufacturers now offer compensators as a standard feature on their guns;
if you purchase a gun and decided to have a compensator installed, have it done by a competent
smith, preferably one who specializes in that type of work.
Trigger Job: The trigger job is the mainstay of the competition crowd, as it reduces trigger pull (and
may clean up a rough or crunchy trigger), but most defensive guns have adequate, if not exceptional
triggers. If you decided to have a trigger job done on a defensive gun, select a competent smith
(again, preferably one who specializes in such jobs--there are several mail-order gunsmith "houses"
that will do this with guaranteed quality) and check the gun thoroughly (both by inspection and by
firing) to be certain that the gun is reliable and safe to carry. A bad trigger job can damage the sear,
causing the gun to fail, or worse, causing it to go off spontaneously. A carry gun doesn't need a 4 lb.
competition trigger.
Extended safety, extended magazine release, extended slide stop, etc: In general, for a defensive
gun you'll want to avoid any accessory labeled with the term "extended". This usually means that it is
designed for competition use, and often, because of t he longer moment arm on the part, it is more
subceptible to breaking (particularly with the slide stop). Also, these parts tend to complicate and
bulk up the weapon; an extended magazine release, for instance, makes it easy to drop a magazine
accidentally. There is some argument for an ambidextrous safety, and possibly for some other
features, but most are largely unnecessary and overpriced.
III. Training
"Sit boy, sit. I said SIT! Good boy! No, no, don't get back up! SIT! Damn it..." -- Commonly
overheard monologue at dog training seminars.
Seriously, gun training isn't just a trip to the range, or a four hour safety and handling course, or even
a $1000 "Expert" course at Thunder Ranch. While professional, structured training is recommended
(in accordance with interest and budget) this is just an opportunity to pick up technique which will
be enforced by later practice. Training is an ongoing event; a shooter should always be conscious of
gun safety. Grip and trigger technique are psychomotor skills that must be exercised or they will
degenerate. While standards of training vary, there is hardly such a thing as too much; the more you
practice, the better you'll be, so it pays to put in as must time and money as you reasonably can,
particularly when learning to shoot, but even after you've mastered the skills, you'll need to refresh
with a trip to the range at least once a month, combined with regular dry-fire practice when you
can't make it to the range.
A. Basic gun training and handling:
Basic gun safety and handling is best learned from an instructor who can correct your mistakes and
prevent you from reinforcing bad habits. The best way to find a class is either to contact the
National Rifle Association or a local gun club. Basic safety and shooting classes shouldn't be very
expensive; in fact, many instructors charge just enough to cover expenses, so if you are quoted a
price that is way out of line, shop around.
Although previously stated, it is so important that it bears saying again: Know the Four Rules of Safe
Gun Handling by heart, and live by them. Every time you pick up a gun, go over them in your mind.
The rules are:
All guns are always loaded. (Note that it does not say to pretend the gun is loaded. It is
loaded.)
Never let the muzzle cover anything you are not willing to destroy.
Keep your finger off the trigger until your sights are on the target.
Be sure of your target (and what is behind it.)
You should cultivate a good understanding of the function of all common firearms--after all, you may
find yourself in a situation in which you must use or disable an unfamiliar firearm, perhaps even an
attacker's gun. A good training course should allow you the opportunity to try several types of guns
and some gun ranges will let you shoot everything on the rental rack for a fixed hourly charge.
B. Know your gun:
While you should be familiar with the operation of different types of firearms, you should have a
particular knowledge of your arm, so that you might pick it up in the dark and know the operation
by touch and instinct. You ought to be able to check if th e gun is loaded, reload the gun, clear a
jam, operate the safety controls, and field-strip and return it to battery exclusively by touch. If you
keep a gun in the home, by the bedside or in the bedroom, you should know exactly where it is,
how to get to it, and the condition of the gun. Consistency is a big factor here; always keep your gun
in the same place. If you decide to move it to a new place, practice going and drawing the gun in the
dark for a few minutes to retrain yourself.
The same is true if you carry a gun on your person; try to carry the same gun, carry it in the same
place, and in the same condition all of the time. Sometimes this isn't feasible; for instance, a gun
owner who carries a concealed weapon may carry a gun in a IWB holster while in business attire,
but in a fanny pack in more casual situations. In such a case, practice drawing from each holster,
and be aware which one you have on. When you practice, use your carry gun and draw from your
carry holster in a variety of positions (sitting, standing facing toward the target, facing away from the
target, etc.)
You should be able to operate the safety mechanism by instinct. The only reason you'll draw the gun
in public is to use it, so disengaging the safety (if the gun has a manual safety) should be an automatic
part of drawing the weapon; when you draw it for other purposes, you'll leave the safety engaged,
of course.
C. Mental preparation:
It has been said before, and is worth saying again, that the only reason you should draw your
weapon is in preparation to use it. Don't draw it to threaten, or frighten, or impress; if it comes out
of the holster anywhere except the range or your home, you ought to be prepared to discharge it at
another person. You must be mentally prepared, so that, while understanding the consequences of
shooting someone, even when fully justified, you are of the attitude of "Him or me!" Once you've
made the decision to use the gun, the rest should just be tactics; there should be no mental debating
or emotional anguish once the gun is drawn; the shooter should accept the fact that he will, in all
likelihood, shoot and kill the attacker. If the attacker sees the gun and backs down, then don't
shoot...but don't draw expecting him to back down--draw, expecting to shoot and having already
placed conditions (if he makes one step closer, I'll shoot) based upon the legal and practical
conditions of the situation.
This kind of preparation is difficult to cultivate; it isn't something learned by a linear process. Martial
artists and boxers sometimes cultivate this as part of their "attitude training". Basically, envision, in
your mind, practical defensive situations. Impose real, practical limits, and do the first thing that
comes to mind, running through the scenario in "real-time". Once you've completed the scenario
analyze what you did; think about what you should have done; what was rash or wrongheaded. Thi
nk about the players; if there is more than one attacker, did you leave a blind spot where he could
hit you? Were you justified in shooting?
This kind of "fantasy" can be very useful in analyzing your attitudes and actions, and if used
constructively, can help you revise your tactics. If you approach it honestly, you'll find that there are
considerable limitations to your ability; unlike in action movies, the bad guys won't come one at a
time, and you'll be lucky to handle three attackers.
This also means learning the laws and examining a few cases involving self-defense and liability;
these will probably alter your attitude, too. If you had any visions of rushing in to stop a crime in
progress or shooting an attacker and riding into the sunset, this will put a bucket of dirty mop water
on your ideas. Even in a justified shooting you can expect to suffer exceptional emotional and
financial drain, and so you'll hopefully give consideration to avoiding the kind of confrontation in
which it becomes necessary to draw your weapon.
D. Basic marksmanship:
Marksmanship is a very important part of training...which is not to undermine the importance of
weapon familiarity, tactics, and especially attitude. While in all probability, you will not exercise
much of the skills of basic firearms marksmanship--most shootings take place at near- touching
range, where sights become superfluous and the basic skills of marksmanship are dumped in favor
of speed--but every shooter ought know and master basic marksmanship skills. Anybody can walk
up to a man sized target and hit it at seven feet (well, nearly anyone, though there are many
documented cases where people have failed to hit their targets even at that range); at greater range
though, a basis in marksmanship, combined with the coolness to aim the gun rather than
"spray-and-pray" (random, movie-style firing), will permit you to hit an attacker at a distance while
his meager skills prevent him from getting anything by a unlikely random hit on you. Most people,
and particularly criminals, which by and large are totally untrained in firearms marksmanship, can't
hit the broad side of a barn at 30 feet; if you can reliably hit a man-sized target at that distance,
you'll have a distinct edge.
Dry fire: Dry fire is the practice of firing an unloaded weapon in order to maintain and improve
shooting skills while not on the range. It can also reveal handling errors which are masked by recoil.
When dry firing, one must first ensure that the weapon is unloaded. It is best to unload the weapon,
put the ammo in another room, and then check the weapon again. Even when dry-firing, it is
important to follow the rules of gun safety; use a backstop (a stack of bound papers will work) and
make certain that no one will cross the path of the gun; it only takes one time for a tragedy, so don't
pass these precautions off as unnecessary.
Many shooters go out and burn up box after box of expensive ammo while barely gaining skill, or in
some cases, reinforcing bad habits. Using dry fire can significantly reduce the amount of live ammo
you must shoot in order to become proficient. Trigger technique, from start to release, can be
examined in detail, and many exercises, like sight alignment, can be performed in dry-fire.
There is some concern that when dry-firing a weapon one can damage the firing pin when the pin
hits something other than the intended primer. While in some of the cheaper .22 pistols dry-fire can
damage the chamber wall, most guns have no problem with a moderate amount of dry-fire, and
some actually require a dry shot as part of disassembly. Still, if the concern exists, fake rounds
called "snap caps" can be inserted into the chamber, which will accept the energy of the firing pin,
reducing the stress on the pin. If you do dry-fire frequently (or even if you don't) you should be in
the habit of checking the firing pin, which is one of the components most likely to fail.
Trigger control: One of the most important aspects of hitting the target is trigger control. You'll
notice, if you watch movies, how most actors tend to jerk their weapon every time they pull the
trigger. While they always seem to hit their target (than ks to the magic of FX technicians), in real life
such poor control would cause the bullet to fly off to the side, failing to hit the target and possibly
hitting a bystander.
There are actually several aspects to trigger control; when to place the finger, how to place the
finger, and the grip of the hand on the gun. These factors should work together so that when the
trigger is pulled the sights remain on target throughout the action. There should be no jerking except
the slight action of the hammer when the sear is released. You shouldn't aim the gun to compensate
for poor trigger technique; this won't work anyway, as bad trigger technique isn't consistent enough
to compensate for. Acquiring good technique may require a modicum of grip strength training, but it
really depends much more on performing the action correctly and consistently than in the strength of
the grip.
The most common mistake in gun handling that happens anytime an inexperienced person (like a
action-movie lead) handles a firearm is that the person immediately placed their finger in the trigger
guard, and frequently resting on the trigger. This is, of course, a major violation of Rule #3 and one
that you should strive to avoid. When handling the weapon, learn to draw the weapon and place
your finger along the frame, outside the trigger guard. The only time your finger should go
inside the trigger guard is when you have aligned the sights on target, and the only time the finger
should touch the trigger is as an immediate precursor to firing. Different experts have different
suggestions about finger placement, but one of the best suggestions is to place the finger above the
trigger, along the frame, slightly bent so that the finger only need drop down and sideways into the
trigger guard. This should be one of your drills, both when dry-firing and range practice, to the point
at which it becomes au tomatic. Many weapons have some kind of obtrusion on the frame--the
Glock as the takedown lever, S&W revolvers have a frame screw, Beretta-type autos have an
external disconnector--so use whatever tactile cue works for you, or place a glob of nail polish to
create your own cue for finger placement.
The placement of the finger on the trigger is an issue of debate. Some people maintain that one
should always place the pad of the finger (before the first joint) squarely upon the trigger, regardless
of action type. While this may work for the large-pawed and those with great hand strength, many
find it difficult to keep the sights on target while drawing the long action of a double action weapon.
For those with small hands, some guns, particularly double-stack autoloading pistols, may be nearly
impossible to manage with the finger in this position. For that reason many people use the first joint
of the finger, which keeps the rest of the finger snugged up against the frame of the gun and tends to
stabilize the action of drawing the pistol. This is a situation in which the best thing to do is the one
that works for you; you aren't target shooting, the gun you'll be using is likely to have a trigger pull in
excess of 6 lbs--quite possibly as much as 12 lbs--and one technique doesn't work for everyone.
The grip style is one of the most important and least mentioned factors in trigger technique. One
need not strangle the gun in order to maintain a good grip, but a sloppy, weak grip will definitely
contribute to bad technique and poor shooting. First of all, although you may use a two-handed
grip, the non-shooting hand should only provide support or bracing for the shooting hand; the grip
should be a function of the shooting hand alone. Some firearms have the front of the trigger guard
"dished", in accordance with a grip technique that came into fashion a few years ago, in which one
placed the index finger of the non-firing hand on the front of the trigger guard. This is an inadvisable
technique; for one, it promotes dependency upon a two-handed grip, and for another, most
shooters, particularly when tired or stressed, tend to use the finger to pull one way on the trigger
guard, setting up a "dynamic tension" triangle in which the firing hand resists the pull. While this can
result in a stable grip, it tends to fatigue the firing hand prematurely. An equally solid grip should be
possible by judicious placement of the gripping fingers and support of the firing hand by the
non-firing hand.
As previously mentioned, the placement of the firing finger is dependant upon the gun and the
shooter, and while some small-pawed people may be effectively unable to use large guns, most
people can handle just about any gun with the proper hand grip. The thumb may or may not be used
to "lock down" the weapon and keep it from turning in the grip; in single action weapons this is
optional; some professional instructors prefer a "thumb up" grip. On double actions, and particularly
with revolvers, the thumb is generally held down to counteract torsion on the gun. The middle finger
should also be used to counteract torsion. It should be locked down tightly AROUND the grip of
the gun, with the third segment braced against the trigger pull. The last two fin gers, being the most
distant from the pivot point (at the web of the hand) are in the best position to counteract the
moment arm of the trigger forces--as such, these should be braced primarily to prevent fore and aft
movement of the grip.
If you go to the range, and find that your shooting isn't as good as you think it ought be, you'll want
to try a few minutes of dry-fire to make certain your trigger technique is correct. Concentrate on
technique; in basic marksmanship, the release of th e sear should be a surprise.
Sight alignment: Sight alignment ought to be a pretty simple task; unfortunately, many people get it
wrong. It isn't enough simply to put the sights on target; they need to stay there throughout the pull
of the trigger. Most handgun sights are designed to be superimposed upon the target, and many
have "three dot" markings so that the dots should be aligned. The dots (or the profile of the sight, if it
is just a plain black sight) should be in line, neither above nor below. Ideally, one should have both
eyes open, using the firing-side eye to target. However, some people have a problem called
cross-dominance, in which the dominant eye is on the opposite side as the dominant hand. This
makes it difficult to focus the sights in the normal manner. Ther e are two ways to combat this; either
closing the dominant eye, so that the firing-side eye is the only targeting eye, or cock the head so
that the dominant eye is in line with the sights and the firing-side eye can't see the sights. Either is an
imperfect solution, but the only other alternative, retraining the eyes, is not a trivial feat.
When bringing the sights to bear, the front sight should precede the rear sight in vision, so that the
front sight appears first, and then the rear sights come up and nestle the front sight. Target and IPSC
shooters are often taught to follow the sights, but in a defensive situation you'll want to keep your
eyes on the situation. Accordingly, you'll bring the sights in the line of vision, and once they are up
you should focus on the front sight, complete the aligning process, and fire. This entire action should
take a fraction of a second, and should be so automatic that there is no thought involved. Once the
sights are on the target, you should endeavor to maintain them in the same location; if you find them
wavering significantly, don't attempt to " take an average" and fire when they swing through the
target point. Rather, work on your grip, or if you are fatigued, take a break. In a defensive situation,
the adrenalin will make you jumpy anyway, so training in keeping the sights steady, even in ba sic
marksmanship, goes a long way toward becoming an accurate shooter.
Stance: There are probably as many stances as there are firearms "experts", but the three basic,
accepted stances are the isosceles stance, in which one stands with the legs as two members of a
triangle, the Weaver stance, where the non-firing leg goes out in front, bent at the knee with two
hands holding the gun, and the "New Technique" stance, in which the user stands face front, with the
knees bend (like the horse stance in many forms of the martial arts), again with two hands. These
stances are better seen than discussed, and each may have their place, but the Weaver seems to be
the most popular.
While stance is important, in many defensive confrontations you may not have time to adopt a
traditional stance. It is important to get into a stable position (the recoil probably won't knock you
over but you'll be better able to hold your sights on target) regardless of the particular stance. This
will be discussed later.
Use targets: Knocking cans around the range can be fun, and for certain exercises can even be
instructive, but for learning basic marksmanship it is nearly useless. You should start with paper
targets; the holes show where you are hitting, which will help you identify your mistakes. A target
can be used for several times by using "pasties", stickers, or even just a marking pen to identify
previous holes. The silhouette targets are very popular, but for basic marksmanship aren't really
necessary; the first thing you need to learn is to place the bullet on target. You need not even use
standard targets; with a printer you can make your own, or you can paste stickers onto a piece of
paper, or any set up which creates a point of aim from which to measure your deviation. (Barney
stickers are a particular favorite of many shooters, as are the PostScript Barney targets available at
certain Web sites.)
Using a paper target requires a stand. While you can nail a target to a tree, this isn't a very good
ideal; some hardwoods are actually hard enough to ricochet a bullet back to you, and of course, it
damages the tree. There are portable stands one can b uy, but any decent handyman should be able
to knock up a reasonably portable target stand from scrap lumber. Large cardboard boxes also
make good disposable stands, particularly if one is placed on top of another.
Target shooting is generally done around 25 yards with a pistol; however, most defensive shootings
occur at dramatically less distance. If you are training only for defensive shooting, the best advice is
to select the longest distance you intend to fire (for instance, if you are a homeowner or a business
owner, select the longest straight-line distance in your house or business) and work up to it, starting
from around 7 yards. The accuracy you will get is a function not only of your skill, but of distan ce
and the intrinsic accuracy of the gun and ammo as well. The "group size" (the distance between the
two most distant hits) will vary from gun to gun and ammo to ammo, but if you can place a group at
point-of-aim which you can cover with your hand, you are doing pretty well (for that distance). In
any case, 25 yards is about the maximum training distance for a handgun; although accuracy at
greater ranges can be attained by experienced shooters, this is about the best anyone can be
expected to do under fire, and if you can place your shots well at this distance you are well
prepared, in terms of accuracy skill, for a defensive shooting.
One final note: When you are done practicing, clean up your mess. Pick up your brass (even .22s),
clean up any cans or food wrapping and take it all with you. Don't leave a mess and please don't
shoot glass. Many public ranges have been closed due to vandalism or just plain carelessness on the
part of a minority of shooters. Don't spoil the fun for everybody; leave the place as clean as you
found it, if not cleaner.
E. Defensive Training:
Defensive training is quite a bit different than basic marksmanship. While a marksman is only
expected to perform in good conditions, using a standard stance, a defensive shooter might have to
fire from a variety of positions, in various poor conditions, with tactical disadvantage, and of course,
while opponents are charging or firing back. While it isn't possible to simulate all of these conditions,
a defensive shooter must train so as to be prepared for such events. A shooter who is experience
only in punching a round paper target in good lighting with a two-handed stance is not prepared to
draw and fire from a sitting position, in the dark, at the silhouette of an attacker.
Tube Training: The term "tube training" refers to gun handling information learned from watching
movies and television. You have probably already noticed a certain animosity in this document
toward such techniques. Let me go so far as to say that virtually anything you see on the movies or
the televison about handling, using, or firing a weapon is incorrect, if not actually dangerous. Such
tube training is better used as a lesson on what *not* to do when handling a firearm. This includes
shows like "COPS" which often show police officers handling their weapons in incorrect and unsafe
ways. Even actors who are noted for their real-life knowledge of firearms handling often handle
firearms improperly on screen, presumably at the behest of gun-ignorantd irectors.
In a real defensive situation you don't blast away with reckless abandon. Unlike the movies, the
bullets don't just disappear if they fail to hit the criminals. They can hit innocent people, and even if
they do hit an attacker they may pass through him, posing a danger to those on the far side, a
situation known as overpenetration. You can be held liable for this, both in civil and criminal court.
Also, in the movies, the good guy's gun can often fire as many shots as needed without running dry
at an inopportune moment. You don't have the luxury of multiple takes, so pay attention to reality. In
the movies, the bad guys all fall immediately from a flurry of martial arts blows and a hail of gunfire,
while the hero, if he does manage to get shot, take s a "flesh would", and in macho fashion usually
denies needing medical treatment. In reality, criminals may not go down on the first shot, or the fifth,
and you can easily be injured. Nobody is going to yell "Cut!" if you screw up, so learn real-life
tactics.
Two particularly bad demonstrations of "tube training" are in the loading of weapons. Actors are
often shown loading a revolver and then flipping the cylinder shut, which is not only bad technique
but also may damage the gun by bending the ejector rod and the crane. The cylinder should be
eased, quickly but gently, back into position by the non-firing hand. Similarly, with semi-automatic
weapons, actors are shown placing a round in the chamber and releasing the slide. This, too, is
improper and may lead to a breakage of the ejector, or in some cases, premature detonation of the
round as the firing pin extends outside its tunnel when the slide falters and the ejector strikes the rim
of the casing. When loading a semi-automatic handgun, rounds should only be fed from the
magazine. If you want to load the gun to full capacity, a full magazine should be inserted, a round
chambered, and then the magazine removed, topped off, and replaced.
Defensive shooting schools:
There are many schools dedicated to training defensive shooting. Some of the most popular are
Gunsite and Thunder Ranch, but there are also smaller schools of roughly equivalent quality.
Selecting one is mostly a matter of talking to people who have been to those schools, and
questioning instructors.
Are these schools worth the cost? It depends; obviously, most defensive shooters don't go to these
schools, and many perform adequately without such training. On the other hand, these schools with
re-enforce good technique and will permit a shooter to train under more realistic situations than he
might otherwise be able to set up. Those who have an interest in shooting may certainly find them
worth their while, and any edge is an advantage, but attending one of these classes isn't an absolute
necessity, if one reads the literature on defensive shooting and trains regularly, one can probably
reach roughly the same level of competence, though perhaps at greater eventual expense and time.
Training on your own:
You may decide that you don't want, or can't afford, to attend one of these schools. Even if you do,
you'll still do some training on your lonesome, at least as a refresher. In self-training it is important to
avoid re-enforcing bad habits, like placing the finger on the trigger prematurely or bad sight
alignment.
First of all, again you'll want to train under somewhat realistic circumstances. Getting involved in
"practical" shooting might seem like a good way to pick up skills, however, while the original intent
of so-called "practical" shooting was to emphasize and investigate real-world techniques, practical
shooting has become a sport, involving the use of extremely specialized, non-defensive weapons,
and tactics that are inadvisable at best. Most tactical shooting course have the shooter firing at ten
or mor e targets, requiring high magazine capacity. Most occur at ranges between 20 and 50 feet, in
bright daylight, with easily identified targets. The targets don't usually weave or dodge, and the
never, ever, shoot back, nor is the shooter generally encouraged to seek cover before firing.
In a real defensive encounter, you will probably be accosted at close range, often in the dark, and
otherwise in circumstances that you would not have chosen. Your attackers will probably be within
7 yards, and quite possibly within touching distance. You may or may not have the opportunity to
seek cover, but your first instinct ought to be to look for cover while drawing your weapon, rather
than plunking down into a stance out in the open.
You don't want targets shooting back, of course, but you might imagine that they are. For instance,
you might want to simulate taking cover, giving yourself a time limit in which to hit the target, and if
you don't make it under the limit, YOU "got hit". Learn to use barricades and other forms of cover
and concealment. When using a barricade, it is usually best to stay a little back from the barricade
rather than snugging up to it, so as to be able to take full cover more quickly. You might set up
"enemy" and "friendly" targets, and try to only hit the "enemy" targets. You'll also want to practice
drawing and firing from sitting, lying, and prone positions; you may have to defend yourself from a
carjacker, or someone who breaks into your hotel room while you are sleeping. Try to practice for
any situation in which you might find yourself. The best way to practice is to set up drills; keep
running through these drills, and if necessary, record your performance to see how well you are
doing and what you need to concentrate on. Many drills can be done at home, with dry-fire.
You'll want to pay particular attention to drawing from your holster, or from however you carry
your weapon. People often flub the draw by grabbing clothing, or gripping the gun improperly,
particularly when under stress. Practicing your draw should be another drill, and it should be one
smooth motion, from holster to aim. If you wear a jacket, the non-firing hand may be used to sweep
clothing out of the way. While you are at it, you might try drawing with the non-firing hand; you may
find yourself in a situation in which your strong hand is injured, forcing you to shoot with the weak
hand. You need to learn to draw and fire with the weak hand as well as the normal shooting hand.
Because you are learning by "muscle memory" it is important to keep the gun in the same place;
don't change carry methods or the placement of a home defense gun frequently, and if you do,
spend some time re-training your instincts.
Another drill, besides drawing and aiming, is clearing a malfunction. On a revolver this is either trivial
or impossible; either the bullet doesn't fire, you pull the trigger and advance to the next chamber, or
the mechanism fails, rendering the gun useless until it is taken to the gunsmith. With an autoloader,
however, failures can occur due to bad ammo, loose grip, or just a happenstance, like clothing being
caught in the ejection port. You should learn to clear these failures automatically, using the
"tap-rack-bang" drill; that is, when a failure occurs in which the ejection port is closed, you should
tap the bottom of the magazine with the heel of the hand, rack the slide, and pull the trigger. If the
ejection port is open, either with a "stovepipe" jam in which a spent cartridge gets caught in the port,
an "ejection failure" in which the spend cartridge remains in the chamber, or a "twin feed" in which
the magazine attempts to feed two bullets at once, causing a jam, the slide should be locked ba ck,
the magazine partially removed, the offending cartridge or loaded round removed either by plucking
it out, or if loose, turning the gun upside down and shaking the offending mass out, tapping the
magazine back into place and racking the slide if necessary. These drills should become nearly
automatic. Of course, if you have a "backup" weapon, you'll want to draw it first rather than mess
with clearing a jam, but if not, you need to take cover and clear the malfunction immediately.
One category of techniques that are popular with many of the would-be combat shooting "experts"
are "flashlight positions". Like stances, there are as many out there as there are "experts" and each
proponent seems to have his own favored position named a fter him. While a flashlight can be a
useful thing in a defensive situation, it's a bad idea to stand behind a flashlight, making a beautiful
center-of-mass target. It is better to wait in the shadows and cultivate night vision rather than give
away any degree of tactical surprise, particularly if you know that your opponent is armed with a
firearm. Furthermore, these positions preclude the use of a more stable, two-handed grip. Unless
you are a member of a SWAT team or really want to look cool at expe nse to your safety, you can
ignore these tactics.
Point shooting:
Point shooting is a topic so controversial that it demands its own discussion. Some people simply do
not "believe" in point shooting. To them one must always index the sights visually, or you are in
violation of safe firearm handling. Others endorse it thoroughly, praising it beyond its realistic
abilities. In truth, point shooting is a technique that has its advantages and limitations, and it is a
mistake to dismiss it out of hand or to adopt it universally.
First off all, point shooting is NOT "spray-and-pray", unaimed shooting. It is, rather, a technique by
which one aims the gun through hand-eye coordination. This is not unlike the way an experienced
driver can drive a car without constant visual indexing of the car against the sidelines. Of course,
when one goes through a narrow aperture or around an unfamiliar curve, one might resort to a
frequent visual index to assure that the car stays on the road. The same is true with point shooting;
with a fire arm with which the shooter is familiar, at close range, it can be relatively accurate, but
with an unfamiliar firearm or at a larger distance, such fire might not be considered "aimed" at all. It
is without a doubt that in terms of accuracy and shot placement alone, visually indexed fire is
superior to point shooting, and no experienced shooter would claim to be a better shot by point
shooting than by visual aiming. Why, then, would one resort to point shooting?
While in accuracy terms point shooting may be an inferior technique, there are tactical concerns
which might make aimed fire disadvantageous. For instance, an attacker might be upon you before
you can fire your weapon. In such a case, were your weapon a lready drawn but unaimed, you
would not wish to bring the weapon up to eye level and extended out to arm's length, exposing it to
a grapple. In such a situation you would prefer to keep the weapon low and close to the body
where an attacker will have less chance of taking, or possibly even seeing the weapon. Another
case might be a situation in which you fire from a non-standing position; for instance, let us imagine
hypothetically, that you are the target of a "bump and jack" car-jacking. By the time you regain your
wits, your attacker might already be at your door, having broken or preparing to break the window.
Your best option is to hit the gas, but if a car or other obstruction is in front of you that option may
not be available, and your next op tion is to use your firearm. Will you turn fully and extend the gun
at eye level, or will you simply point the gun in the direction of theattacker (who is, in this scenario a
few feet away, at most) and fire? A third reason you might use point fire is that the background
lighting may be insufficient to permit you to align the sights. While this is an argument for luminescent
sights, the possibility still exists that you may be able to identify a silhouette as an aggressor but have
insufficient light to see the sights. In such a situation a defender might spend several seconds trying to
align sights while an opponent has the opportunity to fire or charge.
Opponents of point fire argue that these cases are irrelevant, that no trained fighter should allow a
potential attacker to get this close before drawing a weapon. While this may be true, the truth is also
that this can happen; you might be tired, or for some reason unobservant, and even if you are
following tactical procedures fully you can still be the target of an unavoidable maneuver. "Experts"
who argue that this CAN'T happen are denying the fact that it does happen, and fail to recognize
that on t he street, unlike the range or the dojo, such things can happen to the best of fighters, not to
mention the average Joe, and such a claim is parallel to the sensei who fails to teach falling technique
on the grounds that his students shouldn't ever have to fall. There are no guarantees in a fight. Don't
bet that someone can't do it; be prepared for it.
That being said, point shooting is no replacement for aimed fire. As previously stated, when
tactically possible, aimed fire is always preferable. Point shooting is a supplemental technique, to be
used when aiming visually would take too long or would expose the weapon to a snatch attempt.
The maximum range of point shooting depends upon the shooter, but few people can reliably hit a
target beyond 30 feet with point shooting. Thankfully, this is probably the longest distance one
would ever wish to fire without aiming; at 30 feet it takes a fast man around 2 seconds to reach the
shooter, by which time a shooter can fire four or five rounds. Since the vast majority of shootings
take place at less than 30 feet--in fact, many occur at touching or "melee" range--point shooting
becomes a very valid technique.
In point shooting the gun should stay close to the body. There are several forms of point shooting;
one which is popular is the "rock-and- lock" style in which the gun is head by the ribcage, facing the
same direction as the shooter. Another form is to keep the forearm of the shooting hand at the same
level as the floating ribs, moving the torso as necessary. My personal variation on this is to put the
nonshooting arm above the gun to thwart snatch attempts and deflect brass that may fly up into the
face. If this is done, it is important to keep the arm out of the line of fire; I place my hand at chest
level, straight across, with the elbow pointing forward. Whatever form you select, based upon what
feels most comfortable to you, be certain to keep the nonfiring arm out of the way; with the gun so
close, and particularly when trying to stop a snatch, it is easy to let the arm cross the path of the
barrel, so train against that instinct. It is important to be consistent when point shooting; after all, you
are doing this all by hand-eye coordination, so keeping the stance and hold the same is very
important in order to develop consistent accuracy. Train for a variety of positions in which you
would have to use point shooting. For instance, you might be sitting, or standing but turned to the
side, and so forth.
When training for point shooting, start close, with the target at 10 feet or less. When point shooting,
include drawing from holster as part of the drill (and be careful to obey Rule #3.) Once you've
mastered shooting at that range, move the target out a nother 5 feet, and repeat. You will probably
be surprised at how fast range can deteriorate accuracy; there will come a point at which you simply
can't hit the main torso area of the target (if you are using a silhouette target) accurately. For most
people, this is somewhere between 15 to 30 feet. This is the maximum range at which you should
consider point shooting.
Point shooting requires constant training, just as does visually aimed fire, but with point shooting this
is imperative; the only way you have to determine where the bullet is going is how your body
"knows" the proper position. If you select a new weapon, you'll also have to practice with it, going
through the whole routine, as it is likely to throw off your sense of aim. As with any psychomotor
skill, you must exercise it in order to maintain it, but people are visually oriented, and without the
direc t visual cues a skill becomes significantly more difficult and more easily forgotten.
Do not bother trying to learn some of the "tactical" point shooting skills shown in the movies and on
the televison. Skills like firing while jumping through the air or firing while rolling across the floor are
just plain useless; whatever method you use to fire, if you aren't in a stable position, it is unlikely that
you will hit anything, and certainly not while your point of aim moves rapidly or rotates from your
perspective.
Point shooting is a difficult skill; don't be frustrated if at first you have little success. Concentrate on
trigger technique and dry firing practice, and spend a few minutes every range period in point
shooting, and you will develop a skill for it.
F. Melee and "empty hand" defense:
The term "melee" refers to close combat in which the participants do not use any kind of projectile
weapons; unarmed or "empty hand" fighting is a special form of melee in which the participant does
not have any weapons save his hands, feet, and other appendages (and, of course, the grey one
between the ears.) The distinction is less than people often imagine; the use of melee weapons
(clubs, knives) is really nothing more than an extension of unarmed fighting. The weapon is used in
the same way that a n atural "weapon" would be, except that it allows the user greater range and/or
penetration.
It is not the purpose of this document to serve as a primer for unarmed self-defense; that is a topic
that manages to fill up many volumes of books written by people more experienced that myself, and
even then it is questionable that one can learn unarmed combat from any book. Rather that
attempting to cover the topic in detail while endeavoring to be brief, I will instead highlight the topics
of interest, give a few suggestions as to appropriate and inappropriate forms, and reference the
reader to one or more of the books in Appendix D which covers this topic in greater detail.
The reader might ask, "If you aren't going to cover this topic in detail, why cover it at all?" The
response to that is that although this manual is written with the firearm-possessing defender in mind,
anyone who carries a weapon for defense ought to be prepared to fight unarmed ifrequired. You
might find yourself in a situation in which you wish to defend yourself without drawing a firearm, or
in a situation in which your opponent is too close to permit you to draw your arm without risking a
snatch. In such a situation, a modicum of unarmed fighting skill can give you the ability to escape or
create a barrier of distance from which you can better defend yourself. Unarmed fighting doesn't
require great strength or a funny pajamas and a dark-hued belt ; it requires a basic understanding of
what part of the body hurts the most when hit, what part of the body is best used to hit other people
in order to cause them to hurt or stunned, and how to put the two together to place an effective
strike in an effe ctive place. Being able to execute a back-spin kick/crescent kick combination is
impressive, but an elbow to the temple or a fist to the bladder is often just as effective and much
easier to learn.
In unarmed fighting, the tendency of most people, no doubt based upon years of this portrayal in
movies, is to throw a punch at the face. Not only is this obvious, it is often ineffective, not to mention
injurious to the fist in question. While the face has several good targets, these tend to be more of the
stunning sort; no one ever died from a black eye, and while a broken nose might hurt, it won't stop
an attacker from pummeling you into the ground. The jaw, where such hits are usually aimed, contai
ns one of the most powerful muscles in the body, and the mandible is an arch shape which as any
structure engineer can testify, is able to withstand considerable force before fracturing. (In fact, most
"broken jaws" aren't broken at all, but rather dislocated from their socket.)
On the other hand, targets like the kidneys, the bladder, and the solar plexus are poorly armored
and very effective stoppers when struck solidly. Furthermore, they are uncommon targets among the
uninitiated so that while an attacker might instinctively shield his face, he will often leave other targets
open. The knee is a particularly good target; it is very difficult to protect, fairly easily damaged, and
once someone takes a good knee shot, they will go down and stay down.
One myth of unarmed fighting is the "ball shot". Strikes to the groin are old hat; anyone who has
been around the block knows of them and expects one. They aren't always effective, either. There
are folks who, by virtue of experience, can take a solid groin strike and keep on moving. They might
be crossing their eyes when they walk for the next few days, but they'll ignore the immediate pain in
favor of imprinting their fist on your body or sticking a knife between your ribs. Groin strikes are
better saved as a secondary move, after the opponent has opened himself up and you've stunned
him.
Effective unarmed self-defense begins with balance. The reason a lot of black belts get pummelled
on the street is that while they've gone through the ranks and learned all sorts of gee-whiz moves,
they left their balance back with their yellow belt...if indeed it was ever stressed at all. Anytime you
get off balance you are prone to attack. If you stay in balance, your ability to withstand attack
becomes much greater, because you aren't fighting yourself to stay up as well as fighting your
opponent. Most styles of karate and other martial arts teach several stances, but the basic theme is
to stay low, keep your feet at least shoulder width, and keep the front knee bent, both for enhanced
balance and to better withstand knee shots. You want to keep th at balance when moving, so it is
important to practice standing and moving in stance until in a fight it becomes a natural reaction. It is
easy to knock someone down when they are standing straight up, feet together; it is not so easy
when they are in a deep, wide stance. If you train in some form of martial arts (karate, boxing, etc.)
or spar informally with friends, practice keeping your balance.
The second most important aspect of unarmed fighting is blocking. You should learn to block an
opponent's strikes so that they don't hit you; the "stand and take it" attitude may work for John
Wayne in the movies but black eyes and busted noses are no fun, so learn to block. A block is
actually a strike; blocking should be a snapping motion attacking the striking member, which should
stop the attack, injure the offending arm or leg, and open the opponent to subsequent strikes. Learn
to throw multiple blocks, and how to recognize when a punch is coming at you and what type of
block works best to stop that type of punch. If you studying martial arts formally, train hard on the
blocks; a double butterfly kick may look more impressive, but a solid block has more utility.
Strikes are what most people think of when fighting, but there are several martial arts forms that
have little to do with striking. In aikido, for instance, an opponent is taken down simply by using his
own momentum and imbalance against him. Such skill takes time to develop, but it does prevent one
from bruising the hands and feet, and provides an apt demonstration to the importance of
maintaining good balance. Strikes can be broken down into four basic categories; feints, jabs,
grapples, and thrusts. (In his book, _Cheap_Shots,_Ambushes, _And_Other_Lessons_, Marc
MacYoung refers to these as Setups, Rattlers, Maimers, and Nighty-Nite Bunny Rabbits,
respectively.) Feints, jabs, and thrusts can be done with any striking surface (fist, feet, elbow, etc.)
while a grapple is pretty much limited to the hands.
A feint is a type of strike that may make light contact but is really intended to trick your opponent
into losing his balance or opening up a better target. Feints use arm movement only (or whatever
limb is striking); no weight is committed. (Committment describes the amount of inertia put into a
strike; an arm strike uses only the strength of the arm, while a more powerful strike might us torso or
hip movement as well.) A jab is a more potent blow, intended to make contact and do some
damage. It usual ly requires a greater degree of commitment, with a corresponding amount of
damage. (An exception is the vaunted "2 inch" and "3 inch" punches of expert martial artists, but
these require a degree of skill that is irrelevant here.) A grapple is a differe nt type of strike; while
the grappler make slap or hit the opponent, the main damage comes from the grabbing action. For
instance, a grappler might strike the groin, but then grab and squeeze the, uh, well, you get the idea.
A grappler might hit the face and then attempt to gouge the eyes or tear the ear off. (Yes, this is
gory stuff. However, in a combat situation, your duty isn't to protect your attacker or succumb to
queasiness. You want to live, and to do that you want to take down the attacker in the most efficient
manner possible. If this means gouging, tearing, or ripping, so be it...he made the decision to attack
you, and so the responsibility is his for making the mistake of attacking the sheepdog rather than the
sheep.) Grapples can be very effective moves, but require quickness. While they are done primarily
with the hands, they don't really require great hand strength, though long fingernails are of benefit. A
thrust is a very powerful blow, usually requiring the commitment of the entire body. Many
inexperienced fighters throw thrust-type blows as the first shot, putting themselves off balance. A
thrust is better thrown after the attacker is stunned or tired, when he will not be as likely to block
effectively.
Flashy maneuvers involving spinning or kicking above the waist are very popular with some of the
Oriental martial arts crowd, but in fact these moves will get you hurt or killed in a real fight. When
performing this type of move the defender is usually off-balance. In the case of a high kick, he is
also opening himself to a very easy counterattack, due to his off-balance state, exposure of targets,
and time required to connect. Most streetfighters advise against high kicks, preferring to kick for the
knee or shin.
Although not popular in commercial fighting sports like boxing or kickboxing, sweeps, reaps, and
throws are very effective maneuvers that require little strength on the part of the user. A sweep is a
forward motion of the leg which sweeps one or both legs out from under the opponent. A reap is
basically the same action as a sweep except it is a reverse motion of the leg; the reap is more
powerful than a sweep, but takes longer to get the leg into position. A throw is done by pivoting the
opponent across the hip or back, using the leg strength to lift and propel the opponent. When
executing a throw it is important to snug the hip up to the opponent, keeping the hip below the
intended pivot, and just back into the opponent while pulling him around the pivot. Properly done,
there is very little one can do to resist a throw.
When performing a sweep or throw the most important action is to stay low in stance and maintain
balance. Often, when these are done in the movies or by inexpert people, raw strength is used to
execute the action, but the proper way uses the imbalance and inertia of the opponent to force him
against himself. It often helps to do something to put the attacker off balance; for instance, if you are
preparing to throw someone, it is beneficial to put an elbow in his solar plexus to prevent struggle
while ex ecuting the throw. Another point is timing; timing is everything in a sweep or throw, not only
in executing the initial act but in delivering the opponent to the ground. A well timed throw will open
an opponent up and force him to hit the ground spreadeagled with head, elbows, and ankles
slamming against the floor, while a different timing will jerk the opponent from harm (useful when
practicing without a mat.) There is really no way to describe the timing; it has to be experienced.
Martial artists also practice trapping, wrestling, and holding maneuvers. While some of these can be
useful, others are not, in terms of open combat, and you don't want to stand around with an attacker
in a wrist bend while his friends bear down on you enmasse. In any case, the individual actions are
too complex to describe in words; it is best to reference a well illustrated book, or better yet take a
course to gain an understanding of these types of moves.
It is important to learn what targets are effective; as previously mentioned, the head isn't a
particularly good target for most strikes, though it does have some interesting possibilities for
grapples. Good general targets are the floating (lowest) ribs, the solar plexus (below the sternum),
the kidneys, the bladder, the spine, the knees and other major joints, the collarbone, throat, and the
feet are all good targets for a variety of moves. This is a topic that has many aspects and it is
recommended that you procure one or more of the self-defense books in the appendix or receive
training at a self-defense school to better appreciate the utility of various targets.
Unarmed defensive training:
The above paragraphs barely scratch the surface of unarmed fighting; you certainly can't learn it
from just reading a book, any more than a person could become an expert marksman from reading
sniper manuals. You must go out and practice, preferably with someone else. What you practice
and how much you practice is dependant upon you; clearly, a middle-aged professional woman isn't
(probably) going to go down the the local boxing gym and spar with the amateur fighters. For most
people, a passing familiarity with the aspects of unarmed fighting is all that they will have interest in,
or time for. There is certainly no level at which one knows "enough" or is good "enough" that he
need not learn more so...so if you learn, learn what you think will be most useful to you.
Safety is an important consideration; a new move should be tried slowly, until mastered, and then
the speed of the attack and defense accelerated. Some of the available safety gear isn't particularly
useful, as it is designed for straight kickboxing, but a punching bag or pads are useful to get a feeling
for the penetration of a strike. (Kickboxers, used to light contact fighting, often revert to type in a
fight, failing to deliver penetrating, damaging blows.)
It is questionable that you can learn fighting from a book at all, and learning by experience (whether
real or simulated) is a slow process in which mistakes are made that are not readily caught and
corrected. If you really have an interest in unarmed fighting, it is suggested that you take a course in
unarmed self-defense that is conversant with your desired skill level. There are many basic
self-defense courses available--most targeted at women--which emphasize basic moves and attitude
over rigid stan ce and movement, and which place the defender in simulated attack situations.
Model Muggings is one group that does this; they have obtained quite a degree of effectiveness in
permitting their students to repeal attackers in real situations with bare han ds and improvised
weapons. There are other groups like this as well; check your phone book or with the local police.
If a higher level of skill is desired, enrollment in a self-defense school which teaches ongoing classes
is recommended. Some, but not all of these, are based upon one form or another of Oriental martial
arts (tae kwon do, kenpo, aikido, ju-jitsu, etc.) When looking for a school, if you are interested
primarily in defense, it is important to look for real application of their teaching. Many schools and
styles cater almost exclusively to competition use--this is particularly true of tae kwon do and shoto
kan--and what they teach can get one killed on the street. Some schools are big trophy cases, or
hand out belts rapidly, to maintain interest (for a testing fee, of course.) You don't want this; what
you want is a school that teaches hard fighting. Scho ols that combine several styles are generally
more practical than "traditional" style schools. Any instructor can look impressive; a test of his
school is to see how impressive his higher belt students are. When selecting a school, talk to the
instructor; ask him what he thinks the most important part of fighting is (hint: attitude). Explain what
you are looking for, and ask him about other schools and styles. If he says a lot of derogatory things
about other local schools, he's probably not a good in structor...he should be promoting his school
and style, not trying to bash others. It is also good to talk to his students and see how they like the
school, and if permitted, attend a couple of classes. Don't get too worried about the formalities; if
the sensei (instructor) is abusive or overly negative, or demands very rigid customs and formalities,
then you'd probably be better with another school. You aren't joining the Army and going to boot
camp here, and the more unpleasant a school the less likely you are to attend. This isn't to say that
the instructor should not demand respect or should permit horseplay in class--quite the
converse--but there is a fairly clear line between being strict and being abusive, and there are some
(usually inferior or unconfident) instructors who cross that line.
While most formal training comes from schools that utilize one or more of the Oriental martial arts,
there are a lot of "retireds" out there who are as expert, if not more so, than most black belts. Most
don't advertise or sell their skill, but if you are associated with one, he would be a good source for
"informal" training. Many of these folks have been in real combat and will have some good insights
on "real fighting" as opposed to sparring in the dojo.
If you attend a formal school, you'll probably be required to wear some kind of uniform, both to
make the class look sharper, and to save wear and tear on street clothes. This is fine for the dojo,
but you'll want to practice your moves in regular street clothes sometimes; a move that might work
in a loose-fitting ghee might not be so easy in a suit and tie, and kicking barefoot is a lot different
than kicking in boots. Ghees are worn in most dojos because they are practical, but also because
they were traditional "street wear" in the Orient when these styles were developed.
G. Armed melee defense:
Armed melee defense is a lot like unarmed defense, only with weapons that have better penetration
and/or distance. Many of the tactics are the same, but you'll emphasize the weapon's greatest
abilities. It is important to remember that even when fighting with a weapon, you aren't limited to that
weapon; you can use your other hand and feet also, a point which many people forget.
When using a club or similar striking weapon, most people aim for the head, as this is what is
generally done in movies and on televison. While it may be popular, it isn't particularly effective. The
head is an obvious, mobile target that requires the d efender to move the weapon well into the line
of sight of the attacker, making the attack vulnerable to both parry and counterattack. The head
itself, while containing the delicate brain, is the most heavily armored part of the human body and
can absorb a surprising amount of damage, particularly if the attacker is intoxicated. Strikes with a
club or similar weapon should attack the joints, particularly the wrists and knees, the solar plexus,
the floating ribs, the kidneys, and the spinal column. A bump on the head or a broken nose may hurt
an attacker, but a busted knee cap or shifted kidney will put him out of the predator business long
enough for you to make your exit.
Knives are another story. Blades aren't particularly recommended for defense because of the
attributes previously mentioned; however, if you are going to use a knife for defense, you'll want to
go for targets that bleed the fastest or disable arms and le gs. Expect to get cut if your opponent has
a knife; the common wisdom among streetfighters is that in a real knife fight, one combatant goes to
the emergency room and the other to the morgue. The longer the blade, the better, and fixed blade
knives are preferred for combat, as there isn't any locking mechanism to break and collapse the
blade on your hand, but in most circumstances people are forced to carry folding knives with
relatively short blades. A sword is a somewhat better weapon (though even more difficult to
conceal) but still isn't particularly good; the range increase isn't that much, and while a
sword-wielding opponent is probably a menacing sight, swords to require some skill to use without
hacking off some of your own body parts.
Throwing knives are preposterous defensive weapons. Not only is the amount of knife-throwing
skill required to be able to throw a knife at any given distance accurately more than than that
required to shoot a handgun, the knife is not as effective a weapon. In any case, blades of all sizes
should be handled with the same care accorded to firearms. It is certainly not recommended to
carry a knife for defense, or use one except as last resort.
Armed training schools and seminars are less popular than unarmed styles, partially because
unarmed styles have "sport appeal" and partially because the carrying of a weapon is considered
reprehensible enough to make it an unpopular pursuit. Still, there are some around which are
worthwhile; if this is your interest, look for one.
IV. Strategy and Tactics
Strategy and tactics are the nuts and bolts of self-defense; a good strategy and set of tactics can turn
the tide in your favor, even if you are surprised, outnumbered, or outgunned. Strategy is the overall
goal and plan, e.g. "If there is an intruder in the house, I'll get my family to the safe room/defensive
core and call the police from there." Tactics are the specific implementation, such as methods of
defensive shooting or specific measures taken to stop an attack. Developing a good defensive
strategy isn't difficult; it simply takes a little bit of thought and good sense. You must continue to
review your strategy and update your tactics to conform to your situation, though. Different or
transient situations require differing strategies and tactics; a strategy that will work well for a home
owner might not be acceptable for a business owner.
It is futile to talk about strategy without mentioning tactics--you can make grandiose plans, but if you
aren't equipped to carry them out, they are for naught--and conversely talking about tactics without
note to strategy is to emulate the headless chicken, so tactics and strategy will be discussed
implicitly. But bear in mind the difference between them; you can change tactics while leaving the
strategy intact, but without a strategy, a means toward some goal, the tactics are nonsense.
We'll first look at general strategy and tactics that apply to all situations and then look at some
specific defensive strategies.
A. General strategy:
The overall strategy, of course, is to survive; in addition, you might include protecting your family
and close associates, property, etc. This seems blatantly obvious, but many people forget this and
take actions that are not within this strategy. Your job (presuming that you are a citizen) is not to
enforce the law, punish wrongdoers, obtain retribution, and so forth: these functions are performed
by other, better endowed institutions. Perhaps you feel otherwise; if so, that is your choice, but
under stand that you are accepting greater risk and greater liability. No matter how just your
purpose, you may find yourself arrested and tried for chasing down a criminal or enforcing your own
justice.
On the other hand, it should go without saying that you should not rely upon police response to
provide for your absolute protection even in areas where 911 service is available. Clearly, the
existance of the 911 system in most areas has not reduced crim e to acceptable levels, and even a
good response time is not fast enough to prevent someone from shooting you. In some areas, or in
some situations, response time may be hours or not at all. Your strategy should be rooted in the fact
that your personal safety is *your* responsibility.
Your strategy should include an understanding of the legal limitations of your authority: in general,
this means that you may only exercise lethal force to:
Defend yourself against a lethal threat
Defend other innocent people against a lethal threat
Stop a violent felony crime in progress (rape, murder, armed robbery, perhaps arson)
In general, you may not use lethal force to:
Stop a criminal from fleeing a crime scene once the crime has been committed (unless he
presents a clear deadly hazard to others)
Prevent an unarmed criminal from stealing or vandalizing property
Defend yourself against purely verbal threats
Threaten people who commit non-violent crimes (trespassers, protesters, etc.)
These are general guidelines; the specifics differ widely from state to state; in some states, you may
use lethal force to defend property at certain times, and in others you may be required to retreat to a
point of no escape before considering the use of force in defense. The state penal laws tell some of
the tale, but there is also the matter of public sentiment, legal precedent, and the political bent of the
local prosecutor to take into account. A prosecutor might put you in front of a grand jury, even if the
law says you are in the clear...or he might refuse to press charges, even if you were in technical
violation of the law. Whether your strategy involves staying inside the legal boundaries or not is your
decision, but you would be well advised to know what those boundaries are. The best source of
that information is a lawyer who specializes in criminal defense law; what you should look for is a
lawyer who understands the local political scene and is familiar with the precedents rather than a
lawyer who simply repeats the legal codes back at you.
Obviously, it is to your benefit to plan your strategy to stay within the law, but there are some
unfortunate situations where defending yourself and complying with the law conflict, and in such
situations the decision rests with you. The best alternative is to go someplace where your right to
protect yourself is legally recognized, but this isn't always convenient or even possible for many
people, and so there often comes a decision between the pragmatic and the legitimate. The
harrowing experience of Bernhard Goetz, who shot four aspiring young punks in a robbery attempt,
should serve as a reminder to those who chose to carry a gun despite the legal consequences.
Most people think of defending against an attack in terms of physical defense, i.e. combat. This is
certainly one mode, but it is a last resort; the idea is to take action to prevent a potential attack from
coming to the point at which blows are thrown or bullets start flying. There is a lot that can be done
to stop an attack before it gets to the physical confrontation level, and this should be a part of your
defensive strategy. In developing defensive strategy, there are four basic modes of defense:
AWARENESS means being aware of your situation, your surroundings, and your own limitations. If
you live or work in a bad part of town, be aware of your surroundings. If you are out late at night,
without accompaniment, understand that your likelihood of being a target of violent crime is
considerably increased; don't linger or wander aimlessly. If you think someone is following you, take
a detour, or stop in a well-lighted area and permit them to pass. Some might consider this paranoid;
these are usually the same folks who wonder how it could have happened to them when they do
become the target of a crime. In truth you are investigating your surroundings and assessing your
situation instead of wandering blindly into an ambush. By paying attention to your situation, you are
not only giving yourself lead time and eliminating the advantage of surprise in the case of an attack,
but you are also projecting an aura of awareness. Criminals like targets that are "soft", who aren't
paying attention or prepa ring to defend themselves. Some attacks can be stopped simply by turning
around, looking the attacker straight in the eye, and asking "Do you need something?" An attacker
expects submission; by taking the first move and establishing dominance, you may throw a potential
attacker off his stride and cause him to re-evaluate his intentions. And if he wasn't an attacker, the
worst you've done is look a little foolish, if that. You'd look more foolish in the morgue.
Preparation means taking steps to be ready to defend yourself. Purchasing and learning how to use
a gun, taking a self-defense class, or determining a defensive strategy are all types of preparation.
Some might consider this "looking for trouble", but you are, rather, "hoping for the best and
preparing for the worst." In being prepared, having a strategy and the means of self-defense
available, you'll have the ability to deal with an attack, whereas an unprepared person might just
panic or give in.
Mental preparation is just as important, if not more so than physical preparation. It doesn't matter if
the defender is armed with the most high tech, fastest firing weapon available; if he or she freezes in
indecision or fear, the armament is useless. It is best to think through all common situations and
come up with conditional ("if...then...else") decisions, so that when they are faced with that situation,
your decision has already been made, and all that remains is to execute the best tactics to achieve
your predetermined goal. Not only does this free up your mind for tactical decisions, but it also
permits you to make the decisions without the pressure of immediate actions, so that you have time
to review those decisions and adapt to make them better, both strategically and legally.
Prevention means staying out of harm's way or convincing the attacker that you are a hard target;
that it will cost him more than he can expect to receive. Staying out of bad areas or taking action to
inhibit a stalker are efforts of prevention. By running up the banner and demonstrating to an attacker
that you are aware and prepared, you are possibly preventing an attack.
Combat is the ultimate defensive act. There are some who argue that you should never engage in
combat, that you should submit rather than "lower yourself to violence." Others encourage
awareness and prevention, but gloss over a combat situation by claiming that a properly prepared
person will never need to fight. In a word, bullshit. The efforts you make, being aware, preparing
against and preventing an attack, may reduce your likelihood of being the target of crime, but there
is always a risk. If you aren't prepared to repulse a predator, with lethal force if necessary, you
aren't prepared to defend yourself at all. It is an extreme circumstance, but one that is all too
common, as the perusal of any big city newspaper will demonstrate all too well. Victims come from
all races, all social classes, all walks of life and economic circumstances; criminals don't care about
the unmarked "crime-free zones" that many people seem to think exist, and they aren't swayed by
your gentleness or devotion to your family. A violent criminal considers you a "mark"; don't do him
any favors by trying to show mercy until you've ended the attack and have control over the situation.
A violent attack is no time for social work.
Most people just assume that it won't or can't happen to them; that it is always someone else, with
less virtue or faith in the law who is attacked. The don't prepare--after all, that would be
paranoid--and then when they are targeted, they wonder how it could have happened to them...if
they are still alive. By being aware and prepared, ready to respond, with force if necessary, you
stand a much greater chance of coming out of such an attack alive.
Awareness, prevention, and preparation are really the big factors in self-defense. However, because
combat is such a desperate and immediate situation, it tends to get the most attention in the literature
and in self-defense training. While not belittling the need for good combat tactics, understand that a
good sense of awareness combined with preparation may stop many attacks, and will better
prepare you for combat should the situation arise.
B. Cover and concealment
If you are unfortunately enough that a situation, despite your efforts, escalates to combat, your goal
is to end it as quickly as possible, opening up an escape route for yourself, driving off your
attackers, or incapacitating your attackers. Your purpose isn't to punish, no matter how desirable
that may seem, nor to seek out or hunt down your attackers. Your interest should be in your
self-preservation; that means that, especially in a gun fight, the first thing you'll do is take cover or
concealment. Once under cover, or concealment, you've bought yourself some time to make plans,
draw your weapon, clear a weapon malfunction, etc. Seeking cover can do more to preserve your
life than any weapon; no firearm will stop a bullet (except in the unlikely chance that the bullet
happens to hit the gun), but good cover will.
The distinction between cover and concealment is often misunderstood. This can be a lethal
mistake. Cover is an obstacle that will stop an attack, like a solid core door or the engine block of a
car. Concealment is an obstacle that may hide you, but th at cannot be relied upon to stop a bullet.
Some barriers look like cover, but are actually concealment; the average sheetrock residential wall,
for instance, won't stop any bullet unless it happens to hit a stud. Ignore claims of how bushes will
deflect bullets; the people who make these claims are distinctly unwilling to stand behind a bush and
have someone shoot at them to prove it. You want to take cover if possible; if not, then use the
most secure form of concealment.
When taking cover, don't hug up against it. Leave yourself some room for mobility. Always watch
your flanks, particularly if there is more than one attacker, and look for other cover to which to
retreat. If you are forced to use concealment rather than cover, keep in mind that concealment will
not stop a bullet. Any time you expose yourself (as in to return fire) you should change position as
much as possible in order to defeat attempts to hit you by firing on your previously concealed
location.
Body armor:
Also of note is "portable cover"; that is, body armor. Body armor, which in modern terms is
Kevlar(tm) fabric sometimes reinforced with other materials, is a useful item of apparel if you are
threatened, but it isn't the absolute defense as incorrectly claimed by some people. A bullet-
resistant vest will stop a round if the bullet is below the rating of the vest, and if the bullet hits the
vest, rather than hitting you in the arm, leg, or head.
Body armor comes in for basic ratings, Levels I-IV. Level I body armor is very lightweight armor
that is rated to stop the less powerful cartridges; while it is the most comfortable to wear, it is also
the least effective. Level II is the most common type of body armor; it comes in a different
sublevels, but basically it will stop most common handgun rounds and some of the weaker rifle
rounds. The addition of "threat" or "trauma" plates, which are inserts that fit into the vest which will
stop more pow erful rounds, can increase the protection of the vest, but make the vest even more
uncomfortable and bulky. Level II is generally the heaviest type of body armor that can be
comfortably worn on a daily basis. Level III armor is designed to stop all hand gun rounds and most
rifle rounds; it is uncomfortable, but tolerable, to wear for extended periods of time and police
officers who work in high threat areas will sometimes be seen with this armor. Level IV, or "threat
armor", incorporates hard panels (li ke the afformentioned "threat plates") and will stop virtually all
handgun and rifle rounds, but is very heavy (weighing in at around 50 lbs) and uncomfortable to
wear, and so is generally seen in use only by SWAT teams and the like.
Level I and Level II armor are typically available for sale to civilians through some outlets, although
there are locales which limit the purchase of these types of vest, and there is currently (as of 10/95)
an effort on the federal level to restrict sale s of these vests to law enforcement only. Level III and
IV vests are generally restricted to law enforcement sale, and since these types of armor can't really
be concealed except under a loose raincoat, they don't hold much application for the typical de
fender. Not all makes of armor are equal. Some brands are notably more comfortable, are better
designed, or give more coverage, and the state of the art is constantly improving. Vests made even a
few years ago are surpassed in protection and comfort whil e reducing weight and bulk. Some
companies offer similarly rated vests for substantially lower prices, but it is important to compare the
individual features of each vest, trying them on if possible.
If you chose to purchase a vest, bear a few things in mind. First of all, a vest only works if you are
wearing it; a Level I vest which is comfortable enough that you will wear it every day offers far more
protection than a Level III vest which is so hot or bulky that you only wear it when the weather is
cool or your clothing permits. Cost is a fair indicator in vests, and the cheaper vests tend to less
comfortable. Also take note of the manufacturer's specific claims about protection; the rated levels
don't tell the whole story, as some of the multi-weave vests will stop a knife, while similarly rated
single weave vests won't. Second-hand vests can be an inexpensive way to go, but understand that
vest material breaks down with usage, so examine the material for wear. If you do buy a vest, be
certain to follow the manufacturer's instructions about cleaning to keep the vest in top condition,
especially if you wear your vest on a regular basis. Also, look at how much protection the vest
design offers; some vests offer add-on side, neck, and groin protection, which can be particularly
important in a high-threat environ.
A vest definitely improves your chances of surviving a gun fight, but it isn't a panacea; one
consideration is that an attacker might shoot for a non-protected area, particularly the head. It is
important that if you wear a vest, it is concealed, so as not to give encouragement to such wit.
Another is that an attacker might use a weapon for which the vest doesn't offer full protection. Level
II vests won't stop high powered rifle rounds, and some will not stop knives. Fortunately, most
urban criminals tend to use low powered handguns (media frenzies about "high powered assault
weapons" to the contrary) which have no chance of penetrating through vest material.
One factor that has received much media attention, but that you really need not worry about are
armor-piercing bullets. These supposed "cop- killers" that received so much media attention a few
years ago, and then again recently in the bogus "Black Rhino" circus, are made of a dense, hard,
sharp bullet, usually covered by some kind of Teflon(tm) coating. While they certainly will penetrate
most types of body armor, the original design, the KTW, was designed FOR police officers to
better penetrate through windshields and other barriers which stopped or deflected conventional
rounds. The Teflon(tm) coating does not increase the penetration of the bullet; rather, it was
designed to prevent the bullet from being deflected by sticking to hard, slick surfaces like glass, and
actually impedes the penetration of the bullet somewhat. At any rate, these "cop-killers" are rarely
seen, outside of special tactics law enforcement units, and have never been used to kill a police
officer in any recorded instance. Eve n before NRA-backed legislation that banned commercial
sales of such ammo, it was rarely found on dealer shelves, and it is so extremely unlikely that you
will ever come across an attacker armed with such bullets that it bears no practical consideration.
C. Predator Types:
"Know your enemy as you know yourself, and you may fight a hundred battles without
defeat."
Paraphrased from Sun Tzu's The Art of War
As a victim of violent crime, you don't really care what motivates your attacker...or do you?
Perhaps you don't care about his bad childhood or unfortunate lifelong addiction to drugs (after all,
you didn't cause his problems) but by understanding his motivations, you may be able to prevent an
attack, or cause your attacker to back off. In pursuit of this idea, we'll run through the common
criminal or aggressor types.
Violent Drunk/Stoned Aggressor: Some people become aggressive when intoxicated or under the
influence of drugs. Because they are under the influence, they can be very difficult to deal with. It is
generally thought that defeating such a person is "easy", because most people associate intoxication
with reduced coordination, but this is not always the case, particularly with crack cocaine or other
types of non-depressant drugs. In addition, an aggressor under the influence may not feel pain and
can often take considerable damage. It is usually best simply to leave the situation and wait for the
person to sober up. If this is not possible, then the next best thing is to take the aggressor down and
restrain him until he is sober.
This type of attack often occurs in domestic situations, and it is an unfortunate fact that many times
police won't respond to domestic disputes, or place it low on response priority, despite the fact that
such disputes can easily escalate in violence, of ten to murder. If you live with such a person,
consider moving out, getting a divorce, or whatever is appropriate, until the person recognizes that
he/she has a drug/alcohol problem and gets treatment. The problem won't go away by itself, and as
long as you are there, there is no motivation to correct the problem. For women and children there
are programs that help them escape this situation.
If this occurs to you with a stranger as the aggressor, as in a bar or public event, the best thing to do
is either contact the most convenient authority (barkeep, bouncer, manager, or police) and let them
take care of it. If this doesn't work, or there is no authority, then the best advice is simply to leave,
and don't go back for a while. You don't need to spend the night in "The Tank" for someone else's
poor behavior, or pay for Mr. Beernut's hospital bill after you break his arm, and with any luck he'll
probably cross some other individual that will take care of him, preferably a police officer. If you
have to confront such a person, speak softly and be prepared for uninitiated violence, but it is better
to let the authorities handle this if at all possible.
Flasher: Flashers are almost always harmless, though demented, people who are rarely violent. The
best course of action you can take is to ignore them or report the incident to a nearby policeman.
Trespasser, vandal, petty thief: Trespassing, while perhaps annoying, isn't generally a felony offense
unless the trespasser makes threats or performs some act of vandalism or thievery. Even then,
except in limited circumstances, you may not use force to stop the action, though you may bodily
impede their actions. However, it is usually smarter to inform the police and, if possible, collect
evidence (photographs or video recordings) from a distance, rather than risk confrontation,
particularly with gang vandals.
Voyeurs (Peeping Tom): Voyeurism itself isn't a violent crime, and generally isn't a felony, but it can
be an indication of stalking, and voyeurism is often a first step for serial rapists or murderers, so
such an attack, while not being violent itself, should be taken very seriously. The best thing to do is
to try to identify the voyeur and file a report with the police again. Should he later attempt a more
violent act, you then have previous documentation of his actions.
Bully: When you say the word bully, most people think of the guy in sixth grade who was held back
three years in a row and made a living taking other kids' lunch money, but bullies come in all shapes,
sizes...and ages. Bullies don't exist just in grade school; there are adult-grade bullies too. If you can
be patient enough and avoid such, these type of criminal tend to weed themselves out by picking on
the wrong person or taking an openly illegal act and ending up in prison; however, this usually
doesn't happen soon enough. Your parents, or some other adult, probably told you at one time, "If
you stand up to a bully, he'll leave you alone because he doesn't really want to fight." For those who
didn't learn it on the playground, here's an important clue: bullies may not *want* to fight, but most
will in order to maintain the image. Don't push or resist a bully unless you are prepared to defend
yourself. If it is a matter of giving up a seat or letting a wild driver pass you, you might as well give
up the issue; it isn't worth your time and risk, and sooner or later he'll pick on the wrong person and
get pounded but good. However, giving into a bully just encourages him; if it is someone you deal
with on a regular basis, you'd best think of either challenging him, or arranging your situation so you
don't come into contact with him.
If you have to physically fight a bully, go full-force; even if you don't "win", if you can put some
telling blows on him, he'll likely avoid you in the future. He'll forget what he did to you, but will
remember what you did to him. But expect some sizable bruises, if not hospital time. Also, watch
out for his friends (such as they may be.) Bullies sometimes travel in packs, and it goes without
saying that you shouldn't expect a fair fight.
Bullies aren't just the guy down at the local bar; one might as well class sexual harassers, liability suit
"attackers" and the like to be bullies as well, although of somewhat different nature. One can't
generally use physical force on such, as esthetic ally appealing as that may be, though, ladies, if a
guy grabs onto you without permission, he's asking for a broken nose. This type of harassment is
really beyond the scope of this guide, though.
Burglars: A burglar is a type of thief who attempts to steal by stealth, preferring to prey on
unoccupied homes. It is a popular saying that "Burglers aren't armed." Don't believe it; it may be
your last mistake. A burglar usually won't attack, except in self-defense, but he may well be armed,
or arm himself with available weapons. Any individual who breaks into your home should be
considered armed and dangerous until proven otherwise. It is important to identify that the intruder
is *not* a family member or roommate getting a late snack, or sneaking in/out of the house after
curfew; in order to avoid this type of confusion, it is best to set up some kind of signal with other
family members or home occupants. It is also important, in intruder scenarios, to be as patient as
possible, and try to identify the intruder before taking any aggressive action.
Robber: A robber is a type of thief that attempts to steal by the threat of physical force. Robbers
may be armed or unarmed; in either case they should be considered dangerous, and treated
accordingly. Sometimes robbers will kill to eliminate witnesses.
Advice on what to do about robbers is highly varied; some say that you should give them whatever
they want; after all, nothing in your wallet is worth your life. Some even go so far as to consider
robbery just another form of taxation, and routinely carry "throw-down money" to appease a
mugger, the idea being that he'll take the money and run. (Conversely, some consider taxation to be
another form of robbery, but that's another issue.) Others argue that even if you can trust the implicit
agreement ("Give me your money and I won't hurt you,") that robbery is more than just property;
that the robber steals your honor and desecrates the "social contract" or the purpose behind
civilization, and that it is a moral imperative to resist robbery at every opport unity. Your philosophy
on this is up to you, but you'd best work it out before you are faced with such a situation, but
remember that whatever you do, you may still have to defend yourself anyway.
Kidnapper: Abduction is often a prelude to rape, molestation, or murder, and so should be
considered an extremely violent crime. Most states that permit the use of lethal force to prevent
common violent crimes include kidnapping in that range. If you ar e the target, you should do
everything within your power to prevent a abduction; once you are out of the public, you can't
depend on any assistance if injured, and less if any chance of escape. This is a desperate situation,
and it calls for desperate action, but if you are going to be injured, better it be on a public street than
in a remote location. If you view someone else being kidnapped, it is a judgement call; the best thing
to do is to get all the pertinent information, relay it to the police as conveniently as possible, and if
possible follow the kidnappers at a distance (preparing to make your escape if necessary) to
determine their destination. Whether or not you should intervene is a judgement call; it places you
and the victim at risk, both physically and in civil liability, but you may determine it to be necessary.
Child molester: Oddly, child molesters *usually* aren't violent when confronted, and view what they
do as being beneficial to the child in some twisted fashion. There are exceptions, of course, but
generally the best course is to contact the police with the pertinent information.
Rapist: Rapists come in a different grades, from the "date rape" to the lone serial rapist to the gang
rape. "Date rape" often seems to be a situation of misunderstanding; one party simply wasn't
aggressive enough in declining. This isn't to say that it isn't a crime--"No" means "No", and that is all
a person should have to say--but many "date rapes" could probably be ended with a poke to the
eye or a clamping action to the, uh, "wedding tackle", combined with a more forceful statement.
Some date rapists, however, may progress to the more violent stage, which require stronger
counter-action.
The lone (or several) stalker- or serial-rapist is a more serious act, requiring greater force.
Sometimes this type of rapist can be thrown off by a show of awareness; more than once a woman
has driven off a potential rapist by turning, looking the stalk er straight in the eye, and asking, "Can I
help you?" However, this action is not strong enough for every situation.
The gang rape is perpetrated by a group of people (if one can refer to a rapist as a "person"), who
might ordinarily not perpetrate such an act, but together go into a "dog pack" type mode. As with
feral dogs, eliminating the leader will sometimes, but not always, stop the act, and with groups of
three or more, the likelihood of standing ground and successfully defending is poor. It is best to flee
if possible, or take cover and fire at range if not.
When encountering a rapist, there are some people who advise that if the initial defense does not
work you should "give in and pretend it isn't happening to you," rather than to act and risk injury or
death. Given that rapists often severely beat or kill their victims in addition to the main event, I can't
understand the validity of this advice. Others advising using a "stink bomb" on yourself or defecating
and vomiting, claiming that a rapist won't want to touch a victim who is so soiled. Again, this is
another claim that is not backed up by the empirical evidence; after all, the rapist isn't a gentleman
come calling with flowers and chocolate. He isn't after sex, primarily, but domination, and such
superficial defenses are hardly more adequate than a plea for mercy. Furthermore, as a victim, do
you really want to crap all over yourself because someone else attacks you?
It is my experience that the people who best survive a rape are those who fight back. In virtually any
rape situation, I would advise defense, violent and decisive, over passivity or self-despoiling.
Certainly, a rapist may respond in kind, but it is likely that he would anyway, and the more damage
you can do to him, the easier it will be for police to identify him, even if you are dead. Retribution
from the grave may not be gratifying to you, but if you are going to die anyway, you might as well
take him with you, or at least maim him or leave identifying marks on him, and the "go to hell"
attitude of fighting just might convince the attacker to select a less aggressive target.
Murderer: Murderers come in all forms, from the guy who kills his adulterous wife or his cheating
boss, to the punk on the street who kills for fun. If you know that you may be the target of an
attempted murder, the best thing to do is to contact the pol ice and file a report; the police probably
won't do much to protect you--your personal safety isn't their responsibility, and most departments
don't have the man-power to provide more than a nightly drive-by anyway--but in case it does
come to a show-down, if you survive you'll have documented the motivation of your attacker,
making both your criminal and civil defense much easier.
Troublesome, though, are the "random" murders, committed not in deliberance, or even in the heat
of passion, but rather just "for fun", often by adolescent sociopaths. It is difficult to defend against
such an attack; you won't know that you are a target until the bullets start flying or you feel a knife in
the gut, and because there is no motive, there is often no clue as to who the attackers are, or why
they selected you. Your likelyhood of being attacked is greater if you live in an area populated by
such predators, but that doesn't mean that if you don't live in such an area that you don't have to
worry; drive-bys are sometimes performed in wealthy neighborhoods, and even in smaller towns, as
the gangs move out of the inner city. People experienced with gangs can identify gang punks by their
"colors" or markings, but the uninitiated will only see poorly dressed kids, until someone makes the
wrong move and attracts the attention of these feral animals.
Thrill killers: Thrill killers are usually a seriel-type killer that masqurades as another type of criminal.
They aren't after your money or your watch, though they'll take it, tricking you into submission, and
then kill you for the "thrill" of killing. This is one reason not to appease robbers, or at least not to
believe that they won't hurt you.
Stalkers: Stalkers are a special type of criminal; most violent criminals are either close associates
who select you for a reasonably clear motive, or a stranger that selects you because you look rich,
are a conveinent target, or so forth, and the crime is usually a one-time act. A stalker, on the other
hand, may either be an associate or a stranger, but selects a victim based upon some kind of fetish,
and will continue to stalk the victim until either caught in the act of committing some kind of crime or
complete an act, like rape or murder. Stalkers are particularly troublesome since much of what they
do isn't technically illegal in many places, or they take actions that are anonymous enough that they
can't be traced back to the stalker. Stalking is a topic that is broad enough to deserve its own
strategy section, an so we'll go into greater detail on this later.
D. Concealed carry:
"Why concealed carry?" This is a question posed by many people, particularly in situations in which
open carry is legally permitted (if not socially accepted.)
One reason is the tactical advantage in carrying a concealed weapon. If properly concealed, the
attacker doesn't know you have a weapon, and so if you chose to draw your weapon, he won't
know what you are doing, hopefully until you've got the drop on him and are in control of the
situation. More importantly, he won't target you in order to take your weapon. Another point is that
owning a gun does no good unless the owner has it on him when he is attacked; if the attack occurs
outside the home, a gun in the bedstand is of no use whatsoever. Yet another reason is that
concealed carry serves as a deterent: in a society where a significant portion (even only a few
percentage) of the population is armed, albeit not openly, the criminal is gambling that the defender
isn't armed and won't respond with force. Sooner or later, unless he is a statistical anomaly, the
criminal is going to lose that bet; even in Washington, D.C., a criminal will run into an off-duty FBI
agent and receive a 10mm slug for his trou ble once in a while--more so in places where Joe and
Jane Citizen go armed. Furthermore, the fact that your neighbor carries a gun concealed protects
you even if you don't; the criminal isn't going to know who is carrying and who is not. And, of
course, since some people are uncomfortable with the idea of even responsible citizens carrying
guns, concealed carry will keep weapons out of the public view while permitting responsible citizens
to defend themselves.
Some will point out that criminals can take advantage of the process, or that responsible citizens,
habitually armed, will act more aggressively and blow other people away when they get mad. As the
purpose of this guide is not to debate gun control, we'll keep the statistics in check and simply note
that in places where concealed carry is legally permitted, this simply isn't the case. As for criminals
carrying concealed, it seems obvious that a violent criminal who decides to commit a crime with a
firearm will hardly be concerned about a misdemeanor concealed carry charge, and most criminals,
even if they can pass the licensing requirements, won't bother to go through the process; nor will the
lazy or irresponsible.
In speaking of concealed carry, it must be made clear that the focus is on "concealed". Concealment
doesn't simply mean carrying a Sig P220 in a hip holster and throwing a jacket over it, for this isn't
concealed to any but the most superficial of observ ations. In order to obtain the full advantage of
concealed carry, the weapon must be concealed from any casual observation, and preferably from
anything less than a "pat-down". This means a particular selection of weapon and holster or carrying
method.
Selection of weapon: The weapon you select must be small enough that you can conceal it. For
on-body concealment, this usually means a compromise of power vs. size; few people can
effectively conceal a full-sized handgun. Fortunately, there are many good, high power compact and
subcompact handguns on the market today which are adequate for self- defense, as well as
collapsable batons and other forms of concealable weapons. It is important not only that the
weapon is small, but also as light as possible while maintaining enough weight to handle the recoil,
for a heavy weapon will become tiresome to carry, and will tend to show. For off-body carry, much
larger weapons, up to some of the smaller longarms, can be carried; the disadvantage is that you
may not have the weapon at hand when you need it, so you need to use awareness to give you
sufficient time to get your weapon and ready it.
Carry methods: On-body carry means a holster. You can carry a weapon in a pocket or waistband
as an expedient, but this will wear quickly (both on your clothes, and on your nerves as you
frequently have to readjust the weapon.) Concealment holsters range from the inexpensive
synthetics, starting at $20, to cow leather, horsehide, or other more exotic materials. When it comes
to concealment, it is often better to pay a premium price for one holster which will work well, than
to go through a number of hol sters that work poorly. The clip-on and paddle style holsters are
convienent if you take off and put on the holster frequently, but aren't the best for concealment and
have poor retention characteristics, i.e. the attacker can grab the gun and holster right off your belt.
Concealment holsters come in a varity of types, with some extremely propriety, but the most
common are outlined below:
High-ride hip: these ride on the belt at the hip, just as do duty holsters, but ride higher so that
they can be concealed by a short jacket. These are good for some, but for others,
particularly short people or women, they tend to push into the ribs and may hold the gun so
high as to be hard to draw. They aren't the most concealable, either, but for people who can
wear them they are a fast draw.
Pancake: Pancake-style holsters are like high-ride holsters except they are kind of an oval
shaped, partly formed holster into which the gun fits. The advantage is that the gun rides snug
against the wearer, reducing movement and keeping the gun from printing against a jacket.
They do suffer the same problems as high-ride holsters, though.
In-the-waistband (IWB): IWB type holsters are probably the most convienent type of
holster, because for most people they offer the best concealment with the fastest draw. They
are uncomfortable for sitting, though, and tend to push the butt of the gun into the kidney. It is
important, if you select an IWB holster, to get one with a brace that holds the mouth of the
holster open even if sat on while empty, so that one-hand reholstering is possible.
Small-of-the-back (SOB): SOB holsters are popular for some guns, as they hide well, but
again they are uncomfortable to sit with, and they push the but of the gun into the kidney or
spine. In addition, some note that if the wearer were to fall backward onto the holster, the
wearer could have a spinal injury due to the placement of the butt of the gun. (I am not aware
of any case where this occured, but there it is.)
Cross-draw holsters: Cross-draw was once more popular. In some cases it can be very fast,
but becase the arm has to cross the body, it is a visible draw which can be stopped at melee
range simply by restraining the drawing arm. Cross-draw holsters suf fer from the same
problems with fit, feel and concealment as high-ride holsters.
Shoulder holster: The shoulder holster is very popular with the Hollywood types, but it has
one of the slowest draws of "conventional" holsters. Also, a shoulder holster can be very
uncomfortable to wear, especially with a heavy gun, and the best shoulder holsters are
custom jobs that are specially fitted to the customer. The adjustible, "one size fits all" rigs
require endless adjusting for good concealement, and are still slow to draw. The shoulder
holster isn't particularly well-concealed; it tends to flap around, and the heavier models will
show through a jacket under stress.
Ankle holster: The ankle holster is good for concealment mainly because most people don't
bother to look down there, but it is a slow draw (requiring you to first pull up the pants cuff
and then draw the gun) and is suitable only for small, lightweight guns; an all-steel "J-frame"
type revolver is pushing the weight limit. Ankle holsters can also cause long-term orthopedic
damage with consistant wear.
Pocket holsters: Pocket holsters fit in a pocket (hip, back, or jacket) and serve to protect the
gun and clothing as well as assure a smooth draw. They are convienent for small handguns,
and they disguise the outline of the gun well, but they may not be as secure as a belt holster.
Belly bands: The belly band is a band, much like an athlete's elastic knee brace, that goes
around the abdomen, holding a gun underneath the shirt of the wearer. The belly band is very
concealeable, even with larger guns, but is slow to draw from and uncomfortable to wear,
particularly when sitting.
Fanny pack: One can use a normal fanny pack to carry a gun, but the holster fanny packs
offer a quicker, smoother draw (usually by some kind of velcro closure.) The problem is that
knowledgeable people might suspect that your pack conceals a weapon, particularly if it
doesn't have a label or is overly large; however, the variation in size, style, and construction
of normal packs minimizes this concern. Of greater concern, however, is the idea that a
criminal might demand that you remove your pack, suspecting that your money or other
valuables are inside, forcing the issue even if you decide not to draw. Fanny packs aren't
appropriate for formal occasions, either, but they are convenient when carrying in casual
situations where you couldn't otherwise wear a holster.
Other systems: There are many, many other systems, most of which are variations on the
above. When evaluating such systems, you should look at how well the weapon is secured,
both in normal movement and in a snatch/retention scenerio, how comfortable the holster is,
how well it will conceal with your intended dress, and how well the holster will work with a
variety of sitting and standing positions. Most of the non-conventional systems provide
greater concealment, but at greater cost to comfort, accessibility, or safety.
For off-body carry, the options open up. There are some specifically made concealment bags or
briefcases that will conceal a weapon, but with a degree of imagination there are any number of
methods that can be used even to conceal a weapon as large as a shotgun. A shopping bag, a box,
a briefcase, a present, a gym bag, or any number of common items may be used to conceal a
full-size weapon. However, you must maintain control over your bag, particularly if small children or
terminally incompentent people are around.
Choosing to carry: Choosing to carry can be a big decision. It does require responsibilty to carry a
weapon day in and out; it means constant weekly practice, both in safety and firing. It means
wearing clothes and selecting a weapon and carry system to keep the gun out of sight at all times. It
also means behaving responsibily at all times. This ought to be true whether or not you carry, but
particularly so if you are armed. When carrying, you especially do not want to get involved in a
pointless con frontation, lest for some reason you draw your weapon, or your aggressor spots your
weapon and attempts to take it from you. Fortunately, most people find that when they carry a
concealed weapon with an understanding of the effects and the civil liabilit es, they tend to behave
less aggressively so as to avoid engaging in a confrontation, giving meaning to the truism, "An armed
society is a polite society." This isn't to argue that everyone should be armed or that this would
eliminate violence, but the folks who go through the process and understand the consequences are
less likely than the average to initiate or participate in a physical confrontation.
In some areas, carry is permitted; however, the degree of permission varies from state to state. In
Vermont, for instance, no permit is required. Any citizen who can legally own a gun can strap it on
and go about his business. In other states, a permit process, varying from token to impossible is
required. Some states have recently liberalized their laws so that any responsible citizen meeting
certain criteria can obtain a concealed carry permit. In other states, the issuance of permits is left up
to the local law enforcement; some disperse permits without prejudice, others reserve issuance as a
privilege for the rich and politically connected, or at least only to those whose job requires carrying
large sums of money. In many states, however, obtaining a concealed carry permit is impossible, or
nearly so.
If you determine that you need or want to carry, but the law says otherwise, then you have an
unfortunate decision: obey the law, defend yourself, or move someplace where you can carry. The
latter is not a possibility for most folks, and so the problem is posed: obey the law and risk being
defenseless, or become a de facto criminal in the eyes of the law, even though you take no action
that is harmful to any other law-abiding citizen. I cannot, as a matter of course, advise you to do
something illegal, but this choice is up to you, and the responsibility is yours. What you do depends
not only on the law, but also on local law enforcement; in some places and with some departments,
even though it may be illegal, if you are clean-cut and aren't acting like a loon, officers will pass off
your violation. In others, particularly where the sheriff or chief is a strong opponent of gun
ownership, you can expect to be arrested and prosecuted to the extent of the law, if not further.
When travelling to other states, you might check their laws on concealed carry, should you wish to
carry. (The NRA state firearms law summaries are available at http://www.nra.org/
NRA-FALAWS.html, or in pamplet form from the NRA.) Some states have recip rocity with other
states; that is, if you have a permit in one state, it is good in another state. Other states offer
out-of-state licenses. And some states permit no carry at all. Make the necessary preparations.
E. Defense in the home:
Defense in the home is the best situation for the defender (aside from not being attacked in the first
place.) The defender is, quite literally, on home turf; he knows the layout, has the opportunity force
the invaders into following his plan, and in a situation requiring lethal force, is on the best legal
ground to claim self-defense. Any aggressor stupid enough to break into someone's house while the
homeowner is home, who refuses to leave when ordered, isn't going to evoke much sympathy from
a jury.
Strategy: In most states, you are secure in your home. You can't be forced out by intruders
threatening physical injury, and so a basis for self-defense on this issue is clear, particularly so since
the situation is likely to be more clear cut than a street encounter and a jury is likely to be
sympathetic to a man or woman defending against a home intruder. This isn't true in all states,
though; certain states, such as Massachusettes, require the home owner to retreat from the home, if
*at all* possible, before using force in defense, and such laws are enforced to the point of absurdity.
If you live in such an area, all I can do is encourage you to move someplace civilized, where your
right to be secure in your own home is recognized by the legal author ity. In most locales, you'll be
exonerated for defending yourself in your home.
Your strategy, then, should be based on the idea of staying in the home and defending from there.
Some people claim that you should "shoot to kill" the intruders; if you don't, they'll come back and
sue you or attack you. Perhaps you feel this way; if so, don't relay your strategy to the police; a
prosecutor may consider this to be "intent" even if your shooting was justified. Your goal should not
be to kill, but rather to incapacitate or drive off your attackers; if they die in the process, too bad. If
they go away, fine; unless they were gunning specifically for you, they'll probably select a lighter
target next time.
Prevention: There is much you can do to prevent a buglary or attack; however, since this
information is widely available, I'll only cover it briefly, trusting that you can do the minimal research
required for greater detail.
For one, you can forget the signs proclaiming "This house protected by Smith & Wesson" or "I dial
3-5-7 for emergency." They have little if any deterrent value (presuming that the intruders can even
read) and may actually make you a target for someone interested in stealing your guns. They will do
one thing for you; a lawyer, particularly in a civil case where the criteria is only preponderence of the
evidence, can claim that this constitutes intent on your part to kill the intruders, thereby forcing you
to pay the intruders or their surviving family for defending yourself. The signs may be cute, but they
are best framed and displayed in the game room, to be removed in the case of an actual shooting.
Exterior lighting is a good start; forget about leaving the lights on in the house, through; all this does
is let criminals see that there is no one home, and give them illumination to select the good stuff.
Lighting on the outside, however, is a conside rable deterrent, particularly if used around probably
entry points. Get rid of the privacy fence; it will offer criminals the same privacy it offers you. Unless
your neighbors are in the habit of peeking over the fence periodically, it is a liability. Trim back the
bushes; thick jungle is pretty to some, but near the house it offers concealment.
Locks on to doors are good, but in terms of general defensive value, the more expensive locks
aren't better than the mid-range ones. Most common criminals are more likely to kick in a door or
break a window than to pick the lock. Rather than spending extra money on high grade locks, you
are better off buying a good, re-enforced deadbolt on a solid, well-mounted door. Doors should be
secure front and back; it is no good buying a solid front door while having a flimsy, hollow core
back door. Sliding doo rs are a liability; they can be easily shifted out of the track. The dowel in the
track method works pretty well, but isn't foolproof, so if you have to have a sliding glass door, it is
worth it to buy a better, secure one. It should go without saying t hat arcadia-style doors or
multi-pane French doors are next to worthless. Windows are a prime entry point, and hard to
defend against short of putting up bars, which can make a home seem like a prison. Still, criminals
would rather not break a window, so they are of some deterent value, particularly if the neighbors
are watchful. However, windows are worthless if not locked, or if the lock is not secure. In extreme
circumstances, glass can be replaced with polycarbonate, which will resist some bullets and most
impacts. If you live in a high threat area, inserting steel plates into the walls might not be out of the
question, but if the situation is to such a point, it is probably time to think of moving someplace else.
A neighborhood watch group is an excellent idea, even in rural areas where neighbors may live a
mile more more apart. By keeping in fairly routine contact, neighbors can determine if anything
suspicious is going on. Also, many rural sheriff and police departments have programs that allow
citizens to become reserve officers to back up full time officers.
Alarms: When the topic of alarms comes up, most people think about electric alarms, but alarms
can range from the mundane to the elaborate. The purpose of an alarm depends on the design;
some alarms, generally the cheaper ones, are designed to alert the homeowner, while at home, of an
intruder. They won't have much if any effect while you aren't home. The other, more expensive
alarms, will call up private security or the police, and help to protect your home while you aren't
there.
What you select should depend upon your circumstances; if your home has nothing to steal, then it
would be foolish to install an expensive alarm system to protect your home while you are not there.
Simply capacitance door knob alarms work pretty well, as do cheap, do-it-yourself magnetic
switches and alarm tape. Knick-knacks on the windowsill, or plants on the ground below the
window (where an intruder will step) also serve to inhibit entry and alert the homeowner.
A dog can be an excellent alarm as well as a weapon; however it is important to know what you are
getting into when obtaining a dog. First of all, you *do not want* an "attack dog". Many attack dogs
are trained by poorly trained, if not incompetent trainers who beat the dogs into aggressiveness; the
dog may be aggressive, but he'll also be impossible to control, and may turn on you. An attack dog
is a legal liability, and many locales have gone to banning certain breeds of dogs, which can turn a
$2000+ asset into a liability. If you decide that you need an attack dog, be certain to get one from a
known, reputable trainer who trains the dogs consistantly; this will require your particpation the the
training process, and you will have to spend time main taining the training.
Attack dogs are generally unncessary, however. Most criminals would rather not find out whether
that big, black dog in the hallway is grinning or growling. Many dogs, even good natured ones like
the Labrador Retriever, are protective of their owners and know when to defend their master, while
posing no threat to the family or friends. Mid-sized dogs, like the Chow or larger terriers, can also
be aggressive enough to defend against an intruder. And even though smaller dogs, like small
terriers, don't go much beyond nipping at the ankles, their barking can still warn a homeowner of an
intruder.
One need not buy a pedegree to obtain a good defender; a mutt is as desireable, if not more so, but
it is a gamble on the intellegence and protectiveness of the dog. However, considering what the
AKC has done to some "guard" and working breeds of dog, a pedigree may not be much more of a
guarantee. A dog isn't for everyone, though. One must treat a "defensive dog" with some amount of
love and attention. Buying a dog and chaining it in the backyard won't accomplish anything; the dog
will probably bark at anything, or nothing, in order to get attention.
If you want to put more into a security system, the best kind are the "service" kind, that tie into a
central point, from which police or private security may be dispatched. Such systems may also offer
fire detection as well. These systems are expensive, but if you have a lot of valuables or
irreplacables in the home, they may well be worth it. You have to factor in response time into the
protective value, though. If your average police response time is 45 minutes, then you might be
better off to inve st in a secure safe or complete insurance coverage, and hope for the best.
A word about "booby traps"--don't use them. They are a legal liability, particularly if some innocent
person is injured. If a burglar can sue for injuring himself on a loose skateboard while on a "job",
you can bet that he'll sue you for everything you have if he injures himself on a deliberate trap.
Selection of Weapon: A home defense gun need not be compact, like a carry or concealment
weapon. As such, the best home defense weapon is probably a shotgun. It is devastating at close to
moderate range, accepts a variety of loads, and is more easily lea rned than a handgun. However,
the bulk, particularly in tight circumstances, may be a problem. Any long gun is difficult to move
around a house with. It gets caught in doorways and spends much of its time pointing at the floor or
ceiling. In any case, a full-sized handgun makes a good backup, or a reasonably good main home
defense weapon.
When selecting your weapon, bear in mind the penetration of the round, particularly if you live in an
apartment complex, or townhouse. Also, you may take into account legal and political factors; if
your local prosecutor is extremely anti-self-defense an d anti-gun, he may attempt to make an issue
out of your AR-15 or Evil Black Synthetic Pistol Grip Stocked Heat Shield Equipped Laser Sighted
Mossburg 590 Defender.
If you can't have a firearm, then your options go to non-firearm projectiles, sprays, clubs, and
blades. The crossbow can be effective, but slow to reload; if you select the crossbow, you'll
probably want to have two or more at hand. Sprays are marginal ly effective, and used inside will
tend to affect you as well, so use the streaming or foaming kind as opposed to area sprays. Clubs
are reasonably good, plus the fact that in the home you can use some pretty evil implements, like
crowbars or claw hammers, while claiming that it was "the only thing at hand". Blades include
knives, swords & sabres, spears, and axes. As previously discussed, knives aren't particularly
desireable, but if it is all you have, a butcher knife is usually better than bare hands, so long as it isn't
taken from you and used against you. A sword is somewhat better; it is unlikely that a single intruder
will take it from you, but it is hardly an optimum weapon. One author speaks highly of the sword,
even for the untrained, but a sharp sword can be as dangerous a weapon to the untrained wielder as
to the assailant, and an unsharpened sword is of no use at all. Spears and axes are somewhat
specialized, and rare weapons, and instruction in their use is rare, but they can be effective, albeit
less so than a firearm. Still, if the options don't permit a firearm, blades of any kind may be a
reasonable alternative.
Tactics: The tactics of home defense are rather straightforward in concept. Your goal is to defend
your family from your house. Your tactics should aim at driving attackers out of the house, or
dropping them. If you are using a firearm, you want to main tain as much distance as possible; you
have the advantage, both in range and of knowing your house. Select cover, take aim, and then give
one verbal warning to the intruders. If they fail to heed, and you've identified them as not being a
roommate or a family member, then you can generally take it that they mean harm. In some states
you can open fire, period; in others, the intruder has to visibly threaten lethal force or display a
weapon; determining this can be a neat trick in the dark, but turning on the light may give away your
position.
One useful tactic is to defend one room from the next room; using proper preparation tactics, you
can create cover in one room and observe the attackers through the doorway to the next room. This
also allows you to turn on the light, exposing the attackers, while remaining under cover. The
chemical glowsticks can also be used to illuminate the next room, but you must be careful about
deploying them; you don't want to show off your own position.
Since you are on your own turf, you might as well take advantage of predetermining the lines of fire
and errecting backstops to prevent bullets from hitting your family or your neighbors. A backstop
can be anything from a steel plate to a tightly packed bookshelf. You want your bullets, and those of
your attackers, to bury themselves in something harmless and you'd like to set up the situation so
that your attackers are in a position of no cover, while you have ample cover.
In any situation where there are other occupants in the home, it is important to set up a procedure in
case of emergency. All non-active family members should make for the safe room or defensive
core, while the defenders arm up and take predetermined positions. The group should have
keywords for particular circumstances, like "clear" for no active attackers in vision. Also, all family
members should have a keyword identifying them, so that in case of a situation where the idenity of
the "intruder" is un determined, the defender can make certain that the "intruder" is not someone
after a midnight snack or on a bathroom run.
Just as with a fire drill, It is important to run defensive drills, to maintain and update defensive plans,
as well. This need not be a daily event once the drill is down pat, but it ought to be run and updated
every couple of months. If it is inconvienent or unsafe, one need not actually bring out firearms; just
getting into position and so forth is generally sufficient, though each defender ought to practice
getting to the firearms in the dark, under simulated conditions. As you perform drills, the best tactics
for your situation will become apparent.
A few more words about tactics are in order. First of all, you don't want to have to hunt down your
intruders; You would rather they come to you. Let them make noise, stumble around, and so forth,
while you get set behind cover, and someone else calls he police. Hunting them down can give away
tactical surprise and cover. If you come home and find intruders in your house, unless there is some
pressing need to enter the house (as in they are raping your wife or daughter) don't attempt a
houseclearing. This is a job for police wearing body armor and backed up by other officers. If the
attacker's vehicle is in sight, you might disable the vehicle (cutting the gas line, breaking a key off in
the ignition, or ripping out the spark plug wires and/or rotor cap are good) and take cover or go
down to the neighbors to call police. Laying in wait outside the home is a poor idea; you can't shoot
them just for stealing property (in most locales). You can jump out in front of them, but you will
expose yourself to attack, which is a very poor strategy, and the police might mis-identify you as
one of the attackers and shoot you. Better to disable the vehicle, or get the license plate, and wait
for the police.
If you live in an area where police response is non-existant, you may consider taking action, but do
you really want to risk your life for replacable goods? This isn't a rhetorical question; as some will
point out, it isn't just property. The stuff you own represents the time you spent to earn it, and it will
take you more time and effort to replace it. But in stepping out, you risk both your life and civil, and
possibly criminal, liability. Be certain that you understand your priorities before you take drastic
action.
Defensive Core vs. Safe Room: Some home defense experts recommend a "safe room", that is, a
room with a secure door and a phone, possibly with armored walls. A safe room is a good concept
for some situations, but can easily become a deathtrap, if the att ackers decide to burn the house,
and it won't do anything to stop them from taking your property while the 911 dispatcher assures
you that the police will be on site "in just a few more minutes". A better concept is the defensive
core; a room or hallway which connects to several rooms in the house, from which one may defend,
or retreat into another room and thence retreat out of the house. This allows you to defend against
intruders who come in from one of several directions, with flexability. The defe nsive core, like the
safe room, should have a phone as well as a fire extinguisher, and possibly armored walls.
Non-defenders should be moved into an adjacent, non-occupied room that has access to the
outside, while the defenders fight. The defenders will draw attackers return fire, if any, and the
number of people in the way of this should be minimized.
Miscelleneous: Most of these scenerios postulate living in a house, but if you live in an apartment,
you can adapt many of these tactics. Perhaps you can't have dogs, or have an alarm installed, but
capacitance alarms and stuff on the windows is still allowed. Apartments have poor security;
occupants change frequently, so one doesn't get the "neighbors looking out for each other" that one
might get in a decent urban or suburban neighborhood. Even "security apartments" aren't particularly
secure; one re sident might be a criminal, or a criminal might enter the complex through an open,
ground level window. Getting in a shooting will probably get your lease revoked "for cause" but that
will probably be the least of your worries.
A house is better, but people rarely design a house with lines of fire and defensive cores in mind, so
your house may not be the best set-up for defense. You can either remodel, or more likely, work
around the drawbacks and utilize the advantages. If you do built a house, keep in mind the security
aspect. You need not build a fortress, unless you are a millionaire or a particularly attractive target
for crime, but you might as well incorperate defensive strategy into your home, so long as it doesn't
significantly effect the cost or comfort.
F. Defense while traveling:
Defense while traveling is considerably different than defense at home. The situation is intrinsically
less clear, there is no general assumption that you were in the right, or that you were even the
defender. You have to demonstrate that you had reason to defend yourself rather than retreat, in
order to claim self-defense. Depending on where you are, you may want to avoid conflict, even at
expense of your property.
Strategy: The strategy in defense "on the road" is to stay out of trouble. If conflict comes into play,
you want to stay alive, and, if possible, make your escape. This isn't a "home = castle" situation; if
you shoot someone on the street, the police will automatically assume that you weren't justified until
you demonstrate otherwise.
What you do depends on where you are; if you are travelling in your home area, i.e. to work,
grocery store, etc. then you know the area and the laws. If they favor self-defense and you were
legally carrying the weapon...don't stop worrying, but you have a good chance of proving your
innocence and avoiding prison. If you are in a different state, or a different part of the state, the
situation might not be the same.
Tread carefully, but you may have some confidence in the fact that even in the most anti-gun areas,
people still tend to sympathize with the victim. If your act was clearly just, but your weapon
unpermitted, you may suffer some misdemeanor or even minor felony charges, but you still have a
decent chance of getting out without serving hard, felony time, unless you had the misfortunte to
attempt to defend yourself in someplace like Massachusetts or Washington, D.C. If you are in a
foriegn country and you are a religious person, pray. Many foriegn countries, even so-called
"civilized" nations, recognize no inherent right of self-defense; if you defend yourself, even with bare
hands against a weapon, you might see considerable jail time, possibly without trial or hearing. This
doesn't occur exclusively in places like China or Turkey; one can expect this kind of treatment in
Japan, France, or England. Don't expect the U.S. State Department to come to your aid, either.
The State Department, in recent year s, has shown an abominable disregard for the treatment of
American citizens abroad, even when the nations don't follow their own laws in prosecuting a
defender. If you get involved in an incident on foriegn soil, hope and pray that the authorities aren't
having a bad day, because no one else will come to your aid, letter writing campaigns by Amnesty
International excepted. In short, self-defense abroad is truly a matter of last resort.
Self-defense on the open sea is something of a different matter. There are pirates (I kid you not) but
they tend to hit cargo vessels rather than private boats. In the case that you are accosted by pirates,
the best bet is to take cover and try to take them at range. Fortunately, unless you are in territorial
waters, there is very little you cannot do in self- defense; fully-automatic weapons are perfectly legal
(though they may have to be locked up in port) and unless there are reputable witnesses to s ay
otherwise, it is unlikely that you will be tried for any crime...if indeed, you choose to report the
incident. It is advisable to stay out of the drug lanes, as these will probably be the most frequented
by would-be pirates, but defense on the open sea, compared to defense on land, is pretty much a
free-for-all. Still, for most, this is an unlikely circumstance.
Prevention: Because the situation is constantly changing, it is harder to prevent an attack. But there
are a few things you can do. If you are in your "home area", know the surroundings. Take different
paths to work, both to prevent being tracked and to learn escape and alternate routes. Keep the
doors on your car locked at all times, and keep the windows rolled up far enough that someone
can't reach in. Turn the radio off in traffic, and keep you eyes peeled. Watch out for over-aggressive
drivers, drunks, and police or fire vehicles. Don't challenge aggressive drivers; if they want to be an
asshole, let him hit someone else--better that he is well in front of you rather than right behind you.
Make a routine of checking the mirrors, the speedomete r, and the front view. When coming toa
stop, leave yourself room to escape, even if it means jumping the curb. Don't drive an expensive,
flashy car; carjackers and car thieves don't always pick the ritzy cars, but your odds are better if
you are in a se rvicable but bland mid-level car than in a Corvette. Learn defensive/ escape driving
techniques, including cornering, bootlegging, and so forth. Keep a weapon available, but secured; a
center console might work, but you might need to make a special holster that attaches to the seat
and securely holds the weapon If you walk, carry a weapon with you: a walking stick or cane if
nothing else. Walk on the left side of the road, facing traffic, and try to stay off the road. If a car
stops, get well off the road, and answer any queries from at least 10 feet away. Don't walk in
unfamiliar areas; before you walk, drive through. Try not to walk at night; if you must, where light
colored clothing and watch for loiterers, particularly in shadows.
If you are travelling on vacation, blend in; don't look like a tourist. If you have to carry a camera,
carry it in a purse or bag. Carry a wallet, but only keep a few dollars in it; keep your credit cards,
money, and driver's license secured in another pocket, in a money belt, or in a bandage on your
calf, and don't take it out in public. Don't wear expensive jewelry. You may not have a choice about
a rental car, but the rental sticker is easily removed with a hair dryer. Don't display a map; keep it
down in the lap, or stop at a resturant for directions.
If you are travelling in another country, first of all *learn the language*, at least enough to call for the
police and demand to see the American Consulate. (Also learn "Please", "Thank You", "How
much?" and "Where is the bathroom?" These four phrases will serve the majority of your
non-defense needs, and make the locals so much more polite in deference to your attempt to speak
in their dialect.) Carry your passport *clipped inside your cloating* and do not lose it. Definitely
carry traveller's cheques, but also have some local cash, and if you have a friendly local guide or
associate, learn the proper way, amount, and personage to which to apply "squeeze". (While
"bribery" in the United States is universally considered criminal and unethical, it is a way of life in
other countries; so long as you know to whom and how much, and aren't trying to smuggle or break
any significant laws, it can smooth the way considerably. You MUST understand the process,
though. Offering too little, to the wrong person, at the wrong time, or for the wrong reason, can
cause a lot of trouble.) While we're at it, don't smuggle; that privilidge is reserved for drug smugglers
and diplomatic pouch carriers. Smuggling is a big no-no in most countries, and what might seem to
be a harmless act can land you in prison. Understand the local customs, both social and
bureaucratic. This requires research, but is well worth it, both in accelerating the process and staying
out of trouble.
It is advisiable to stay out of trouble spots, but this isn't always possible. Life is full of risk, and it
seems that many of the most beautiful spots are also areas of trouble. Understand, and accept the
risks, and do what you can to minimize them...but have fun.
Alarms: Travellers won't be installing major alarms systems in their hotel rooms or cabins, but there
are portable alarms and door stops that work reasonably well. It is advisable to select good quality
hotels, but be aware that, particularly oversees, what seems like a good hotel might be teeming with
thieves. Don't leave valuables in your room; keep them with you, ship them home, or have them
locked in the hotel safe. A cellular phone, whether at home, on a continental vacation, or abroad, is
a good idea if you are in cellular range.
Selection of weapon: Selection of weapon depends on your situtation and local laws. If you are in
your home area, or in the US in an area with CCW reciprocity and carry a concealed weapon, your
best choice is a handgun. If you can't carry a gun legally, then you have a decison to make; break
the law, or carry a lesser weapon. Of course, on an aircraft, you can't carry most weapons at all,
though you can check them in with luggage, if they are legal at the destination.
Carrying a weapon abroad, any weapon, is a dangerous proposition. Most nations simply will not
permit foriegn nationals to carry defensive weapons; for instance, none of the Commonwealth
nations permit vistors to carry so much as a knife or spray for self-defense. The best bet is to carry
a "non-weapon" like a cane, or learn some empty hand defense. Even then, in defending yourself,
you are put at risk; and nowhere else is a "walk away" such a desirable action.
Tactics: Your tactics will vary with your situation, but they should all focus on the same goal; get the
hell out of there! You aren't on home ground, you have no advantage, and unless you are lucky, you
may not have cover. If you are in a car, keep going; don't stop or get out to shoot. Your car is
3000+ pounds of mass; moving at even 20 mph, it develops more kinetic energy than most rifle
bullets. If you are being fired upon, or a carjacker has grabbed on to you or the car, put it in gear
and don't stop until you've cleared the area; don't worry about body damage to the car, keep
moving. If you have a carjacker hanging on, try to scrape him off or squish him against a barrier or
other cars. Firing from a car is a tricky, problematic issue; first of all, the report is contained in the
car, making it very loud, possibly causing permenant hearing loss with powerful calibers. Don't stick
the gun outside the car, though, lest it be snatched. Trying to shoot someone while moving, even if
you aren't driving, is very unlikely to succeed; Van Damme movies to the contrary, you won't hit
anything if firing while balancing on the seat of your motorcycle. If you are walking, take cover and
get off the street. Make for a public place, resturant, store, wha tever, and have the clerk or
proprietor call the police. In a riot situation, keep moving; drive through riots, and if a crowd of
violent riotors is in front of your car, pull around and don't worry about running a few of them over.
The lesson of Reginald Denehey is clear; don't stop, don't get pulled out...ke ep going until you are
clear of the riots, and then go some more. Keep the radio on to an all-news station that will let you
know where the riots are thickest, but don't bother trying to read a map; keep your eyes on the
road and head for a major highway. The same applies to an out-of-state location. Avoid trouble
spots, and if need be, don't worry about damaging the car. (You did buy insurance, right?)
Tactics in a foriegn country are somewhat different; first of all, know the customs. In some
countries, pickpocketing is an accepted, if not respected, profession and assaulting the pickpocket
is asking for trouble...so don't carry your valuables in the obvious places. Don't get angry at store
clerks, if you are so prone to at home. Treat others with respect, even if you don't like them; accept
the fact that as a tourist, you are a chump, and you are going to get ripped once in a while. Don't get
into violent arguements, and do not start a fight with a local; you don't know who is relatives are,
and you'd rather not beat the snot out of the town constable's son.
If you are accosted and despite your efforts, get into a violent confrontation, it is a situational
decision as to what action to take. Walking away can have serious consequences if you are caught,
but then, so can hanging around and reporting the incident, even if you are in the right. The better
you understand the local customs, the better you can make that decision. If you are arrested,
demand the American Consulate (presuming the nation you are in maintains diplomatic ties with the
US) but don't expect too much help from that angle.
Basically, when you are on the move, you are at your most valunerable. You can't make concrete
plans, and in the best of situations you have to demonstrate the need for self-defense, where as in
home defense, it is often presumed that the defender was in the right.
G. Defense for the store owner:
The store owner or clerk has some advantages, and some significant problems, with defense. In
some places, store owners receive preferential treatment from the law; they may be permitted to
carry a concealed weapon on their premises, or to obtain a CCW license because they carry large
sums of money. A hold-up situation is pretty clear cut; when the survellience camera shows a
criminal sticking a gun in the clerk's or owner's face, there isn't going to be any question of intent. It
is also expected that store owners are a general target for crime, and so a defending store owner
may have presumed innocence on his side from the beginning. Police response will probably
generally better than in residential crime, because stores tend to be accessible and easily identified.
On the other hand, the store owner has to worry about protecting his customers; although some
states have laws which protect a store owner defending himself during a robbery, many states do
not, and injured bystanders (as well as the attackers) may sue th e store owner for damages. Clerks
and other employees of large companies may be punished or fired for defending themselves from an
attack; at least one national pizza delivery chain forbids drivers to carry any kind of weapon, despite
the inherent dangers of that job. Another national convenience store chain fired an employee for
leaving the building after an attack to obtain the license number of the getaway car, even though his
action led to the apprehending of the robbers.
Strategy: The strategy for a store owner or clerk should be to stay alive, protect customers, and
keep from being robbed, in that order. If you are an employee of a company which forbids
self-defense, then you'll probably not care whether the criminals take the money or not, but private
store owners and loyal employees have a stake in preventing theft.
Prevention: Obviously, you'll want to select a location or job such that your risk of robbery is
minimized. Conveinence stores, gas stations, package stores, and the like are prime targets for
robbery, as are late-night restaurants. The high crime neigh borhoods are usually apparent, but
criminals don't always restrict themselves to the bad neighborhoods, so any store proprietor should
be prepared for robbery.
Many gas stations and conveinence stores have signs on the door warning that the register has no
more than $20 at night. Perhaps this deters some criminals, but it certainly doesn't prevent robbery,
partucularly by a crackhead who needs only enough for his next "rock". Surveillance cameras don't
usually deter criminals, but they often do make a good record of the incident. Alarm systems that
contact police or private security are a good idea for any business with a storefront; preferably with
several a larm buttons that can be activitated by the foot or knee, leaving the hands free. It is
preferable to have several weapons available, concealed in positions where one might reasonably
expect to touch during a robbery. (Hint: under or in the cash drawer is a bad idea, but under the
stool is pretty good.)
Having a "hard reputation" is beneficial; even in a high crime area, after a store is hit, and the owner
defends it successfully a couple of times, criminals tend to shy away, prefering to hit the easier
stores. Of course, you don't want to give your cus tomers the impression that the store is a likely
target, nor do you want to let criminals know what they are in for, so you'll want to keep your
preparations concealed.
Alarms: As previously mentioned, if you have an alarm, you'll want to have a system which has
several manual buttons which can be activated by the knees or feet. An alarm should be silent.
However, if you are in a remote location, or police response is extremely slow, an alarm may be
nearly useless, and you'll have to depend upon your own wits to protect yourself.
Selection of weapon: Selection of weapon, again, depends upon your circumstance. If you are on
your own, a handgun is probably the best choice, for the sake of concealment. It is best to have
several weapons available from different positions, but conce aled so that they cannot be seen even
by a casual glance behind the counter. You may also want to conceal a weapon on yourself, though
this brings along the same problems as with general on-body concealment. If bulk is not a problem,
or if you have a back up person in a concealed location, a shotgun is an excellent choice. Weapon
and ammo should be selected with the forethought that there may be customers in the store and that
overpenetration is a definite consideration.
If you are an employee who risks being fired for defending yourself, it is a judgement call whether to
draw a weapon. Since your employers aren't doing anything to protect you, you shouldn't place any
value on their money or products, but that doesn't me an that the attackers won't kill you to
eliminate witnesses anyway.
Tactics: As in home defense, you'll want to lay out probable lines of fire. For a convenience store or
gas station, you can assume one person at the counter, perhaps another at the door, and maybe onein the getaway car. You'll try to avoid hitting customers, but if you are the only one with a
defensive weapon, saving your own life will also increase theirchances. You'll want to take out the
attackers in the order that they pose the most danger to you. Street criminals seldom have any
shooting skill, particularly beyond touching distance, so expect to engage the nearest attacker first,
unless he both unarmed and no real threat to you. Sometimes only one attacker will be armed. Use
your cover and plan the area so that robbers will be in the open as much as possible.
You may have a second defender in the store; if so, tactics should be worked out beforehand. Each
defender should have an arc of fire that does not cross another defender (though the arcs might
cross each other.) It is beneficial to set up lines of fire such that there is no place the attacker can
hide. If he is caught in cross-fire, he can't respond to, nor dodge, both shooters at once. Remember,
too, that your goal is to drive him out if possible, so leave an exit route open.
You won't be able to do a lot to protect customers, other than ending the firefight as quickly as
possible, but at least you can practice to hit your target, instead of missing and hitting a bystander,
and using ammo that won't penetrate through an attacker (such as hollowpoints or pre-fragmented
ammo.)
H. Defense against stalking:
Stalking is a peculiar crime. Unlike most crimes, which are either profit-motivated, or crimes of
passion that occur once, the stalker likes to play a game with his victim, not unlike a cat who's
caught a mouse. A stalker may be an associate, an ex-lover, a disgruntled employee, etc. but can
also be a stranger, or a barely known neighbor.
The stalker views what he (or she) does as being perfectly justified and rational, and will, when
caught, attempt to rationalize his motives. One might place the stalker in one of two categories: the
amateur and the professional. The "amatuer" is usually the ex-lover or the ex-employee. His reason
for stalking is at least understandable, if not reasonable; he basically has some kind of unfulfilled
relationship which requires the participation of the victim. While annoying and even dangerous, these
sta lkers are easily identified--they don't usually take great pains to conceal themselves from the
victim because they seek contact with the victim, and the newly legislated laws that prohibit stalking
can be used against them.
The "professional", on the other hand, may have a reason for stalking the victim, but it may not be
readily appearant. His reason may involve some kind of fetish, or some perceived slight which went
unnoticed by the victim. He tends to prefer anonymous contact, by phone or by peeking through
windows. He may be experienced; since stalking and rape have not been considered to be crimes
on the same level as murder or even armed robbery, there are career stalkers who get caught every
once in a while, spend a couple of years in prison, and then are released to stalk again. The
professional is exceptionally dangerous, because unlike the amateur, he will use tactics to defeat
your attempts to identify and bring the law to bear on him. If he is experienced, he'll know his way
around the legal system, and will know what he can get away with. Because he is an unknown, he
can deny deliberate contact, or even attempt to turn the tables and portray the victim as the
aggressor. He may try to taunt you into taking inadvisiable action. But however desirable it may be,
or however many times you've caught him peeking through your window, you can't shoot him or
beat him up. If you do, expect him to paint you as the attacker.
Strategy: When dealing with stalkers, the first thing to understand is such people are obsessed.
Don't expect them to come around only when it is convenient for you. You need to be prepared at
all times. You want to identify the stalker, not only for yourself but for the authorities as well. You
want to develop information on this guy, so if you have to go to court, to get a restraining order or
because of an "incident", you want to show that he's the bad guy and you are the victim, not vice
versa. You also want to keep from being compromised; not only should you be prepared to protect
yourself, but you need to know what you can and can't do to apprehend the stalker. The last thing
you need is him filing charges on you or your spouse for assault.
Prevention: Avoiding being the target of stalking is a matter of lifestyle. If you frequent "pick-up"
bars and live freely, or habitually become involved in abusive or obsessive relationships, your
likelyhood of being the target of a stalking is vastly in creased. It should go without saying that
extra-marrital affairs and the like are very likely to become stalking situations, particularly since the
other participant may be obsessive, deceitful, or otherwise unbalanced. But in many stalking
incidents, the victim did nothing to encourage the stalker, and so stalking is a problem that anyone
might face. Stalking isn't limited to male stalkers either; stalkers can frequently be women. Surveys
show that a significant proportion of the population has been the target of some kind of stalking
incident, ranging from petty vandalism by an ex-lover to threats of rape and murder.
If you know you have a stalker, you must take all the usual steps to prevent an attack, *all of the
time*. Any time you are out of your house, you must be aware of your surroundings, particularly at
night. At home, doors and windows should be shut tight, and all of the usual passive measures
should be taken. An alarm system is a good idea, as is a cordless phone, but neither is a
replacement for a weapon; in the event that the stalker decides to make his final move, he may just
come right through the window, alarm or no, and even the best police response may be too slow.
Don't expect the police to provide personal protection for you. Even in situations where you are in
immediate danger, police have no obligation to protect you personally, and most departments don't
have the man-power to provide for you with a personal escort. In general, the best you can hope
for is a once-a-shift drive-by from a police cruiser. If you are being stalked, your best chance for
defense is your own action.
Tactics: Because stalking is an on-going event, it is better thought of as a war rather than merely a
confrontation. As in war, you'll want to do some "intellegence gathering", i.e. getting evidence that
demonstrates your stalker's intent, though your purpose is to set up a collection of data. If the
stalking results in an arrest, and you go to court, you want to be able to slap a 3" thick folder full of
photographs, dated police reports, phone logs, and other records demonstrating that you were the
targ et of a stalking. Many stalkers, particularly the professional kind, will attempt to deny or
rationalize their actions, and the lies can be very convincing to a jury, but a photograph showing the
stalker climbing a fence or peeking through a window is mo re convincing and harder to deny. One
might say, "the camera is mighter than the sword". A good camera, preferably one without
autofocus or other user-friendly but slow-action devices can be more effective than a weapon in
putting a stalker out of busi ness. Report every incident to the police; they may become tired of
coming to your house, but every incident will be a matter of public record, and each serves to
thicken the stack of evidence. A restraining order, which prohibits the stalker from ente ring a
certain area around the victim or the victim's home or job, is a good first step, but remember; it is
only a piece of paper. Its best value is in court, where you can demonstrate that you took all legal
means to prevent contact with the stalker.
In terms of defending against the stalker, remember that especially with the professional, he might try
to bait you into doing something stupid. Do not let this happen; it destroys your credibility and may
cause you considerable grief. If you are a friend or protector of a stalking victim, the stalker may
attempt to cause you to take inadvisiable action simply to get you out of the way. Don't draw a gun
on him, or beat him up, unless your reason is good enough to present to a jury. Carry a weapon, be
prepared to use it, but realize that stalking is a game of cat and mouse, and you can't act
prematurely or you'll be on the wrong side of the legal system.
You should, in addition to preparing for defense, try to alter your schedule and otherwise confound
stalking attempts. It may come to the point at which you feel you need to move; if so, be careful that
the stalker doesn't follow you and find your new location. This can be difficult; if he sees that you
are moving, he may wait and attempt to follow. When moving your possessions, take them to a
friend or relative's house first, or drive with a "chase car" well behind the moving truck, looking for
shado wing vehicles, and take a complex, unlikely, route. It will help if the phone and utilities are in
someone else's name. Although these records aren't publically available, it is a relatively simple task
for the experienced person to obtain access. Of course, you'll want an unlisted phone number, and
you may want to consider switching banks, credit cards, and so forth. You may need to find a new
job; if the stalker knows where you work, he can follow you from there.
If it sounds like you have to live your life around the stalker, you are half right. Stalking is such a
nebulous crime that it is difficult to draw the line between coincidence and stalking, and the stalker
will do all he can to blur that line in his favor. This is why it is so important to establish his action in
the matter; when the stalking comes to an head, you want to be able to stand clear and demonstrate
the justice of your action. In the past, stalking was often considered obnoxious, but essent ially
harmless behavior by an obsessive person, particularly in domestic situations. Fortuantely, many
states have recently recognized that stalking is a precursor to far more serious crimes, and have
erected statutes that make it easier for the victim to avoid the stalker, and easier for prosecutors to
try the stalker.
I. Defense in a riot/looter situation:
A riot or looting is one which the urban homeowner may have to deal with. During a riot, police
response may be very slow, or absolutely nonexistent. Despite that fact, you might be asked or even
ordered to leave your home or business. Doing so, and rel inquishing protection of your home to the
police may be your best option for personal survival, but there is absolutely no guarantee that the
police *will* stop or even contain the rioting. The 1993 Los Angeles riots should serve as warning
to anyone who completely trusts police protection and assumes that trouble always happens
somewhere else.
Strategy: You have to make a decision here--are you going to stand and protect your property, or
maximize your personal chances of survival? This may depend upon what your neighbors do, as
well as your own personal desires; if the neighborhood sticks tog ether and sets up an armed
defensive perimeter then there is a good chance that the rioters will select another neighborhood or
business to attack. Note that many of the Korean businesses, whose owners were well-armed,
survived the 1993 LA riots relatively unscathed, while other businesses were destroyed.
Prevention: If you are in a riot hot spot, there isn't a lot you may be able to do to prevent it, but
getting involved in community affairs might help. Preventing the rioters from hitting your business
means a display of force; most rioters aren't well-armed and will turn at the sight of a
business-owner with a gun, but don't count on every rioter being so compliant.
Tactics: Show force, but don't expose yourself, threaten rioters unduly, or display force away from
your property--the police may arrest you for doing so even while the rioters are smashing your
windows and making off with your property. You can't fire freely on the rioters, particularly if they
are unarmed, nor can you rely on the police or National Guard units to maintain position and contain
the riots. In the LA riots, police and the National Guard were continually ordered to retreat rather
than to en gage the rioters, out of fear of a "Kent State"-type incident; indeed, many National
Guardsmen were issued weapons but no ammunition. Put plywood over windows, get into good
cover, in or on top of the building, and hope for the best.
Riots may last from a few hours to a few days, so be prepared. Expect to do without water or
electricity. Alarms may not work, or may be triggered all the time. You may not have power to heat
food, and you will probably need several of flashlights to id entify threats. Unless you have enough
friends to hold off an army, you need some way to find out what is happening beyond your vision. If
a huge mob is heading your way or a fire is getting out of control, you will need to leave in plenty of
time, by a pre-arranged safe route. Expect to fight small fires and treat minor wounds yourself.
J. Defense in hostage situation:
A hostage situation might range from an armed robbery gone wrong to a hijacking by international
terrorists making impossible demands. While the reasons and the grade of criminal may be different,
the outcome is usually the same: the hijackers are up a creek because the relevent authority
generally can't or won't deal with them. The determining factor in a hostage situation is often not the
caliber of the criminals, but of the responding force. Unfortunately, as a hostage, you may well be in
far more danger from the authorities than your captors. Your captors don't want you dead; if they
have excess hostages, or you act aggressive, they might kill you to make a point, but you are their
shield from authority, and you are worth more dead than alive. The police or government won't
generally see it that way, though, and will want to end the conflict as soon as possible, often by the
use of force and even when unnecessary.
Strategy: As a hostage, your best strategy to stay alive is to stay the hell out of the way. Don't try to
bully the captors. If anything, try to identify with them (at least in deed, if not in thought), but don't
push it. If it comes to the point where the authorites attempt a rescue, don't try to "help"; again, your
best bet is to stay down and take cover.
Prevention: Prevention involves all the normal actions to prevent crime; avoid crime areas, etc.
Hostage situations will usually occur on the spur of the moment as the criminals' plans fail, and so the
criminals won't know what to do. You might be able to make use of the initial confusion, but most
likely the criminals will decide to "wait it out" until it becomes appearant that they are not going to
get out of the situation.
In international travel, there are certain spots and certain carriers that are noted for their propensity
as targets, and the traveller would be best advised, if possible, to avoid these. Still, terrorism is
largely a random act, and there is little you can do to avoid the random cafe bomb or rooftop
sniper.
Tactics: Very popular are the genre of action movies involving a hero in limited circumstances,
surrounded by terrorists, who uses his wits, might, and incredible martial arts skills in order to
remove the captors one by one, usually culminating in a final showdown with the main bad guy.
While this theme makes for exciting movies, it doesn't have much to do with the reality of a hostage
situation. In the unlikely situation that you are not immediately taken hostage by the captors, your
best bet is to lay low, or if possible, effect your escape, not to run around trying to silently remove
the attackers one by one.
Several books have been written on the psychology of hostage negotiation, both from the outside
and as a hostage. Don't place too much faith in what they say--terrorists don't always follow the
manual, and the people who write these things usually do so from the comfort of an orthopedic
chair--but it is true that captors often identify with their hostages, particularly in long-term hostage
situations. If this occurs, you should make the best of it, talking about homey, family things rather
than international politics or the likely future of said criminal.
As previously stated, your biggest threat comes from the authorities. While the longer the incident
goes on, the more likely the terrorists are to give up, the opposite is true for police or authorities.
The site commander may grow tired after hours of negotiation and authorize a "dynamic entry" even
if the situation doesn't call for it. A dynamic entry usually starts with some kind of distraction;
sometimes the assault team will blow a hole in a wall, both for entry or distraction, or they might fire
tear gas, "flash-bangs", or flaming magnesium grenades, or all of the above, in order to distract the
captors. When the team enters, they will fire at anything that appears threatening, i.e. anything
moving, so your best chance is to get behind cover, get down, and play dead. Do not jump up and
try to struggle with a captor, or take his weapon and try to shoot other captors. If the negotiations
drag on for hours and seem to be worsening, or the captors refuse to negotiate or make
unreasonable, impossibl e demands, then you can expect a dynamic entry. Authorities usually expect
innocent causulties during an assualt, so don't depend on their willingness to protect your life as an
individual; the assault will be planned to minimize innocent casualties, but the primary goal will be to
protect members of the entry team and take out the captors, not to protect the hostages.
V. Aftermath
A. If you capture your attacker:
Generally, it is better to drive your attacker away. Trying to capture an attacker is much more
difficult. He has no compunction about harming you and you are restraining yourself from harming
him. The advantage is all his, and all he needs is a moment of indecision or inattention to hurt you.
Even if he is seemingly disarmed and you are holding a gun on him, he may have another weapon
hidden. If he appears hurt or dead he may be "playing possum" in order to get you to drop your
guard.
If your attacker is injured, you might be civilly liable in moving, restraining, or even trying to aid him.
While it may seem heartless, if your attacker is wounded, the best thing you can do is take cover,
keep your weapon at ready, and await the arriva l of the authorities. You can't bang him over the
head with your gun or a club to knock him unconscious; it is rather dangerous, both for you and the
attacker, and it isn't always effective. It should go without saying that you can't walk over and kill
the attacker with a coup de grace shot either; this is considered execution and is very, very illegal.
If the attacker surrenders, then you have a quandry on your hands; you don't really want to deal
with an able, conscious attacker. If you face more than one attacker, the odds against you are much
worse. If they do surrender, remain behind cover. Demand that they turn around, lower (not drop)
their firearms or other weapons to the ground *one at a time*, and then drop to their knees, facing
away from you, hands clasped on top of their head. If they refuse to comply...well, you can't shoot
them unless they actually charge or appear to be drawing a weapon. Do not attempt to frisk or
secure the criminals if the police are on the way; that job belongs to the police, who usually perform
such act in pairs or groups.
If you don't have any expectation of the authorities coming to secure the attackers, your options are
reduced to either driving them off or securing them yourself. If you choose the latter option, be
advised that you are putting yourself at great risk in doing so; you can't justify shooting the attacker
until he makes a move, but once you've approached the attacker, you've removed the advantage of
range, and he may attempt to grapple with you, or draw a concealed weapon.
If you do decide to secure the criminal yourself, you'll want to restrain and then frisk the criminal.
This is not done in the manner shown on television. Although some police department still use this
method, they do so only in pairs, and even then there is a better way. If there are more than one
attacker, have them line up in front of each other, one facing the next one's back, so that the
forward guys can't see what you are doing. Order the first attacker to drop to his knees and clasp
his hands at his head, as before. Then order him to fall to his face, without using his hands. Once he
is lying down, prone, have him take the right ankle and put it behind the left knee, (or reverse if you
are left handed), and then fold the left leg, capturing the right leg. Approach the attacker, holstering
your weapon (if you have a club type weapon you may want to draw it) and put your weight against
the leg, immobilizing his legs. Then, restrain the arms; handcuffs or shackles work well, but so will
strong plastic one-way ties, wire, duct tape, or superglue. If you use rope or cord, use several loops
around the wrists and tie the knots securely, using a secure hitch followed by several tight knots. It is
inadvisiable to attempt tying the legs, as even a secured criminal can kick while you attempt to tie
the legs, and you'll probably want to move them around, anyway. If you do decide to secure the
legs, through a temporary restricting loop (like a lasso) around both ankles first and then make a
more secur e bond as with the arms. When you are done with one attacker, move him so that you
can see what he is doing and go on to the next one. Be prepared for a struggle; he may attempt to
wrestle your weapon away from you or draw one of his own.
Once you have secured him, then frisk him, first patting and then rumpling the clothing, looking for
both bulky and flat weapons. Check thoroughly; ignore derrogatory comments. Once you've
determined that he doesn't have any weapons, remove his belt, shoes, and all contents of the pocket
including comb, keys, etc.
Securing the attackers works best when you have a partner who can keep his weapon trained upon
the criminals while you tie them up. You'll want to be careful though, not to cross his line of fire. If
you have to keep the criminals tied up for an extended period of time, don't bother unsecuring them
to go to the bathroom or for feeding; this just opens up the opportunity for resistance. Make certain
they are given water--you don't want a criminal or civil suit for negligence--but they should be able
to survive a few days without food. Don't lock them in a room unless it is completely secure; it is
better to keep them under observation, or, after securing them, seek out the authorities.
Securing the criminals yourself may be the only viable option in certain situations, but it is very
dangerous, even with a partner, and should be undertaken only in extreme need. It is almost always
better to await the authorities or drive off the criminals.
B. Altering/leaving the scene:
Altering or leaving the scene of a crime (even if you were the victim) is a crime, sometimes a felony,
and so in general, you do not want to do this. Some security experts and police officers give bad
advice in this regard; more than once, a police officer has advised a potential defender that if he had
shot a trespasser outside the home, he should drag the trespasser in the house and claim that an
intrusion had taken place. This is an extremely bad idea. Modern forensic science has progressed to
the point where forensicists and forensic pathologists can develop amazing amounts of information
from seemingly insignificant clues. Unless you are intimately familiar with their methods and are
extremely cool-headed, it is unlikely that you will remove all evidence of tampering and any
indication of tampering is enough to start an investigation.
Another favorite method of altering the scene is the throw-down weapon, sometimes used by, shall
we say, rather pragmatic police officers. The throw-down weapon is an extra knife or a gun which
is carried. If a defender is involved in an incident where t he attacker ends up dead but turns out not
to be armed, he puts the weapon nearby, first adding the attackers fingerprints. This tactic is
well-known to forensicists and if they suspect that a weapon is a throw-down (i.e. there is only one
set of prints on the grip and none on the magazine or ammunition) then this may be enough to cause
a full-blown investigation.
Another action which is discouraged is leaving the scene of a crime. Even in a justified shooting the
defender can expect to go through much effort and expense to demonstrate his "presumed"
innocence, and so walking away from an incident can seem a desir able act, particularly in light of
the fact that so many murders go unsolved. Be wary of this line of thinking, though. You may leave
considerable evidence behind identifying you, or their may be witnesses you didn't see. As with
tampering with evidence, if you walk away from the crime and your identity is discovered later, a
jury will tend to side against you because of your reluctance to come forward. Leaving the scene of
a crime, while perhaps not as criminal as tampering with evidence, is still a crime. If you leave the
scene, the presumption is that your attackers are dead (so that they can't identify you). If this is the
case, understand that there is no statute of limitations on murder, so you will spend the rest of your
life a hunted man, never knowing if someone might uncover a clue to your identity. If your shooting
was just, you are often better off to face the consequences and clear your name.
C. When the police come:
First of all, when you or someone else calls the police, be certain that the dispatcher has a good
description of you, and relays the fact that you are armed. If you are holding the criminals at gun
point, relay that fact too, lest the police think that *you* are the attacker. The dispatcher may
demand that you immediately disarm; (this is standard policy for many departments), but until the
police arrive on site, you are the only guarantee of your own safety, so you'd best stay armed. Once
the police arrive, let them take over; don't argue unless necessary. Make a display about disarming;
move slowly, place the weapon on the ground, and follow their instructions. They may initially take
you into custody as well as the attackers, to assure their safety; after all, they don't have a score
card and they may not know who is the perpetrator, so comply with the police and calmly explain
the circumstances.
Whether to make a statement then, or await legal counsel is a questionable matter; in general, even if
you are completely right, you are better off talking to a lawyer first. Explain to the police, "Look, I'd
like to talk to you, but this is such a serious matter I think I ought to talk to a lawyer first." Don't be
swayed by argument or threat; it is your right both to be silent and to communicate with a lawyer.
Better you talk to a lawyer first than to make a mistake which goes into the police report and returns
to haunt you later.
Be polite to the officer taking the report. While the report *should* be unbiased, an officer can and
usually will bias it with his own observations; if you are belligerent, the officer may bias it against
you. Don't count on politeness biasing the report for you, but it never hurts; that report is primarily
what the prosecutor will use in determining whether to press charges or not. Don't admit to anything
not 100% legal--you have a Fifth Amendment right from self-incrimination--and don't make up
elaborate stories; your best bet is simply to tell the truth, as clearly and concisely as you can. If the
incident occurs with other defenders, you might want to verify the details before the police arrive,
but don't conspire to change evidence or lie; again, the police will probably find discrepancies in the
stories, particularly when they question the defenders one at a time.
D. Legal consequences/Demanding legal counsel:
As previously stated, you should talk to legal counsel before submitting a report. This is your
Constitutional right, although some police officers may try to convince you otherwise. If you have
already talked to a lawyer or keep one on retainer, keep his number on you, and make him your
first phone call, or have someone else call him.
If at all possible, hire a private lawyer. The law requires that you be provided with legal assistance,
but this usually means a "public defender" who is overworked, underpaid, understaffed, and
possibly poorly qualified. In general, public defenders would rather plead out a case, even if it is
winable, to reduce their workload--they get paid by the hour or are salaried, not by the number of
cases they win. A private attorney will be expensive--you may be forced to morgage your house or
sell possessions, but you stand a better chance of coming out in the clear. Your lawyer will be in the
best situation to advise you, so listen to him, but if you think his advice is bad, don't be adverse to
getting a second opinion.
The legal consequences of a shooting, even in what is clearly self- defense, can be devastating.
However, as many gun owners point out, "It is better to be tried by twelve than carried by six." You
can't be tried if you are dead, nor can you protect your family or enjoy your possessions. Although
jury decisions can be obtuse, juries typically try hard to come to a rational decision, and it serves
well to remind a jury that they are in control of the your fate, to the point that they may contradict
the letter law if they see fit.
Once you are tried for a specific crime, and found not guilty, you cannot be retried, unless by a
different court, or a different charge, or for accessory charges to the main event. Legal battles can
drag on for years, draining your patience and your pocketbook. This is especially aggrevating when
the prosecutor is doing so only for political brownie points. It helps to have supportive family and
friends, and in the case when the charges aren't justified, but are a political attack, public support
and media attention can help remind an errant public servant for whom he works.
E. Civil liability:
Even if you are found innocent of criminal charges, you can still be held liable for civil damages,
either by the attackers or by their surviving relatives and associates. Unlike criminal court, in civil
court you can be sued any number of times for dama ges, and re-sued later if damages were
deemed to be insufficient. Civil suits only require a perponderence of evidence, as opposed to the
"beyond a reasonable doubt" criteria of criminal cases, and so it is quite possible to be acquitted of
a criminal ch arge only to have to pay thousands or millions of dollars in damages arising from a civil
suit. You can countersue, if the suit is frivolous, but that is expensive, too. Besides, while you
(hopefully an upstanding citizen of some consistant, if not extra vagant, means) have property to sue
for and a steady position and social status to maintain and protect, most criminals own little, and
have few qualms about pulling up roots and taking off to some other area, making it difficult collect
on such a suit ev en if you win.
Civil liability can arrise even from situations where the shooting was entirely justified. It isn't a matter
of guilt or innocence; it is a matter of specific compliance with the law. In one fairly recent case, a
child used his step-father's handgun to shoot and kill an adult home intruder who was with a armed
with a sharpened screwdriver. No criminal charges were filed; however, the attacker's surviving
relatives filed a civil suit on the step-father, claiming that he was negligent in allowing his step-child
access to a firearm, and that this negligence led to the death of the attacker. QED. While
exoneration from criminal charges never hurts in a civil case, it is certainly no guarantee of winning a
civil suit, so be prepared. You may want to do so me legal shell-games, like setting up trust funds
for your children or selling your house to yoru wife or relative for a nominal fee, so that you
personally have little to lose in a settlement. This might seem dishonest, but in the current situation,
the game is rigged against you, and you can lose even when you are right, so you want to make
certain that your family is taken care of if you lose.
If you are a store-owner, you have some special considerations. Customers may sue you for putting
their lives in jeopardy, and if an innocent person gets shot, even if not by your gun, you can be held
liable in many states. If you are a store-owner considering armed defense, it would be wise to keep
a lawyer on retainer, particularly if you work in a high crime area.
F. Social consequences:
The social consequences of a shooting can be extensive, ranging from emotional problems to threats
from survivors. The social consequences can, in some cases, be more significant than legal or civil
consquences; even if you are found innocent of wrongdoi ng, people may view you as a killer.
First off all, let's dispell the modern myth of post-shooting traumatic disorder (PSTD). There is no
doubt that you will probably suffer some amount of emotional anguish; unlike the movies, bad guys
don't just fall down and die, they usually make quite a mess, and the agony can leave a significant
impression on you. People will probably accuse you of being a murderer, and our society holds that
the elimination of life, even in just cause, is unfortunate and perhaps reprehensible. Even when you
are in the right, you may feel some amount of guilt; this is normal, but it should not be overwhelming.
It is easy to say, "If someone came after me, I'd shoot the &$%# and then piss on his grave," but
the reality may be somewhat different. We've all been brought up (I hope) to have some measure of
respect for life, and killing someone, even in defense, goes against that training. However, if you are
a normal person with a supportive family and friends, or are capable of handling your own emotional
distress effectively, this shouldn't pose a chronic problem. Most defenders are more happy to be
alive than sorrowful for killing their attacker.
Nightmares, or periods of introspection are normal for such an infrequent emotional trauma, but if
they don't reduce in frequency and intensity, or you feel depressed or suicidal, it is important to get
help, quickly. This may involve a religious leader, a relative, or a psychiatrist, but whatever you do,
don't just ignore it.
You can put a handle on your emotions, but you can't control those of others. Friends and relatives
may shy away from you, thinking you to be irresponsible or criminal. If public opinion is against you,
you may have trouble locally or get fired from your job. Other people, "violence groupies", may try
to get you to reiterate your experience, asking you questions like, "How did if feel?" or "Would you
do it again?" The best thing you can do is try to go on with your life; don't encourage people by talk
ing about it publically (you probably won't want to, anyway) and just try to show people that you
aren't a danger; you are just Joe or Jane Public, trying to make your way through life, someone who
had the unfortuante circumstance to have to kill another person. Be careful about what you say for
legal, too.
One thing you may have to worry about is retribution; criminals may have friends or family that
demand vengence and may harrass you, or even attack you. If this occurs, make certain that the
police know, although as with a stalking situation, there may not be much that you can do about it.
You may have to move to get away from social sentiment or vengeful relatives, leaving your job,
selling your home, and forgoing your friends and relatives. In the movies, a defender may kill the
badguy, and then drive away into the sunset with the pretty girl; in real life, it is never that simple.
You can expect great expense, emotionally draining legal shenanigans, and underhanded
harrassment and even outright revenge.
But it is better than being killed, or seeing a loved one killed or raped.
G. What if you get shot:
If you get shot, the first thing to do is to end the conflict, as quickly as possible. If not before, your
life is truly on the line now, so be quick and dirty about it. Next, you want to get medical help. If
help is not available, raise the injured body part to reduce blood loss, and cover yourself to prevent
shock. If you, or another defender, has a chest wound from which bubbles are issuing, get a piece
of plastic, like a trashcan liner or a large sandwich bag, and cover the wound, using pressure for a
seal. It helps to have a sharp utility knife for cutting away clothing and the like. It is best not to move
the injured unless necessary, but if it is a choice between remaining in the line of fire or moving the
wounded, move them. Remember, too, that you can be civilially liable, even if you aren't personally
responsible for the wound, so unless you are sure of what you are doing, it may be best to await
medical help. In general, don't bother helping your attackers; it opens you to civil suit, physical
attack, and transmission of blood-borne dieseases. Your attackers made their choice, and accepted
their fate, when they decided to attack you.
It is wise to take a "First Responder" class as preparation for defense. This may do more to save
your life than the super magnum advertised in the latest issue of "Guns and Glory", so make it a
serious consideration.
If paramedics respond, understand that they will probably refuse to help you until you disarm and
hand over the weapon. They don't know who you are or what you are doing with the gun, nor do
they care; they just want to go home at night. It is safest, if you are able, to unload the gun as gun
handling is not generally a required skill for paramedics. The paramedics *should* check in your
weapon with your other belongings, but if it is lost, so be it; you can buy another gun, but you can't
buy another leg, or another life.
VI. Appendicies
Appendix A: A true story of "defense" with a fake firearm by Tom Faller.
Back in '82, I was a poor graduate student intending to finish my thesis and move to Houston,
where a nice job in the oil industry awaited. I was living in Iowa City, a town that not only had little
crime, but didn't even have a "bad" section. Even with 35+ bars downtown, it was usually safe to
wander on foot at all hours.
Nobody in my family had ever used guns while I was growing up. My younger sister had bought a
gun in the '70's, after being attacked, but my general attitude while growing up was "I didn't like
them". As the prospect of moving to Houston drew nearer, I decided to look into the question
again.
I couldn't afford a pistol, but I could afford a realistic-looking Crossman pellet gun that looked
exactly like a S&W .357 and fired six rounds. It was big, it was heavy, and it made a good "training
gun" as I tried to anticipate carrying it around, keeping it safe but available at home, and dealing with
it in my head - the most difficult part.
Well, I finally moved to Houston, started hitting the gun shops and reading the ads, and my first
pistol was a .22 Ruger Single-Six, a single action 5 1/2" barreled pistol that was only $125, but was
indeed a real gun. Now I had a real gun at last.
Unfortunately, it wasn't much of one. I shot it at the range a couple of times and enjoyed it, but
when there were noises outside my back door, it didn't seem like much comfort. In another six
months, I'd bought a Remington 870 shotgun with a 20" barrel, which was more comforting, but I
still was without something handy and portable that would do the job. I was looking at .357's, .44
Specials (the Charter Arms Bulldog was hot at the time), and .45's, but couldn't decide to cough up
the money - especially when a Ruger Ranch Rifle was just a bit more...
One night, about a year later, I pulled into my parking spot behind my apartment. My girlfriend and
I were living in a "nice" area, with security gates, and a big wooded lot in the middle of a circle of
townhouses. It was North Houston, a very busy area, both commercially, and with new residence
homes going up all over. The complex had been very quiet since we'd moved in.
As I got out of the car, a black guy, about 20, jogged down the drive I'd just driven up on. A few
seconds later, a large dog followed at a gallop - an odd pair out jogging, but I'd seen stranger
before. Two seconds later, a white guy, also about 20, ran up and yelled "Stop him! He broke into
my neighbor's car!"
The dog belonged to Bachelor #2, who had just walked out his back door with the dog and had
seen a pair of feet poking out of his neighbor's car. We both gave chase until we got around the
corner of the building, at which point we lost sight of our burglar. We decide to go back and get
guns and then poke around to see if we could find the guy.
I know. Stupid. Wait, it gets worse.
I went back inside and went to my closet. I looked at the shotgun - too obvious, and it might get me
shot. My Single-Six wasn't much of a pistol to intimidate anyone. I picked up the Crossman and
stuck it in my waistband. Outside, we looked into the woods, but didn't try to go in. The dog had
lost track of him, or perhaps wasn't a tracker at all. The other guy had a baseball bat - his gun was
at the shop. We gave up after a few minutes and went to tell his neighbor about the break-in.
While I was out poking around, several thoughts went through my mind. First, that pellet gun was
absolutely useless for trying to stop someone. If I told them to halt and they came at me, what was I
going to do? Second, if the guy had a gun, or had gotten to one, he could shoot me and claim that
I'd pulled on him first - and I'd be stuck with "terroristic threats" and a hole in my side if I were
lucky.
That made me decide to make a decision. I looked around, and the next week, purchased a Ruger
.357 and a used Bulldog. I went to the range and practiced with both. I got used to having them in
the house, and dragged my girlfriend to a Deputy's Safety course, where she could fire several guns
and learn how to handle them. She still wouldn't touch one, but I felt that she wouldn't hurt herself if
she changed her mind someday.
Well, the Ruger was stolen about seven years ago and the Bulldog was sold to a cop for a backup
gun. I've replaced both with better guns. I've still got the Crossman pellet gun, though, and I still play
with it in the yard. It isn't any substitute for a real gun though. The trigger is lousy - no relation to
even the crummiest handgun, and the balance is strange - but it's still a fun toy. It might scare
someone until they looked at the little bitty hole in the barrel and for the cylinder holes - but I'd
rather use a .22 than bluff again.
I've heard the argument about your gun getting taken away and used against you. While I don't want
to put down anyone's feelings on the matter, it seems to me that this is a learned response, and not a
genuine attitude - that is, it's something that people _think_ they might do because they've seen it
happen on TV or have been told that if you don't want to shoot someone, it will absolve you of the
guilt of what happens when they do take it away from you. I think that in real life, you'll be going 90
miles per hour to pull the trigger before your attacker takes another step, or that you'll use teeth,
claws and toenails to fight letting go of it. Fear is a powerful thing. I expect to use my fear to help
me hang on to my gun, should the chance occur.
I also expect, from my experience, that someone with a pellet gun would pull it out before it was
needed, because there's the mental conditioning that "it's not really a deadly weapon", or "I'm just
going to scare them anyway". Either attitude can make an attack more likely, if your attacker
decides that your body language means that you aren't serious about hurting them.
My advice is: don't bluff. Don't make a threat unless you really mean to follow through; if someone
can't handle a gun, get them the strongest self-protection they will follow through with - spray,
flashlight or big dog. If they're unsure about guns, get them to a range with a competent teacher and
let them see that a gun won't bite them.
Tom Faller
Appendix B: Dan's Pepper Spray Challenge by Dan Day
The Rules: You withdraw the contents of your savings account in cash. Put it in a bag and hang on
to it. Acquire a can of your favorite pepper or tear gas spray. Draw a line on the ground. You stand
on one side and I'll stand on the other. If I can cross the line, take your bag of money away from
you, and carry it back over the line, I get to keep it.
Of course, if you wanted to make it a more realistic simulation of a self-defense situation, I'd be
allowed to bring any weapon(s) I can lay my hands on, but you could only bring whatever you
normally carry with you to work or school every day. Oh, yeah, and the modified rules say I can
fracture your skull or cut your throat if I think it'll help.
You may wonder what you win if the pepper spray *does* stop me. Why, you get to keep your
money, and whatever pieces of your body you can still locate when it's all over. That's fair, isn't it?
After all, it's the same deal you're agreeing to when you trust your money/girlfriend/life/ whatever to
a can of pepper spray. If it works, good; if it doesn't, you lose big-time.
If you think your pepper spray would be effective in stopping me, you have nothing to worry about,
right? Let me know when you're willing to volunteer for this little demonstration, I'm willing to
participate any time, anywhere. Just like the thieves on the street, I think a temporary burning feeling
which leaves no lasting damage is a small price to pay for a chance at all that money. So how
reluctant are you to accept this challenge, and why? Has your enthusiasm for that pepper spray
begun to wane yet? If you're not willing to risk your money on your pepper spray, are you willing to
bet your *life* on it?
Of course, using a gun for self defense is not infallible either, but there are two differences between
the gun and the pepper spray: First, a gun is more effective at stopping an attacker than a
short-range aerosol which is just as likely to affect you as your attacker and which can't be aimed
worth a damn, especially in even a mild breeze. Second, if you're carrying a gun in the above "get
the money over the line" challenge, I wouldn't even *try* to take your money. Why? Because while
I'm willing to risk temporary pain (the pepper spray) for a chance at your money, I'm not suicidal
enough to risk getting shot for it -- and neither are most criminals. Think about it.
Appendix C: Jeff Cooper's Rules of Gun Safety
>From _The_Modern_Technique_of_the_Pistol_ by Greg Morrison, Gunsite Press,
pgs 8-10
RULE I: ALL GUNS ARE ALWAYS LOADED
There are no exceptions. Do not pretend that this is true. Some people
and organizations take this rule and weaken it; e.g. "Treat all guns as if
they were loaded." Unfortunately, the "as if" compromises the directness
of the statement by implying that they are unloaded, but we will treat
them as though they are loaded. No good! Safety rules must be worded
forcefully so that they are never treated lightly or reduced to partial
compliance.
All guns are always loaded - period!
This must be your mind-set. If someone hands you a firearm and says,
"Don't worry, it's not loaded," you do not dare believe him. You need not
be impolite, but check it yourself. Remember, there are no accidents,
only negligent acts. Check it. Do not let yourself fall prey to a
situation where you might feel compelled to squeal, "I didn't know it was
loaded!"
RULE II: NEVER LET THE MUZZLE COVER ANYTHING YOU ARE NOT WILLING TO
DESTROY
Conspicuously and continuously violated, especially with pistols, Rule II
applies whether you are involved in range practice, daily carry, or
examination. If the weapon is assembled and in someone's hands, it is
capable of being discharged. A firearm holstered properly, lying on a
table, or placed in a scabbard is of no danger to anyone. Only when
handled is there a need for concern. This rule applies to fighting as
well as to daily handling. If you are not willing to take a human life,
do not cover a person with the muzzle. This rule also applies to your own
person. Do not allow the muzzle to cover your extremities, e.g. using
both hands to reholster the pistol. This practice is unsound, both
procedurally and tactically. You may need a free hand for some thing
important. Proper holster design should provide for one-handed
holstering, so avoid holsters which collapse after withdrawing the pistol.
(Note: It is dangerous to push the muzzle against the inside edge of the
holster nearest the body to "open" it since this results in your pointing
the pistol at your midsection.) Dry-practice in the home is a worthwhile
habit and it will result in more deeply programmed reflexes. Most of the
reflexes involved in the Modern Technique do not require that a shot be
fired. Particular procedures for dry-firing in the home will be covered
later. Let it suffice for now that you do not dry-fire using a "target"
that you wish not to see destroyed. (Recall RULE I as well.)
RULE III: KEEP YOUR FINGER OFF THE TRIGGER UNTIL YOUR SIGHTS ARE ON THE
TARGET
Rule III is violated most anytime the uneducated person handles a firearm.
Whether on TV, in the theaters, or at the range, people seem fascinated
with having their finger on the trigger. Never stand or walk around with
your finger on the trigger. It is unprofessional, dangerous, and, perhaps
most damaging to the psyche, it is klutzy looking. Never fire a shot
unless the sights are superimposed on the target and you have made a
conscious decision to fire. Firing an unaligned pistol in a fight gains
nothing. If you believe that the defensive pistol is only an intimidation
tool - not something to be used - carry blanks, or better yet, reevaluate
having one around. If you are going to launch a projectile, it had best
be directed purposely. Danger abounds if you allow your finger to dawdle
inside the trigger guard. As soon as the sights leave the target, the
trigger-finger leaves the trigger and straightens alongside the frame.
Since the hand normally prefers to work as a unit - as in grasping -
separating the function of the trigger-finger from the rest of the hand
takes effort. The five-finger grasp is a deeply programmed reflex. Under
sufficient stress, and with the finger already placed on the trigger, an
unexpected movement, misstep or surprise could result in a negligent
discharge. Speed cannot be gained from such a premature placement of the
trigger-finger. Bringing the sights to bear on the target, whether from
the holster or the Guard Position, takes more time than that required for
moving the trigger finger an inch or so to the trigger.
RULE IV: BE SURE OF YOUR TARGET
Know what it is, what is in line with it, and what is behind it. Never
shoot at anything you have not positively identified. Be aware of your
surroundings, whether on the range or in a fight. Do not assume anything.
Know what you are doing.
SUMMARY
Make these rules a part of your character. Never compromise them.
Improper gunhandling results from ignorance and improper role modeling,
such as handling your gun like your favorite actor does. Education can
cure this. You can make a difference by following these gunhandling rules
and insisting that those around you do the same. Set the example. Who
knows what tragedies you, or someone you influence, may prevent?
Appendix D: Suggested Reading
First of all, there are certain books (or types of books) that you might
want to avoid. That is, if you want to stay alive. Many so-called
defense books perpetuate myths and suggest procedures that may seem okay
in the dojo, but don't work for diddily in the streets. Books to avoid:
-- Books about "ninja death touches" and the like; the kind that offer the
promise of instant self-defense.
-- Books on traditional martial-arts styles. These styles can be
effective, but many of the techniques are intended to be used by people
who have years of experience and conditioning. If you want to put in
this much effort, join a martial arts school.
-- Military manuals. These are universally bad and uninformative, and
teach the reader just enough to get killed.
-- Any book that promotes flashy techniques (spinning heel snap sidekick
to the opposite kidney). You are looking for simple techniques that
will work for you under stress.
-- Sucker punch books -- these techniques only work on suckers. Never
underestimate your opponent.
-- Any book by Dr. Ted Gambordella. This guy has no idea what he's
talking about. Ignore him.
The following is a list of books on the topic of armed and unarmed
self-defense (along with a short critique) that I feel are extremely good.
Most of these are available from Loompanics Publishers. The address for
Loompanics is
Loompanics Unlimited
PO Box 1197
Port Townsend, Wa 98368
Unarmed Self Defense
_Cheap_Shots,_Ambushes,_and_Other_Lessons_ by Marc "Animal" MacYoung. If
you read only one book besides _Armed_Defense_ on this entire list it
should be this one. This is not your typical book on self-defense; it has
a bare minimum of information about how to hit people and so forth.
Instead, it talks heavily about awareness, perception, and motivations.
It is one of the few books I have ever read that holistically covers the
topic of unarmed (and armed) self-defense. There are no diagrams
detailing the x-number of striking points on the human body, and no tables
that determine how long a man bleeds from a certain artery before he is
dead; the book isn't even organized in a linear manner, but the
information that it provides is extraordinarily useful. It covers the
information from the viewpoint of someone who has been in combat, rather
than some theory-spouting pogue sitting behind a desk. I cannot recommend
this book more highly.
_Fists,_Wits,_and_a_Wicked_Right_ also by Marc MacYoung. This book
details more about the actual workings of a fight. It doesn't have a lot
of those cute little diagrams with lines going every which way either, but
it does tell the ordinary person (one who can't punch though 1/2 inch of
solid bone with his pinky finger) where and how they can strike to be most
effective. It also debunks several of the myths that the movies have
perpetuated. Although this book is not as utterly important to read as
Che ap Shots, it is highly recommended.
_Black_Medicine_, Vols. 1-3 by N. Mashiro. The third volume, _Low Blows_,
is particularly good, as it presents detailed, simple techniques. Highly
recommended.
_Subway_Survival_ by Bradley J. Steiner. This is a good book for people
who live in urban areas. The procedures in this book can apply to all
crowded situations, not just subways.
_A_Bouncer's_Guide_to_Barroom_Brawling_ by Peyton Quinn. A good addition
to Cheap Shots, as it deals with some of the same ideas, but not required.
_War_With_Empty_Hands_ by Lenox Cramer. A good book in its own way, but I
hesitate to recommend it for someone with no martial arts experience.
Definitely a supplementary item.
Sun Tzu's _The_Art_of_War_ various translations. Interesting ideas that
are applicable to all forms of confrontation. Good reading.
Armed Self-Defense
_Armed_Defense_ by Burt Rapp. An excellent book on armed self defense for the individual,
homeowner, and businessman. If you read only one book out of this entire list, read this one.
Highest recommendation.
_In_the_Gravest_Extreme_ by Massad F. Ayoob. General an excellent book on armed
self-defense, although I disagree with a few of his points.
_The_Truth_About_Self_Protection_, by Massad F. Ayoob. A thick paperback-sized book that
covers many of the possible levels of self- protection, from unarmed through armed, and offers
advice on alarms, locks, dogs and non-lethal weapons.
_Armed_and_Female_ by Paxton Quigley. Ms. Quigley is a former member of Handgun Control,
Inc. who decided that firearms have value in personal defense after all. There are a few technical
flaws in her book, but it is very informative, and it approaches the topic of armed self-defense from
the perspective of a novice. She has a new book out, also.
_The_Street-Smart_Gun_Book_ by John Farnam. Farnam, like Ayoob, teaches a self-defense
school. The book covers awareness, shooting tactics, weapon retention and mistakes to avoid in
defending inside your home.
Several magazines are good regular sources for articles on self defense. The most popular are those
explicitly devoted to guns or martial arts, but they assume that the choice to defend has already been
made. Some articles bear mention because they appeared in the "straight" media, the magazines
which don't focus on self-defense.
These articles are arguments for effective self-defense with a firearm. They may be more effective in
persuading someone who feels that they need a gun, but don't like the image of one, or feel that it
puts them in unwelcome company.
"Letter From An Angry Reader", by Chip Elliot. Esquire, September 1981 This is the best argument
I've read that gun owners aren't all paranoid rednecks. Elliot makes the case that if upscale
Americans are afraid of crime, they'd better do something person ally about it. As with most Esquire
articles, it is extremely well written and persuasive.
"Firearms: No Right Is An Island", by Joe McConnell. Whole Earth Review, Winter, 1992. A very
matter-of-fact article which discusses the failings of gun control assumptions and laws and suggests
some positive solutions. Aimed at the liberal whose experience with guns comes solely from the
movies.
"The False Promise of Gun Control", by Daniel D. Polsby. The Atlantic Monthly, March, 1994.
Attacks the "popular" solutions of gun control by giving facts and pointing out the implicit dangers to
freedom. The thinking person's rebuttal to gun control arguments.
"Would I Be Safer With A Gun?", by Ann Japenga. Health, March/April, 1994 A woman's
magazine article which faces off experts on both sides of the gun safety issue, and presents four
personal stories of women's experience with guns. Two are positive, one negative, and one is
neutral, but the section, as a whole, is positive and has very useful information for women on the
actual effectiveness of common defense objects (with input from Mas Ayoob).
Finally, there is a magazine which offers high-quality advice, gun reviews and a unique voice to the
self-defense forum. "Women and Guns" is published monthly by the Second Amendment
Foundation. Several editors and writers are firearms experts and noted trainers, and most are
women. For a very different look at armed self-defense issues, pick up a copy.
-------------------------------end excerpt-------------------------------
the above was from http://www.recguns.com/VI.backup.html
hane C. Henry
shenry@umr.edus
Massad Ayoob, 1994, Lethal Force Institute (800-624-9049)
This video is used as a lecture by Ayoob in his LFI-1 classes. While some of it is particular to LFI
classes, other points are of general interest. Material covered includes the following:
LFI's unalterable rules of gun safety:
Treat every weapon as if it were loaded
Don't point the muzzle at anything that Ayoob is not willing to have destroyed (keep the muzzle
down range at all times)
Break these rules once, and you are kicked off the firing line for the day. Break them a second time,
and you are ejected from the class, and you will not get your registration money back.
If you need to get a magazine or put on your muffs, holster the gun. LFI-1 uses a cold range (gun
unloaded at all times except when you are on the firing line and have been given the command to
load). A hot range (guns always loaded) is good for skills maintenance; a cold range is better for
skills acquisition, which is what one does at LFI-1.
Safe handling of revolvers is not too hard. It takes a number of mistakes to AD (accidentally
discharge) a revolver. Semi-autos are trickier in that respect; you only have to be stupid for a
second, or let your mind wander for a moment.
Clearing a semi-auto -- drop the magazine, but don't (as often seen) hold it between last two
fingers of dominant hand. Put the magazine in waist band, pocket, or armpit of dominant arm.
Ejecting a round -- not with hand on slide, into dominant palm. If round discharges, brass could
literally cripple your hand (overlength ejectors can ignite primer, especially Glocks and S&Ws).
Rotate the gun to the left (for right-handers) with ejection port away from you. Eject the round onto
the floor/ground.
Unloading -- get used to checking by both sight and feel; make it an automatic reflex. (It could
save you an AD in the dark when you can't check by sight.) With semi-autos, use little finger of
non-dominant hand to probe magazine well and chamber. With revolvers, open cylinder; weak hand
holds cylinder open, index finger of dominant hand presses into each chamber.
Operating the slide on semi-autos -- shows problems with various common techniques, such as
overhand method. Too much resistance on the slide can force you towards a higher leverage
(unsafe) position. If you need to reduce resistance on the slide, pull back the hammer. Use slingshot
technique. Dominant hand holds pistol in safe direction. Support hand comes over from behind,
using opposing thumb, and pulls.
Pinch check/press check -- manifestly unsafe; don't do it. This was developed by armorers, in
whose offices/shops ammunition is strictly forbidden.
Holstering -- one-handed, but strong grip ... index finger extended ... thumb behind hammer or
slide. For tactical reasons, learn to reholster one-handed, by feel. There have been four
injury-producing ADs at Chapman Academy and Gunsite; all were all 1911s, and all during
holstering. Get into the habit of getting the thumb behind hammer or slide.
Drawing -- one-handed as well ... Two-handed means muzzle crosses weak hand (see rule #2) ...
If you have a thumb break, snap that one-handed too ... Hand in full firing position, finger extended,
weak hand comes in from side and behind, safety off/finger on trigger no sooner than 45 degrees.
Low ready position -- finger off trigger; on safe (for guns with safeties) or decocked (for guns with
decockers). Decock with firm hold, gun pointed in safe direction. Hold gun at 45 degrees to target;
lower than this is unsafe. High ready may make sense in certain tactical (police) situations but is
unsafe on a range. Ayoob prefers to see finger crooked above trigger.
Accidental discharges are an occupational hazard. The chances of having one are 1 in 100,000,
but we're telling you to train ... to do 100,000 repetitions. It will happen, but if you remember the
cardinal safety and handling rules, no one will be hurt.
Guns have no souls ... yours does not love you, and it will not forgive you ... it is a snake waiting to
bite you ... guns know no loyalty ... overexposure breeds contempt.
above was from
http://www.recguns.com/VJ2.html
below is from
http://www.recguns.com/II.html
I. Introduction
I. A Handgun Primer For Novices
by Gary Wachs, gswst@cislabs.pitt.edu
Version: December, 1993
Table of Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Basics of guns and ammunition
3. Legitimate uses of guns *
4. Legalities of gun availability and gun control *
5. How to shoot *
6. Reloading (making ammo) *
7. Types of ammo *
* Not complete yet.
1 Introduction
1.1 Purpose
The document introduces some very fundamental ideas and terminology
regarding guns, particularly handguns, to beginners. If you know
next-to-nothing about guns, read it straight through.
1.2 Gun Safety
The very first information covered with people new to guns is that of
gun safety. The basic rules are:
* treat every gun is if it were loaded
* always point the gun away from people
* keep your finger away from the trigger until you are ready to fire
* keep the action open (un-fireable) until ready to shoot
Complete safety rules are available everywhere.
1.3 Scope
This is nothing more than a primer (pun intended); find yourself a
knowledgable mentor as you continue to get educated about this topic.
My hope is that Handgun Basics will make the rest of your journey a
little smoother. Besides all the definitions and explanations, I have
included some digressions to provide factual information and help
dispel much of the misinformation already out there, such as the
"plastic" gun.
2 The Basics of Guns and Ammunition
2.1 General Introduction
2.1.1 What is a handgun?
Webster: "gun: noun. a weapon consisting of a tube of metal,
fixed in a stock or mounted on a carriage, from which projectiles
are fired by the force of an explosive, usually gunpowder... a
cannon, rifle, revolver or pistol"
A handgun is a gun designed to be held and fired with only one
hand. In practice, the other hand is also used underneath for
greater support.
2.1.2 Origins
The need that men were attempting to fulfill when they invented
the gun was that of a better tool for combat. What made it
better was that it could be used from a remarkably far distance,
had devastating stopping power, was easy to build & maintain, and
every man could learn to use it and carry several of them with
ease.
Today, the handgun is still part of standard law enforcement
apparel. Millions of ordinary citizens also possess guns, a
right which our Founding Fathers included in the Constitution.
The 2nd Amendment in the Bill of Rights states that "...the right
of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed..."
2.1.3 How ammunition works
To understand what a gun does, you must first know what makes the
projectile it fires do that. The projectile is called a bullet.
The object you load into the gun is called a cartridge, or a live
round of ammunition. To be fired, the cartridge must be in the
chamber of the gun. It is a misnomer to call the cartridge a
bullet; the bullet is only the part that strikes the target.
All cartridges consist of a casing containing powder and capped
with a bullet, and a means of detonating the powder. There are
many different constructs. For example, a center-fire cartridge
has its detonator, called a primer, pressed into the center of a
small hole in the base of the casing. A rim-fire cartridge has
its detonator lieing inside the casing's bottom rim.
When the gun is triggered to fire, the following sequence of
events occur. A firing pin strikes the detonator (henceforth
called the primer), which then explodes. This explosion is very
small, but it does ignite the powder inside the casing. When the
powder ignites, it causes a very large increase in pressure
within the casing, which blows the bullet out fast. This last
step comes from Newton's Third law, "for every action, there is
an equal an opposite reaction". The shooter must hold the gun
only firmly enough to absorb the reactive force, called recoil,
propelling the gun towards him. The recoil requires some getting
used to, but using a death-grip is neither neccessary nor
advised.
The explosion is contained within the chamber of the gun, and
only heavy metallic materials can withstand such a blast. There
is absolutely no such thing as a gun made entirely of, or even
mostly of, plastic. We are many, many years away from non-
metallic technologies capable of containing such explosive
forces. Today's metal-detectors, however, are sensitive enough
to detect something as small as a hairpin.
2.1.4 General construction of guns
Now then, the gun is therefore serving several purposes. It is
the containment device for the entire process. It has a
triggering mechanism that causes the firing pin to strike the
primer. It has a tube of metal called a barrel that directs the
bullet in a specific direction. After you fire the bullet, what
happens next depends on what type of gun you have.
Guns also have appendages on them called sights that enable the
shooter to aim the gun to strike a particular target. In the
movies, actors usually just hold their gun at hip-level, point it
in the general direction of a person several yards away, shoot
and hit their target. That, of course, is fiction. The key to
hitting any target is learning to use the sights properly, and it
takes lots of practice.
Handguns have a grip that makes them easy to hold in one hand
while firing. In revolvers, the grip is usually solid. A semi-
automatic grip is hollow since it contains the magazine which
contains more cartridges. These terms are defined below.
Squeezing the trigger of an empty gun is known as dry-firing. On
some guns, particularly rim-fire types, doing this repeatedly can
damage the firing pin, which should be avoided.
2.2 Types of handguns
Guns can be classified in many different ways, such as:
* By loading technique: revolvers and auto-loaders
* By modes: single-action (SA), double-action (DA), both (SA/DA)
* By ammunition: 22 caliber, 9mm, 45, .380, rubber, ...
* By purpose: self-defense, competition/recreation, combat,
hunting, collecting...
* By material: wood frame, blued or parkerized finish, stainless...
* By price range: up to $300, $500, $1000, $3000, $5000...
Both revolvers and semi-autos can accommodate a variety of types and
sizes of ammunition. Semi-automatics are a type of auto-loading
pistol. Auto-loading means that after a shot is fired, the spent
casing is automaticaly ejected and the new round is loaded into the
chamber. Revolvers cannot auto-load. A basic understanding of the
construction of different guns is needed to understand what these all
terms mean.
2.2.1 Revolvers
After flintlocks, the first modern handguns invented were
revolvers. In a revolver, the cartridges are placed inside the
perimeter of a revolving cylinder. As the cylinder turns, each
cartridge is placed inline with the firing pin and the barrel so
it can be fired. Immediately after the bullet is fired, nothing
else happens. The cylinder must be turned to line up the next
cartridge before the gun can be fired again. The spent casings
remain inside until they are manually removed. Typically, a
revolver has a capacity of 5 or 6 cartridges. The cartridges can
be placed inside the revolver one at a time, or a metal retaining
clip that holds a round of cartridges can be used to insert all
of them at once.
Now assume a live round is in the chamber and is fired. The
firing pin is struck by a spring-loaded hammer. The hammer must
first be pulled back (cocked) so that when it is released, the
force of the spring will cause the hammer to strike the pin with
enough energy to detonate the primer. To summarize, the two
actions that must take place are:
(1) cock the hammer,
(2) release the hammer into the firing pin (the hammer
strikes the firing pin).
2.2.1.1.
When we speak of a gun having single-action (SA) or double-action
(DA) we are refering to what is happening while the trigger is
being squeezed. When the trigger of a gun in SA mode is
squeezed, only (2) happens. When the trigger of a gun in DA mode
is squeezed, both (1) and (2) happen. Both revolvers and auto-
loaders are available in SA-only, DA-only and SA/DA mode, but
remember, no revolver can auto-load.
2.2.1.2 Revolvers in single-action mode
If a revolver is in SA mode, then the hammer has already
been manually cocked. When the trigger is squeezed, only a
single action will take place, namely the hammer is
released. After a round is fired, the revolver goes back
into DA mode. Trigger-squeeze force is typically very light
under this circumstance. Only guns with extraordinarily
sensitive triggers are termed "hair-trigger". Usually, the
most accurate shooting possible is performed in SA mode.
Revolvers that only work in SA mode, termed SA-only, always
require manual cocking in the form of pulling back the
hammer with a thumb or the other hand, and are therefore
totally impractical for combat or self-defense. They are
used for competitive target-shooting and hunting. When
cocking the hammer, the cylinder will be also be turned.
Examples of SA-only guns:
2.2.1.3 Revolvers in double-action mode
If a revolver is in DA mode, then the hammer is not
initially cocked. Two actions must take place as the
trigger is squeezed to fire the gun. The first half-inch or
so of trigger-pull will both cock the hammer and rotate the
cylinder. The final moment of trigger-pull results in the
hammer being released. Trigger-squeeze force is naturally
greater than that of SA mode. Shooting accurately is
somewhat more demanding because of the additional physical
effort of cocking the hammer during the trigger squeeze.
A DA-only revolver has a concealed (not-exposed) hammer.
Such revolvers are popular self-defense weapons because they
are always uncocked until fired, and the concealed hammer
means there's less chance of it getting snagged on something
when it's hurriedly pulled from a purse or pocket.
2.2.1.4 Revolvers in single-action and double-action mode
If a revolver is capable of SA/DA mode, then it can be
operated in either of the above ways. All revolvers always
go back to DA mode immediatly after a shot has been fired.
Revolvers do not have external manual safeties, so they
should only be put into SA mode when preparing to fire.
A revolver in SA mode can also be decocked manually. The
safe way to do this is to use the cylinder-release to clear
the cylinder away from the firing pin path, point the gun in
a safe direction and squeeze the trigger to dry-fire the
weapon. The dangerous way to do this is to press and hold
the cocked hammer down with your thumb, point the gun in a
safe direction, squeeze the trigger and gradually ease the
hammer into decocked position with your thumb. If you let
go of the hammer accidently you might fire the gun.
2.2.1.5 Reloading
The revolver is not an auto-loader. That means the next
cartridge is loaded into place (ie. the cylinder is turned a
few degrees) when the hammer is being cocked, which may be
accomplished manually or while triggering from DA mode, as
explained above.
Reloading a revolver is a two-step process. First the spent
casings must be removed, and second the new cartidges must
be put in.
2.2.1.6 Miscellaneous
The first revolvers made were SA devices, as the designers
had not yet figured out how to connect the triggering
mechanism to control the hammer and turn the cylinder. In
movies about the old west you sometimes see the shooter
pulling back the hammer with his thumb before firing; it had
to be done manually. If he wanted to fire several rounds
quickly, he used his other hand to rapidly cock back the
hammer, fire, cock, fire, and so on.
All revolvers are kept decocked for safety. A revolver in
SA mode is in a more precarious state since the trigger need
only be squeezed a fraction of an inch to fire (it's already
cocked), and there is no manual safety. Hunters and
competition-shooters put their revolver into SA mode just
before they prepare to shoot to increase their accuracy. If
a revolver is fired first in SA and second in DA mode, the
trigger-squeeze force is inconsistent.
2.2.2 Semi-automatics (auto-loaders)
A semi-auto handgun fires a bullet the same way as a revolver
does. The difference lies in what happens after the bullet has
been fired. After a semi-auto fires a bullet, it utilizes an
internal spring to conserve some of the explosive energy to do a
few other things automaticly. All semi-autos will eject the
spent casing (so it is wise to wear eye protection) and insert
the next round from the magazine into the chamber. No revolver
can do that. If the semi-auto is not DA-only, it will also re-
cock the hammer automatically. The operator must let go of the
trigger and then squeeze it again to fire the next round.
Semi-autos are constructed very differently from revolvers in
order to accomplish all this. The capacity of a semi-auto is
limited only by the capacity of the magazine feeding it "plus
one" round in the chamber. The typical quantity is 5 to 17
cartridges in a magazine. The cartridges are packed into a
spring-loaded magazine which slides into the grip of the gun.
A fully-automatic gun, also known as a machine gun or an assault
rifle, does everything a semi-auto does except that the operator
need not let go of the trigger and squeeze to fire again. As
long as the trigger is depressed, the cartridges continue to be
fed and fired in bursts or continuously. Examples of full-autos:
M16, M60, UZI
2.2.2.1 Semi-auto in single-action mode
If a semi-auto is SA-only, then it also has a manual safety
switch that prevents the trigger from functioning until the
safety is manually switched OFF by the operator with a flick
of the thumb. Such a handgun is usually kept "locked and
cocked", meaning that it must be manually de-locked (ie.
turn off the safety) and then be triggered to fire. It
would be foolish to carry an SA-only handgun with the safety
OFF.
The SA-only semi-auto is a popular self-defense weapon
because of the speed and light trigger force of SA firing,
and the preventive step of having to turn off the manual
safety before it can be fired.
The manual safeties are extremely reliable, but many people
don't feel comfortable carrying a cocked gun, so more styles
came along, as described below. The difference between the
SA-only semi-auto and the SA-only revolver is that the SA-
only semi-auto is always automatically cocked, while the SA-
only revolver requires manual cocking and has no manual
safety. Example of SA-only semi-autos: Ruger Mark II, all
Colt 1911 variants
2.2.2.2 Semi-automatics in double-action mode
If a semi-auto is DA-only, then it is identical to a
decocked revolver in terms of readiness to fire. A DA-only
semi-auto has no manual safety. The only automatic process
that a DA-only semi-auto undergoes is that of the next
cartridge being loading into the chamber once the previous
one is ejected.
The DA-only semi-auto is a popular self-defense weapon
because it is always decocked, and the operator doesn't have
to worry about remembering to turn off a manual safety
(there isn't one). Notice these conflicting rationales
indicate that not everyone feels the same way about the
security of SA mode or the practicality of manual safeties;
it all depends on your individual tastes and preferences.
2.2.2.3 Semi-automatics in single-action and double-action mode
The SA/DA semi-auto is the answer if you want an SA gun
without a manual safety. It has a decocking lever that
allows you to safely decock the hammer from SA to DA with
the flick of a switch. Therefore only the first shot is in
DA mode, and all subsequent shots are SA because the gun
always goes into SA mode after it's fired. The only
disadvantage to this system is that there is an inconsistent
trigger-squeeze: the first pull is a little stiffer than the
others.
2.2.2.4 Other-action modes
Some DA-only semi-autos are actually "action and a half" or
"safe action", meaning that as much as one-quarter of the
cocking has been achieved automatically, and the operator is
really only supplying three-quarters of the remaining force
to cock and shoot, and not the entire double action force.
This does not jeopardize safety because, in case of a
critical mechanical failure, one-quarter cocking force is
insufficient to detonate the primer. Example of semi-DA-
only semi-auto: Glock
Some SA-only semi-autos are "squeeze-cocked". These are
cocked only when the operator grasps the grip of the gun,
thereby depressing a lever that cocks the gun. If the gun
is not being held, it is decocked. Some considered this a
"best of both worlds" gun, since it is always decocked when
not being held, requiring no manual safeties, and goes into
SA mode when held, with consistent trigger squeeze force.
Example: HK
2.2.2.5 Miscellaneous
The DA-only and SA-and-DA semi-autos are increasingly
popular since they offer the main advantage of the
revolvers, namely DA mode. The advantages to semi-autos are
greater cartridge capacity, faster magazine-changing, and
more compactness. The disadvantage to semi-autos used to be
that they were considered more hazardous since they were
always in SA mode, but this is no longer the only choice.
Law-enforcement personnel carry both revolvers and semi-
autos depending on their individual preference. Semi-autos
were once considered less dependable since they were more
likely to jam than revolvers, but modern technology has
improved semi-autos to the point that that hardly ever
happens. All guns should be cleaned well regularly to
ensure their proper operation.
XIII. Safety and Security
A. Safe Use of Firearms
0. Gun Safety
b. Revised Rules of Gun Safety
by John Gilman (jgilman@hpcvsgen.cv.hp.com)
1.When picking up or accepting a firearm, always check personally to ensure it is unloaded. If
you do not understand how to do this, ask. If you are accepting a firearm from another,
expect that person to check the firearm before handing it to you.
2.Control the muzzle; never point a firearm in an unsafe direction. Unsafe directions: At
yourself; at someone else (even briefly), at a sheetrock wall behind which others are likely to
be, at a flat surface or surface of water. Targets may lie in unsafe directions....don't shoot at
them. WARNING: It is natural to point a handgun at someone beside you, if you are
examining it! Move your body to keep firearm pointed in a safe direction.
3.Keep your finger off the trigger until ready to fire. Meaning, the sights are on target.
Especially important whilst holstering a handgun, or changing the magazine in an autoloader.
The proper place for the trigger finger is resting against the outside of the trigger guard.
4.When you are cleaning or dry firing a firearm, remove all ammunition in another room; and
double check the firearm when you enter the room you'll be cleaning/dry firing in.
5.If you are with a person handling a firearm who is emotionally distraught, or who is clearly
being unsafe - don't be bashful and don't waste time: leave immediately. Discuss it later. If
they are unrepentant, avoid them.
6.Do not possess, transport, or handle a firearm within four hours of drinking the least bit of
alcohol. If you are a firearms owner, give up any drugs/heavy drinking entirely.
7.Always wear hearing protection and safety glasses when shooting, or near others who are.
Unprotected, nearby gunfire always causes some hearing loss.
8.Obey your range officer and study range rules. Common rules: Always stay entirely behind
the firing line whilst anyone is firing. Do NOT go downrange until all firearms have actions
open and magazines removed, and the all clear signal has been given. Do NOT handle
firearms or ammunition at a range, during a cease-fire. Even to leave the range. Always police
your brass and targets, prior to departure.
9.At home, do not store a firearm in a higher level of readiness than the least-trained,
least-responsible member of the household can be trusted with. Ideally, no firearm should be
easily available to an intruder.
10.Don't hesitate to point out poor gun handling by friends, family, gun dealers, cops, etc. Safety
depends on us all - even when it's not comfortable to hear or say.
above was from http://www.recguns.com/XIIIA0b.html
below is from http://www.recguns.com/XIIIA0c.html
XIII. Safety and Security
A. Safe Use of Firearms
0. Gun Safety
c. Common Causes of Accidental Discharge and Failure to Fire
by John Gilman (jgilman@hpcvsgen.cv.hp.com)
Accidental Discharge:
Some eighty-five percent of all accidental discharges (AD's) are the result of the deliberately pulling
the trigger on an "empty" gun. Avoid this by minimizing dry firing, by keeping ammunition in a
separate room, and by double checking for cartridges in both the chamber and the magazine of
repeating arms. Especially don't look down the barrel of a firearm whose action is closed!
Perhaps seven percent are due to the trigger finger being forced inside the trigger guard whilst
holstering a handgun or boxing a rifle. Avoid this by never holstering a loaded firearm, or if you do,
keep your trigger finger extended at a sharp angle to the trigger guard.
About four percent are due to lousy trigger job/worn trigger and sear. Avoid this by doing trigger
work yourself, or having some trusted individual look over the hammer/sear interface once every
few thousand rounds.
About two percent are due to a defective safety. Avoid this by not trusting the safety.
Of the remainder, most are due to a foreign object being forced inside the trigger guard. This is
especially true of hunting rifles and shotguns. Avoid this by keeping your trigger finger as a shield
over the trigger guard, whilst carrying afield.
Keep in mind that if you shoot long and often enough, you too, will have an AD to your credit.
Hence, it is really important to always control the muzzle of your firearm. When the round goes
downrange, it sure as heck better end up in a concrete wall, earth berm, or tree trunk.
Failure to Fire:
Probably eighty percent of all failures to fire, are because the firearm's chamber was empty. Often, it
is because someone else has handled the gun, and made it safe. Sometimes, it is because the
bolt/slide did not retract far enough to pick up a new round from the magazine (often called
short-stroking). Also, the shooter may have become confused, and dropped the slide/closed the
bolt prior to inserting a fresh magazine. Avoid all these things by doing what is called a "press
check" prior to using the firearm. Perform a press check by withdrawing the bolt/slide far enough to
see into the chamber - but NOT far enough to introduce a new cartridge to it! Typically, a press
check will leave the firearm cocked - so afterwards you will probably need to point the gun at the
ground and pull the trigger, or simply uncock it.
About ten percent are due to light firing pin hits. These are usually in turn brought on by a poor
trigger job or fatigue of the hammer spring. On rare occasion, ammunition may have hard primers,
quite resistant to impact. Avoid this by quality trigger jobs, replacing hammer springs occasionally,
and using brand-name ammunition.
Perhaps five percent are due to improperly seated primers. These drive forward when struck,
absorbing hammer energy that should have gone into dimpling the primer. This is fairly common in
handloaded ammo, but rare in factory stuff. Avoid the problem primarily by using factory ammo,
and by inspecting it while loading.
Perhaps three percent are due to defective primers that either don't have priming compound, or
whose anvils are defective, or that have been contaminated with oil. You will have a devil of a time
avoiding this.
Perhaps two percent are due to a number of remaining causes. The firing pin is broken, or the gun
wasn't in battery, or there is binding in the trigger/hammer mechanism. Avoid/minimize by frequent
firearm inspection.
Effects of the above may be minimized by practicing clearance drills for each occurrence, for your
particular firearm.
below is from
http://www.recguns.com/XIIIA1b.html
XIII. Safety and Security
A. Safety
1. What About Kids and Guns?
b. Children & Gun Safety
Compiled by Patrick Casey (pcasey@interart.com) and John Gunshenan (jpg@bbn.com)
Preface: We are not experts in child firearms safety; we are simply two rec.guns readers who felt
the FAQ should have a section on this subject. Patrick is the father of two children (ages six &
eight). John has a two-year-old, and is also an NRA Certified Instructor and a "We are AWARE"
instructor (AWARE = Arming Women Against Rape and Endangerment). What we offer below are
simply our opinions. However, if you own firearms or have children, we suggest that you think about
the issues that follow.
While Patrick and John are the compilers of this FAQ, they are not its authors. Credit in that
department goes to the various authors listed at the end, and to the many rec.guns readers who
helped develop it. This is a much better document for all the time, energy, and keystrokes donated
by the rec.guns readership.
Contents
Children & Guns: Some Basic Facts
For Parents
For Gun Owners, Even Those Without Children
For Gun Owners With Children
Gunproofing Your Children
Additional Resources
Children & Guns: Some Basic Facts
Department of Justice data indicate that there are over 200 million firearms in the United States,
with guns present in roughly 50% of US households. Even if you do not own firearms, chances are
you have been in houses where firearms were kept. If you have children, chances are they too have
been in houses where firearms were kept.
According to the National Safety Council, 230 children under the age of 15 were killed in
firearms-related accidents in 1991, the latest year for which figures are available. Since 1930, the
number of annual fatal firearms accidents has decreased 55%, while the population has doubled and
the number of privately owned firearms has quadrupled (National Safety Council, U.S. Census,
BATF). While this decline in accidents is good, 230 accidental fatalities is 230 too many. What
follows are some things you can do -- as a parent or as a gun owner -- to "gunproof" your children,
and to "childproof" your guns.
For Parents
Like it or not, guns are out there in the world. They are a fact of life, regardless of whether we keep
firearms at home. With guns present in roughly 50% of US households, your child is likely to
encounter a gun at some point in his or her youth. They may be playing in grandma's attic, walking
down an alley, or playing in the woods. They may be playing at a friend's house, where the friend
says "Hey let's play with my Dad's gun!" Just as you teach your children about safety with respect
hazardous materials they are likely to encounter -- electrical outlets, household chemicals, swimming
pools -- so you should teach them the basics of firearms safety. The most basic gun safety message
for children is the Eddie Eagle message:
If you ever see a gun laying out, even if you think it may be a toy ...
Stop!
Don't touch
Leave the area
Tell an adult
There is no perfect age to talk with your children about gun safety. You, the parent, must be the
judge (Patrick's children learned the Eddie Eagle message at age four). For many, a good time to
introduce gun safety is when your child starts acting out "gun play" or asking questions about guns.
Answer his or her questions simply and straightforwardly. If you don't know the answers, contact a
knowledgeable person (for an example of what can happen by not teaching children about firearm
safety, read "XIII.A.2. Taking Responsibility".
The great advantage of teaching your children about gun safety is that it applies outside one's own
home and teaches a crucial life skill; its Achilles' Heel is peer pressure. That is why childproofing the
guns in one's home is also essential.
For Gun Owners, Even Those Without Children
If you choose to own a gun, you must take personal responsibility for securing it from unauthorized
handling, whether by children, guests, neighbors, or criminals. If you choose to have a gun in your
house, every member of your household should be trained in basic gun safety.
If you choose to keep a loaded gun available for protection, you have a special (and in some places,
legal) obligation to keep that gun secured from unauthorized handling. This means keeping a solid
lock between your guns and any visitors, whether children or adults. That can be the lock on your
front door (no unsupervised visitors allowed inside, where loaded guns are out and available), a
bedroom door (no visitors allowed in the bedroom), a closet, a gun cabinet, a safe, or a lock box.
The choice is yours, but choose something.
If you choose to keep a loaded firearm for protection, carefully consider where to keep it. It is often
recommended to keep the gun on your body when you are awake. This can resolve the dilemma -
at the expense of some extra effort - at least for handguns, at least when you are awake. But many
people cannot or choose not to carry their firearms, so the question of safe storage arises.
If you keep a firearm near your bed, you want to make sure you'll be wide awake when you pick it
up, so keeping it too close to your bed may be a problem (for a scary story from the armed and
groggy, read "XIII.A.3. Armed and Groggy". You may want to use a lock box, one that you can
open by touch, quickly, under stress, in the dark.
For Gun Owners With Children
In the home, nothing can or need be left to chance. There is no reason or excuse for exposing
children to danger from firearms in the home. Obviating this danger by discipline and readily
available safety measures is the first responsibility of the gun owner with children. This can be done,
even if you keep or carry a loaded firearm readily available for defense. The few terrible
circumstances of children killed or injured with a parent's gun betray unconscionable and utterly
avoidable safety violations, failures of discipline and responsibility. If you have children, and if you
choose to own firearms, you have an obligation to teach your children about gun safety.
There are lots of approaches that don't work, such as:
Hide it (they'll find it)
Get a gun that's too hard for a child to operate (they'll use tools or full-body leverage to
operate it)
Get a gun with a magazine safety & keep the magazine on you (God help you if they ever get
hold of a magazine)
Wizzy gadgets, including plastic rods, rubber bands, pinch-to-open trigger guards, etc. On
the one hand, you can still make some things "go bang" with many of these, and most
manufacturers do not intend their products to be used on loaded firearms. On the other,
over-reliance on these devices tends to underestimate the ability of children to find keys, use
tools, etc. (see Lyn Bates' excellent article "Keeping the Piece")
Always keep the gun on your person (and hope you never dream about having a gun fight)
Trigger locks (see XIII.B.2.) can be of some help. They are inexpensive, easy to install, and provide
some level of safety. They are much better than relying on "hiding" your weapon or doing nothing at
all, but don't rely on them exclusively. You don't want to use them on loaded weapons, and most of
them don't prevent weapons from being loaded. If you rely on them exclusively, what will happen
when your child finds the key? Also bear in mind that keys are too hard to manipulate in the dark,
or under stress. But trigger locks can be effective with small children, and in conjunction with other
safety measures.
Similarly, a lockbox or gun cabinet can be helpful; just beware of relying on them exclusively. They
can be opened by a 12-year-old using simple, household tools (again, see "Keeping the Piece"
below).
The most secure way to store firearms is no doubt a safe. Borrowing liberally from Henry Schaffer's
excellent summary "Gunsafes" (XIII.B.1.a), gun safes are made of fairly heavy gauge steel, with
special attention paid to hinges, multi-point locking devices, pry-resistance, hard-to-defeat locks,
and weight. The low end of the safe category will weigh a few hundred pounds and will cost
perhaps $600 - $1,000 depending on how it is outfitted. The casual burglar with a crowbar -- or an
inquisitive child -- is unlikely to be able to penetrate this type of safe. At the same time, a safe is
virtually impossible to access quickly, under stress, and in the dark.
A $600, 250+ pound safe may be pretty close to childproof, but many people can't afford them
(and/or their floors won't support them). The next step down from safes is a "gun cabinet," with
prices starting at about $100. Again, using Henry's overview, these are metal cabinets, built about
as strongly as an office file or stationary cabinet, with a key lock which latches the door. They can
be opened with a crowbar/prybar, or with an ordinary drill, but this type of entry would show
obvious damage. In this case you'd be counting on a reluctance to damage the cabinet as a
deterrent. However a break-and-enter burglar who is after the VCR, jewelry (and who probably
carries a crowbar) will not be deterred by this and will probably get the cabinet open in a very few
minutes. In this same category should be included the neighborhood teenager-gone-bad type of
criminal. Like safes, they are difficult to access quickly, under stress, and in the dark.
Both safes and cabinets have the drawback that you can't open them in a hurry, under stress, in the
dark. Better in that respect are lockboxes. There are several good ones on the market with
fast-access, push-button, combination locks that are reasonably child-resistant and easy to
manipulate in the dark (again, see "Keeping the Piece" below). However, in our opinion, there is
only so far you can go with "childproofing the gun." Even better is "gunproofing your children."
Gunproofing Your Children
"Gunproofing your children" means teaching them that guns are not toys, and teaching them firearms
safety and responsibility. Nothing left to a child's discretion is fail-safe, especially where peer
pressure may reign. But training your children in the basics of firearms safety gives them a better
chance of escaping danger or harm should they ever encounter a gun beyond your control, a better
chance than children still in the thrall of fatal curiosity, awe, and ignorance.
In movies and television, guns are icons of power. The good guys have them, and use them to
restore right and order. Even on the old "Adam 12" TV show, these two quintessential Officer
Friendly types had more gunfights in one season than most big city police do in their whole careers.
Not only does the mass media present a distorted view of the frequency of firearms use, it is even
worse when it comes to teaching judicious use, proper sporting use, and gun safety.
For small children, the first thing to teach them is the Eddie Eagle message (stop, don't touch, leave
the area, tell an adult). This can be taught as early as age three or four. As they get a little older --
and after they understand and practice the Eddie Eagle rules -- teach them the basics of safe
firearms handling.
There are four firearm safety rules taught by Jeff Cooper of the American Pistol Institute. Follow
these rules and you cannot ever have a mishap. Even if you violate one of them, you are still all right;
it takes multiple errors to cause an accident.
1.All guns are always loaded
2.Never let the muzzle cover anything you are not willing to destroy
3.Keep your finger off the trigger until your sights are on the target
4.Be sure of your target and what's beyond it
(for more on these basic points, see "XIII.A.4. Jeff Cooper's Rules of Gun Safety".)
Many gun owners use the natural curiosity of their children as an opportunity to teach gun safety. At
Patrick's house, for example, the children can see and handle firearms whenever they ask. We first
review the Eddie Eagle rules, then the golden rules of firearms safety. Then the guns come out.
Questions are often asked -- how does this part work? what does that do? If any safety rules are
broken -- even inadvertently -- the guns get put away.
Another good thing to do early on -- and repeat from time to time -- is to take the children to a
shooting range to demonstrate what a gun will do to a milk jug, liter-sized Coke, or watermelon.
Children know that the people they see getting shot in movies are actors, and that after "getting
shot," they later get up and go home. Shoot a water-filled milk jug with a .357 pistol or a 12-gauge
shotgun. Have the child hold that (shredded) milk jug up to their chest. Help them understand that,
while shooting can be lots of fun and a recreational activity they can practice into their 90s, guns are
not toys; their power must be respected.
Also, think about using cleaning as an opportunity to teach gun safety. If you try to 'hide' your gun
cleaning by always doing it after the children go to bed, you will only increase their curiosity (they'll
eventually catch you anyway). Don't do things that encourage them to get into the guns when you're
not around. I almost always clean my guns when the children are around, and they often ask to help.
Here's another chance to go over the Eddie Eagle rules, the golden rules of safety, and to respond
to their natural curiosity (also a way for mother or father to get some free help). Allowing the
children to assist in such a 'grown up' activity may also increase their general maturity level, build
pride in competence, and improve general safety awareness and practice. A note of caution though
... if your children help with gun cleaning, make sure they wash their hands with soap afterwards.
While most of what you clean up is powder residue, be especially careful about the small amounts
of lead that might be cleaned out (for more on lead hazards, and prudent measures, see "XIII.A.5.
Hazards of Lead Exposure".
Additional Resources
Here are some sources of additional information.
The Eddie Eagle program is a set of non-political gun safety materials designed specifically
for children. The materials includes coloring books, posters, videos, as well as instructors
materials. They are available in three levels (pre-school to grade 1; grades 2-3; grades 4-6)
in both English and Spanish. For her role in developing Eddie Eagle, NRA vice president
Marion Hammer received the National Safety Council's 1993 Citation for Outstanding
Community Service for leadership in program development. The program has also received
commendation from the American Legion's National Committee on Education, is endorsed
by the Police Athletic League and is used by numerous organizations such as the Boy Scouts
and Girl Scouts of America. Schools, law enforcement agencies and civic groups interested in
the Eddie Eagle Gun Safety Program can contact the NRA at 1-800-368-5714. [Return]
"Keeping the Piece" is an excellent article on children and gun storage, written by Dr. Lyn
Bates and published in Women and Guns magazine, June 1993 (available electronically in
"XIII.B.3. Keeping the Piece". [Return]
Gunproof Your Children, by Massad Ayood (see X.I.2. About Massad Ayood"), Police
Bookshelf (see "X.I.H. Police Bookshelf"), 1986, $4.95, phone: 800-624-9049
"Kids & Safety" (chapter 8 of Armed & Female, by Paxton Quiqley, E.F. Dutton, 1989,
$4.99).
"Gun Safety" (chapter 16 of In the Gravest Extreme (see "V.B.3. In the Gravest Extreme",
by Massad Ayoob, Police Bookshelf, 1980, $9.95, phone: 800-624-9049)
Children and Guns: Sensible Solutions, by David Kopel, 1993, Independence Institute,
phone: 303-279-6536, $12.00 (available electronically by clicking here).
"A Parent's Guide to Gun Safety," 1992, available at no charge from the National Rifle
Association. Call 1-800-368-5714 and ask for the Safety and Education Division.
XIII. Safety and Security
B. Security
1. Gunsafes
a. General Information
by Henry E. Schaffer (hes@unity.ncsu.edu)
Because of the amount of discussion about gunsafes, I thought it might be worthwhile to discuss the
subject in some generality from a security viewpoint. I'm only going to discuss cabinets and safes,
and won't discuss such measures as storing guns in concealed places.
No security measure is guaranteed to be successful, all it can do is buy you some degree of security
by adding enough to the time, effort and equipment needed for a successful burglary - so that the
most likely type of "burglar" you will face will get discouraged and fail.
So the first step is to evaluate what type of "burglar" you hope to defeat. (No safe can defeat the
properly equipped and informed skilled burglar who has enough time. Equipment includes hammers,
chisels, explosives, carbide tipped drills, power cutoff tools, burning bars, etc.)
The most common needs are to protect against the innocent prying fingers of children - both yours
and others in your neighborhood. For this you can generally assume that the tools used will be
fingers and perhaps a screwdriver. A gun "cabinet" often will suffice. This is a metal cabinet, built
about as strongly as an office file or stationary cabinet, with a key lock which latches the door. It
can be opened with a crowbar/prybar, or with an ordinary drill, but this type of entry would show
obvious damage. In this case you'd be counting on a reluctance to damage the cabinet as a
deterrant. However a break-and-enter burglar who is after the VCR, jewelery and who often
carries a crowbar will not be deterred by this and will probably get the cabinet open in a very few
minutes. In this same category should be included the neighborhood teenager-gone-bad type of
criminal.
However a clever non-destructive child might take a cabinet as a puzzle to solve, and here the
overall quality, including the quality of the lock, rather than pure strength becomes important. Locks
vary greatly in quality, however the better quality locks aren't always used on a cabinet. A key-lock
should really be of the "high security" type (e.g. Medeco) just to make access by a clever
non-destructive child rather unlikely.
A combination lock should be of a quality type in terms of how many combinations there are. It is
common to find a combination dial divided into 50 or 100 divisions and to require a series of 3
numbers - apparently giving 50^3 or 100^3 possible combinations. However, lower quality
combination locks usually will be satisfied by hitting the correct number plus or minus 1 (e.g. if the
1st number in the combination is 47 then stopping the dial at any place between 46 and 48 will still
allow the lock to be opened.) This allows a person using a systematic approach to dial-in many
fewer combinations. Also, there is the question of what shows on the dial when the door has been
opened. A quality lock will have a different number showing than the last number in the combination.
If the last number stays showing then someone might glimpse it, and you're down to a two number
combination. (Note that a 50 division dial, skipping three divisions each time, only has about 4,900
different three number combinations - a child could try all of them in a month of spare time. If the
last number has been seen, we drop to one afternoon of trying. A 100 division dial is a bit better,
but if one has to hit the correct number (plus or minus less than one division) and the last number
doesn't show - then a 100 division dial has a million different combinations, and no longer can be
defeated in any reasonable amount of time spent trying different combinations.) (Reading
alt.locksmithing will remove some confidence in inexpensive locks.)
The next category, which rates the name of "safe" is a simple safe, but made of fairly heavy gauge
steel (perhaps about 1/8" thick for the body, with a door 50% thicker,) with special attention paid
to hinges, multipoint locking devices, pry-resistance, hard-to-defeat lock (such as the good quality
combination locks described above,) and weight. (Weight, and how well fastened down is the safe,
are considerations since if the burglars can carry off the safe then they can spend much longer on it
and you've already lost it.) The safe will be manufactured by welding the parts together, rather than
using internal brackets and/or rivets. The low end of the safe category will weigh a few hundred
pounds (for a safe about 5'x2'x1') and will cost perhaps $600 - $1,000 depending on how it is
outfitted, the brand, etc. There will usually be a combination lock, often a non-manipulable UL listed
combination lock, which is protected by extra armor plate, plus multipoint locking. It is common for
the locking/opening handle to push out several locking bars, plus to have some more fixed (passive)
locking bars on the hinge side of the door, and to have a "relocking" device which jams the locking
system if the lock gets physically attacked. (Yes, you then need to have a professional come in and
cut into the safe to open it, but the criminal entry has been defeated.) Also the locking/opening
handle has a "clutch" or "shear pin" in the linkage so that only a limited amount of force can be
applied to the locking mechanism.
The casual burglar carrying a crowbar is unlikely to be able to penetrate this type of safe.
Good hinges are either hidden or arranged in such a way that even if they are cut off that security
isn't compromised. (A recessed door with lock bolts on both sides still retains all of its security even
if the hinges are totally removed. Without lock bolts on the hinge size, then the door could be swung
away after removal of the hinges.)
At the low end of the range the weight is low enough that a homeowner might reasonably move in
the safe and install it with the help of another person or two. As the weight goes up, the (not cheap)
services of a safe-mover/installer becomes more important. Also one has to start to get concerned
about the load bearing capability of the floor where the safe is to be installed. If, because of these
considerations, the safe is installed in a basement then humidity becomes an important concern.
Common measures are silica absorption boxes or a simple low-wattage heater inside the safe.
Many safes are drilled for the electrical cord.
As the price goes up, the thickness of the body and door and the amount of hardplate increases
(with a body perhaps 1/4" thick and the door 50% thicker,) the locking system gets more extensive
(more bolts) and "independent" in the sense that defeating one aspect leaves the others untouched.
There may also be features, such as a combination lock dial which locks into a fixed position with a
key, which improve security. As the safe is improved in these ways, it becomes more and more
resistant to burglars, until you reach the point that only the most skilled and well equipped burglars
have a chance. As improvements are made, and as it becomes necessary for burglars to take a
longer time, one can also shorten the time that they have by installing an alarm system. The really
good safes have extremely strong construction, quite thick walls made up of multiple types of
materials (to defeat many types of attacks) and are very heavy, and their thick walls greatly
decrease the inside capacity. (Interior capacity is of great importance if you have a collection of long
guns - they take up a lot of space.)
A valuable collection very well may rate the protection of one of the better safes - and an insurance
company may require this (and an alarm system) as a condition of insurance.
One inexpensive and elementary precaution is to hide the existence of the safe. While one can
seldom do a perfect job, at least make sure that the safe isn't visible from outdoors. It can be in a
closet, or screened in some other way, but you gain a lot of effective security by keeping it from
being an attractant (a safe implies valuable posessions) and have it be a surprise to a burglar who
we hope will not have sufficient tools/time to deal with the safe.
The types of safes discussed generally don't provide fire protection. They are specialized towards
protection against penetration. In some cases a fire-resistant lining is available. Inexpensive fire
protection safes/cabinets generally have insulation which keeps up the interior humidity (and
therefore produces rust) and are no more secure than a filing cabinet. They are meant to contain
paper records of no intrinsic value, but which are needed for the business. So there is essentially no
interest in keeping out burglars, but mostly in preserving them against a fire. Paper doesn't mind
humidity. The insulation is made of stuff which has lots of 'water of hydration' bound in it and which
then breaks down, emitting water vapor when there is a fire, and which keeps the interior below
paper ignition - until the insulation is all dried out. Some of the more expensive units have more
regular insulation (silica fibers or something) and don't affect the humidity. But for the ones with
water of hydration, you get a bad environment and poor protection of the guns - all for the same
low price. You can get regular safes with fire insulation - they can be very good - but you pay more
and get less interior space.
Some brand names - Homak, Treadlock, Stowline and others make gun cabinets. Treadlock and
Amsec make a variety of low-middle safes. Browning, Fort Knox and others make high end safes.
Browning also makes middle grade safes - you really have to check to see what's available. (There
are a lot more brands out there, with a number of brands selling identical safes from a smaller
number of manufacturers, and I'm not endorsing any of the ones I mentioned, I'm just giving them as
examples. Neither am I saying anything against any brands not mentioned. There are also a lot of
Brand X safes, which might be worth considering.) Costs also depend on the interior furnishing
(usually at extra cost) and, of course, on the size. The interior is the configuration of shelves,
cubbyholes and long gun positions, usually giving a carpeted interior, which is very nice in avoiding
scratches.
There is another approach to obtaining a very good gun safe at a very reasonable cost, and that is
constructing it yourself. The materials which go into a safe are not particularly expensive, except for
the combination lock. Whe you purchase, you're paying for a lot of labor and shipping. While it
seldom pays to make something yourself if it is a mass-market item, large secure gun safes are not
mass-market. Normally designing and constructing something like this would be impractical for
anyone without a great deal of experience and skill. The difference here is that there is a book
available "Gun Safe Plans" which includes everything you need to know, buy and do - in an easy to
follow and well illustrated presentation. You don't even have to know how to weld, you can learn
that as you go. You'd have to be willing to work hard, to follow instructions and to think about what
you're doing - but you can end up with a quality safe which fits your needs - and paid for largely out
of 'sweat equity' rather than cold cash. Write to WAMCO, P.O. Box 205, Peralta, NM 87042
and enclose $25 + $3 S&H, or ask for the brochure.
In addition to protecting a valuable gun collection (plus jewelery, etc.) and keeping irresponsible
people from getting into trouble with your guns, you may also want to consider the safe as a way to
keep guns from getting into the hands of criminals. Remember that you choose the degree of
protection you want and can afford, and that any degree of security is better than none.
above was from http://www.recguns.com/XIIIB1a.html
End of data from The Defensive Use of Firearms
scroll down a few pages to view the next entry in the Laptop Friendly Disaster Survival Library
GUN SAFETY - National Rifle Association
from http://www.mynra.com/frame.cfm?url=http://www.nrahq.org
A Parent's Guide To Gun Safety
Training Programs
Education & Training Programs
NRA Gun Safety Rules (available as brochure)
Three Fundamental Rules For Safe Gun Handling
1. Always keep the gun pointed in a safe direction.
This is the primary rule of gun safety. A safe direction means that
the gun is pointed so that even if it were to go off it would not cause
injury or damage. The key to this rule is to control where the muzzle
or front end of the barrel is pointed at all times. Common sense
dictates the safest direction, depending on different circumstances.
2. Always keep your finger off the trigger until ready to shoot.
When holding a gun, rest your finger on the trigger guard or along
the side of the gun. Until you are actually ready to fire, do not touch
the trigger.
3. Always keep the gun unloaded until ready to use.
Whenever you pick up a gun, immediately engage the safety device
if possible, and, if the gun has a magazine, remove it before opening
the action and looking into the chamber(s) which should be clear of
ammunition. If you do not know how to open the action or inspect
the chamber(s), leave the gun alone and get help from someone
who does.
When Using Or Storing A Gun, Always Follow These
NRA Rules:
Know your target and what is beyond. Be absolutely sure you have
identified your target beyond any doubt. Equally important, be aware
of the area beyond your target. This means observing your
prospective area of fire before you shoot. Never fire in a direction in
which there are people or any other potential for mishap. Think first.
Shoot second.
Know how to use the gun safely. Before handling a gun, learn how it
operates. Know its basic parts, how to safely open and close the
action and remove any ammunition from the gun or magazine.
Remember, a gun's mechanical safety device is never foolproof.
Nothing can ever replace safe gun handling.
Be sure the gun is safe to operate. Just like other tools, guns need
regular maintenance to remain operable. Regular cleaning and proper storage are a part of the gun's general
upkeep. If there is any question concerning a gun's ability to function, a knowledgeable gunsmith should look
at it.
Use only the correct ammunition for your gun. Only BBs, pellets, cartridges or shells designed for a particular
gun can be fired safely in that gun. Most guns have the ammunition type stamped on the barrel. Ammunition
can be identified by information printed on the box and sometimes stamped on the cartridge. Do not shoot
the gun unless you know you have the proper ammunition.
Wear eye and ear protection as appropriate. Guns are loud and the noise can cause hearing damage. They
can also emit debris and hot gas that could cause eye injury. For these reasons, shooting glasses and
hearing protectors should be worn by shooters and spectators.
Never use alcohol or over-the-counter, prescription or other drugs before or while shooting. Alcohol, as well as
any other substance likely to impair normal mental or physical bodily functions, must not be used before or
while handling or shooting guns.
Store guns so they are not accessible to unauthorized persons. Many factors must be considered when
deciding where and how to store guns. A person's particular situation will be a major part of the
consideration. Dozens of gun storage devices, as well as locking devices that attach directly to the gun, are
available. However, mechanical locking devices, like the mechanical safeties built into guns, can fail and
should not be used as a substitute for safe gun handling and the observance of all gun safety rules.
Be aware that certain types of guns and many shooting activities require additional safety precautions.
Cleaning
Regular cleaning is important in order for your gun to operate correctly and safely. Taking proper care of it will
also maintain its value and extend its life. Your gun should be cleaned every time that it is used.
A gun brought out of prolonged storage should also be cleaned before shooting. Accumulated moisture and
dirt, or solidified grease and oil, can prevent the gun from operating properly.
Before cleaning your gun, make absolutely sure that it is unloaded. The gun's action should be open during
the cleaning process. Also, be sure that no ammunition is present in the cleaning area.
A Parent's Guide to Gun Safety (available as brochure)
The Parents' Responsibility
In a home where guns are kept, the degree of safety a child has rests squarely on the child's parents.
Parents who accept the responsibility to learn, practice and teach gun safety rules will ensure their child's
safety to a much greater extent than those who do not. Parental responsibility does not end, however, when
the child leaves the home.
According to federal statistics, there are guns in approximately half of all U.S. households. Even if no one in
your family owns a gun, chances are that someone you know does. Your child could come in contact with a
gun at a neighbor's house, when playing with friends, or under other circumstances outside your home. It is
critical for your child to know what to do if he or she encounters a firearm anywhere, and it is the parents'
responsibility to provide that training.
Talking With Your Child About Gun Safety
There is no particular age to talk with your child about gun safety. A good time to introduce the subject is the
first time he or she shows an interest in firearms, even toy pistols or rifles. Talking openly and honestly about
gun safety with your child is usually more effective than just ordering him or her to "Stay out of the gun
closet," and leaving it at that. Such statements may just stimulate a child's natural curiosity to investigate
further.
As with any safety lesson, explaining the rules and answering a child's questions help remove the mystery
surrounding guns. Any rules set for your child should also apply to friends who visit the home. This will help
keep your child from being pressured into showing a gun to a friend.
Toy Guns vs. Real Guns
It is also advisable, particularly with very young children, to discuss gun use on television as opposed to gun
use in real life. Firearms are often handled carelessly in movies and on TV. Additionally, children see TV and
movie characters shot and "killed" with well-documented frequency. When a young child sees that same
actor appear in another movie or TV show, confusion between entertainment and real life may result. It may
be a mistake to assume that your child knows the difference between being "killed" on TV and in reality.
If your child has toy guns, you may want to use them to demonstrate safe gun handling and to explain how
they differ from genuine firearms. Even though an unsupervised child should not have access to a gun, there
should be no chance that he or she could mistake a real gun for a toy.
What Should You Teach Your Child About Gun Safety?
If you have decided that your child is not ready to be trained in a gun's handling and use, explain that he or
she must not touch a gun in your home, unless you are present and have given permission. If your child sees
a gun outside the home, teach him or her to follow the instructions of NRA's Eddie Eagle ® Gun Safety
Program:
STOP!
Don't Touch.
Leave the Area.
Tell an Adult.
The initial steps of "Stop" and "Don't Touch" are the most important. To counter the natural impulse to touch
a gun, it is imperative that you impress these steps of the safety message upon your child.
In today's society, where adult supervision is not always possible, the direction to "Leave the Area" is also
essential. Under some circumstances, "area" may be understood to be a room if your child cannot physically
leave the apartment or house.
"Tell an Adult" emphasizes that children should seek a trustworthy adult - neighbor, relative or teacher - if a
parent or guardian is not available.
The NRA's Eddie Eagle ® Gun Safety Program includes an instructor guide, activity books, poster, and an
animated video to explain its four-step safety message. For more information about the program or to obtain
the materials, call (800) 231-0752 or click here.
Where to Get Training
The time may come when you or your family members want to learn to handle and shoot a gun safely. In the
case of a child, his or her attitude, learning ability, and physical and emotional maturity are some of the
factors to be weighed before allowing formal instruction to begin.
When a parent decides a young person is ready, many training opportunities are available. Providing
instruction in the safe handling, use, and storage of firearms is one of NRA's most important functions. NRA
Basic Firearm Training courses, taught by 36,000 NRA Certified Instructors, are offered in every state. A
program called "FIRST" STEPS (Firearm Instruction, Responsibility and Safety Training) provides a
three-hour orientation to your specific firearm. For more information about taking any of these courses, please
call our automated voice menu system at (703) 267-1430.
Gun Owners' Responsibilities
Most states impose some form of legal duty on adults to take reasonable steps to deny access by children
to dangerous substances or instruments. It is the individual gun owner's responsibility to understand and
follow all laws regarding gun purchase, ownership, storage, transport, etc. Contact your state police and/or
local police for information regarding such laws.
If you own a gun and do not know how to operate it, do not experiment with it. Point it in a safe direction,
keep your finger off the trigger, and store it securely. Seek competent assistance and instruction at once. An
untrained adult can be as dangerous as a curious child.
Store guns so that they are inaccessible to children and other unauthorized users. Gun shops sell a wide
variety of safes, cases, and other security devices. While specific security measures may vary, a parent
must, in every case, assess the exposure of the firearm and absolutely assure that it is inaccessible to a
child.
For more information on firearm safety and youths, call (703) 267-1560, or write: NRA Community Service
Programs Division, 11250 Waples Mill Road, Fairfax, VA 22030.
This brochure is not intended as a complete course in gun safety and is not a substitute for formal, qualified
instruction in the handling, use, or storage of firearms. The guidelines herein should be considered options to
minimize the chance of an accident occurring in the home.
below is from
http://www.mynra.com/frame.cfm?url=http://www.nrahq.org
Some Safety Strategies of Refuse To Be A
Victim
While only a small fraction of the material covered in the NRA
Refuse To Be A Victim Course, the following common-sense
tactics provide a good start for your own personal safety strategy:
Home Security
Plant "defensive" shrubbery around your home, especially beneath
windows. Bushes with thorns or stiff, spiky leaves are not good
hiding places for criminals.
When moving into a house or apartment, always change or re-key
the locks. Otherwise, the previous resident - and anyone they
supplied keys to - has unrestricted access to your home.
Phone Security
Consider keeping a separate line or cellular phone as a security device. Taking one phone off the hook
renders other units on that line inoperable. Using a separate line or cellular phone in your bedroom is a good
precaution.
Automobile Security
Use a two-piece key ring with your car keys separate from your other important keys. Give parking valets or
mechanics your car keys only. Supplying your entire set of keys creates an opportunity for duplicates to be
made.
Check your surroundings before getting out of your car. If something or someone strikes you as out of place
or threatening, drive away.
Personal Safety
Consider taking a self-defense course. A wide variety of courses are offered for self-defense and each should
be considered carefully for relevance to your own situation. The NRA Refuse To Be A Victim Course provides
many useful personal-safety strategies and discusses the pros and cons of other training options.
These are just a few steps you can take to avoid becoming a victim of violent crime. For a more in-depth
study of these and other safety measures, attend an NRA Refuse To Be A Victim Course in your area.
Topics covered include:
The Psychology Of Criminal Predators: understanding and avoiding violent crime
against women.
Home Security, strangers, visitors: lighting, locks and keys, alarm systems, dogs and
their training.
Phone Security: protecting private information, answering machines, cellular phones,
phone scams.
Automobile Security: carjacking, accidents, alarms, parking lots, gas station safety,
car as a defensive tool.
Physical Security: recognizing dangerous situations, elevators, walking alone, purses,
trusting your instincts, what to do if confronted.
Self-Defense Physical Training: classes, types and options.
Personal Protection Devices: alarms, sprays, stun guns, defensive key chains and
other devices.
And more...
To receive your 42 Strategies for Personal Safety brochure and information about courses in your
area call 1-800-861-1166, or contact us using the contact form.
End of Data from the National Rifle Association
http://www.mynra.com/frame.cfm?url=http://www.nrahq.org
U.S. Army Pistol Training Manual FM 23-35 http://www.adtdl.army.mil/cgi-bin/atdl.dll/fm/23-35/fm23-35.htm
U.S. Army FM 23-35
COMBAT TRAINING WITH PISTOLS & REVOLVERS, 03 OCT
1988
PREFACE
This manual provides guidance on the operation and marksmanship of the pistol, M9, 9-mm; pistol, M1911A1, caliber .45;
and the revolver, caliber .38. It reflects current Army standards in weapons qualifications. It is a guide for the instructor to
develop training programs, plans, and lessons that meet the objectives of the United States Army Marksmanship Program for
developing combat effective marksmen. The soldier develops confidence, knowledge, and skills by following the guidelines in
this manual.
The proponent of this publication is HQ TRADOC. Submit changes for improving this publication on DA Form 2028
(Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms) and forward it to Commandant, US Army Infantry School, ATTN:
ATSH-IN-S3, Fort Benning, GA 31905-5593.
Unless otherwise stated, whenever the masculine gender is used, both men and women are included.
RDL
Homepage
Table of
Contents
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Instructions
CHAPTER 1
US ARMY HANDGUNS
1-1. PISTOL, SEMIAUTOMATIC, 9-MM, M9
The M9 pistol is a 9-mm semiautomatic, magazine-fed, recoil-operation, double-action weapon chambered for the 9mm
cartridge. The magazine has a 15-round capacity.
a. Equipment Data.
Caliber-------------------------------------------9-mm NATO
System of Operation-------------Short recoil, semiautomatic
Locking System----------------------------Oscillating block
Length---------------------------------217 mm (8.54 inches)
Width------------------------------------38 mm (1.5 inches)
Height---------------------------------140 mm (5.51 inches)
Weight with Empty Magazine-----------960 grams (2.1 pounds)
Weight with 15-Round Magazine------1,145 grams (2.6 pounds)
Barrel Length--------------------------125 mm (4.92 inches)
Rifling-----------------------------R.H , six-groove (pitch
250 mm [about 10 inches])
Muzzle Velocity-----------------------375 meters per second
(1,230.3 feet per second)
Muzzle Energy----------------------569.5 newton meters (430
foot pounds)
Maximum Range------------------1,800 meters (1,962.2 yards)
Maximum Effective Range--------------50 meters (54.7 yards)
Front Sight----------------------Blade, integral with slide
Rear Sight-----------------Notched bar, dovetailed to slide
Sighting Radius------------------------158 mm (6.22 inches)
Safety Features---------------------Decocking/safety lever,
firing pin block.
Hammer (half-cocked notch)--------------Prevents accidental
discharge.
Basic Load----------------------------------------45 rounds
Trigger Pull---------------------Single-Action: 5.50 pounds
Double-Action: 12.33 pounds
NOTE: For additional information on technical aspects of the M9 pistol see TM 9-1005-317-310.
WARNING
THE HALF-COCKED POSITION CATCHES THE HAMMER AND PREVENTS IT FROM FIRING IF THE
HAMMER IS RELEASED WHILE MANUALLY COCKING THE WEAPON. IT IS NOT TO BE USED AS A
SAFETY POSITION. THE PISTOL WILL FIRE FROM THE HALF-COCKED POSITION IF THE TRIGGER
IS PULLED.
b. Operation.
The M9 pistol has a short recoil system using a falling locking block. The pressure developed by the expanding gases of a fired
round recoils the slide and barrel assembly. After a short run, the locking block is disengaged from the slide, the barrel stops
against the frame, and the slide continues its rearward movement. The slide then extracts and ejects the fired cartridge case,
cocks the hammer, and compresses the recoil spring. The slide moves forward feeding the cartridge from the magazine into the
chamber. The slide and barrel assembly remain open after the last cartridge has been fired and ejected.
1-2. PISTOL, AUTOMATIC, .45 CALIBER, M1911 AND M1911A1
The M1911 and M1911A1 pistols are semiautomatic, .45-caliber, recoil-operated, magazine-fed, single-action pistols. The
magazine has a seven-round capacity.
a. Equipment Data
Caliber-----------------------------------0.45 inches
System of Operation---------------------Short recoil,
semiautomatic
Length-----------------------------------8 5/8 inches
Weight With Empty Magazine-----------------2.4 pounds
Weight With Full Magazine--------------------3 pounds
Length of Barrel--------------------------5.03 inches
Rifling------------------------------L.H., six groove
(Pitch 1 in 16 inches)
Muzzle Velocity-------------------830 feet per second
Muzzle Energy-----------------------17,000 pounds per
inch
Maximum Range----------------------------1,500 meters
Maximum Effective Range---------------------50 meters
Front Sight----------------Blade, integral with slide
Rear Sight-----------Notched bar, dovetailed to slide
Sight Radius-----------------------------6.481 inches
Safety Features------------------Manual safety lever,
grip safety, half-cock position
Basic Load----------------------------------21 rounds
Trigger Pull------------------------5 to 6 1/2 pounds
b. Operation.
(1) Each time a cartridge is fired, the parts inside the weapon function in a given order. This is known as the functioning cycle or
cycle of operation.
(2) The cycle of operation of the weapon is divided into eight steps: feeding, chambering, locking, firing, unlocking, extracting,
ejecting, and cocking. The steps are listed in the order in which functioning occurs; however, more than one step may occur at
the same time.
(3) A magazine containing ammunition is placed in the receiver. The slide is pulled fully to the rear and released. As the slide
moves forward, it strips the top round from the magazine and pushes it into the chamber. The hammer remains in the cocked
position, and the weapon is ready to fire.
(4) The weapon fires one round each time the trigger is pulled. Each time a cartridge is fired, the slide and barrel recoil or move
a short distance locked together. This permits the bullet and expanding powder gases to escape from the muzzle before the
unlocking is completed.
(5) The barrel then unlocks from the slide and continues to the rear, extracting the cartridge case from the chamber and ejecting
it from the weapon. During this rearward movement the magazine feeds another cartridge, the recoil spring is compressed, and
the hammer is cocked.
(6) At the end of the rearward movement, the recoil spring expands, forcing the slide forward, locking the barrel and slide
together. The weapon is ready to fire again. The same cycle of operation continues until the ammunition is expended.
(7) As the last round is fired, the magazine spring exerts upward pressure on the magazine follower. The stop on the follower
strikes the slide stop, forcing it into the recess on the bottom of the slide and locking the slide to the rear. This action indicates
that the magazine is empty and aids in faster reloading.
NOTE: For additional information on the technical aspects of the caliber .45 pistol see TM 9-1005-211-12.
1-3. REVOLVER, CALIBER .38
There are six basic caliber .38 service revolvers in use by the Army. One is a 2-inch barreled, .38-caliber revolver made by
Smith and Wesson; five are 4-inch barreled, .38-caliber revolvers--three made by Ruger, and two by Smith and Wesson. The
2-inch barreled revolver is used mainly by Army CID and counterintelligence personnel. The 4-inch barreled revolvers are used
by aviators and military police.
a. Equipment Data.
Smith and Wesson
Caliber-----------------------------------0.38 inches
System of Operation-------------------Rotated chamber
Length: 2-Inch Barrel--------------------7 1/4 inches
4-Inch Barrel--------------------9 1/4 inches
Weight: 2-Inch Barrel---------------------26.5 ounces
4-inch Barrel---------------------30.5 ounces
Length of Barrel--------------------2 inches/4 inches
Muzzle Velocity-------------------950 feet per second
Muzzle Energy------------------16,000 per square inch
Maximum Range: 2-Inch Barrel---------------868 meters
4-Inch Barrel---------------992 meters
Maximum Effective Range-----45 meters (2-inch barrel)
60 meters (4-inch barrel)
Front Sight--------------Fixed 1/8-inch serrated ramp
Rear Sight-------------------------------Square notch
Safety Features-----------No manually operated safety
Basic Load----------------------------------18 rounds
Ruger
Caliber-----------------------------------0,38 inches
System of Operation-------------------Rotated chamber
Length-----------------------------------9 1/4 inches
Weight--------------------------------------33 ounces
Length of Barrel-----------------------------4 inches
Muzzle Velocity-------------------950 feet per second
Muzzle Energy------------------16,000 per square inch
Maximum Range------------------------------992 meters
Maximum Effective Range---------------------60 meters
Front Sight-------------------------------Fixed blade
Rear Sight-------------------------------Fixed groove
Safety Features-----------No manually operated safety
Basic Load----------------------------------18 rounds
b. Operation.
(1) When firing single-action, the hammer is pulled back, and the sear engaged the full-cock notch in the hammer.
(a) Smith and Wesson: Pulling the trigger lowers the hammer block, allowing the hammer to fall.
(b) Ruger: Pulling the trigger raises the transfer bar into the firing position between the hammer and firing pin, allowing the
hammer to strike the firing pin.
(2) When firing double-action, the trigger is squeezed. This engages the sear, raising the hammer to nearly full-cock position.
Continued pressure on the trigger allows the sear to escape from the trigger and the hammer to fall.
(a) Smith and Wesson: When the trigger is squeezed, the rebound slide pivots the hammer block downward, striking the
cartridge primer.
(b) Ruger: When the trigger is squeezed and held to the rear, the transfer bar passes force from the transfer bar to the firing pin,
striking the cartridge primer. If the trigger is not held to the rear, the hammer rests directly on the frame and the transfer bar
remains below the firing pin.
(3) The cylinder stop (Smith and Wesson) or latch (Ruger) prevents the cylinder from making more than one-sixth of a
revolution each time the weapon is cocked. The cylinder stop/latch withdraws from the cylinder as the trigger moves. The
trigger hand (Smith and Wesson) or pawl (Ruger) pivots and engages the ratchet on the extractor/ejector portion of the
cylinder. The trigger slips off of the cylinder stop/latch as it continues rearward. The cylinder stop/latch then engages the next
notch.
NOTES: 1. In firing the Ruger, the trigger must remain all the way back till the hammer falls. If the trigger is
released before the hammer falls, the weapon will not fire. In firing the Smith and Wesson, the weapon fires only
when the trigger is pulled all the way back.
2. For additional information on the technical aspects of the caliber .38 see TM 9-1005-226-14 and TM
9-1005-205-14&P-1.
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CHAPTER 2
MARKSMANSHIP TRAINING
Section I. BASIC MARKSMANSHIP
2-1. PHASES OF TRAINING
Marksmanship training is divided into two phases: preparatory marksmanship training and range firing. Each phase may be
divided into separate instructional steps. All marksmanship training must be progressive. Combat marksmanship techniques
should be practiced after the basics have been mastered.
2-2. FUNDAMENTALS
The main use of the pistol or revolver is to engage an enemy at close range with quick, accurate fire. Accurate shooting results
from knowing and correctly applying the elements of marksmanship. The elements of combat pistol or revolver marksmanship
are:
1.Grip.
2.Aiming.
3.Breath control.
4.Trigger squeeze.
5.Target engagement.
6.Positions.
2-3. GRIP
The weapon must become an extension of the hand and arm. It should replace the finger in pointing at an object. A firm,
uniform grip must be applied to the weapon. A proper grip is one of the most important fundamentals of quick fire.
a. One-Hand Grip. Hold the weapon in the nonfiring hand; form a V with the thumb and forefinger of the strong hand
(firing hand) (see Figure 2-1). Place the weapon in the V with the front and rear sights in line with the firing arm. Wrap
the lower three fingers around the pistol grip, putting equal pressure with all three fingers to the rear. Allow the thumb of
the firing hand to rest alongside the weapon without pressure. Grip the weapon tightly until the hand begins to tremble;
relax until the trembling stops. At this point, the necessary pressure for a proper grip has been applied. Place the trigger
finger on the trigger between the tip and second joint so that it can be squeezed to the rear. The trigger finger must work
independently of the remaining fingers.
NOTE: If any of the three fingers on the grip is relaxed the grip must be reapplied.
Figure 2-1. One-hand grip.
b. Two-Hand Grip. The two-hand grip allows the firer to steady the firing hand and provide maximum support during
firing. The nonfiring hand becomes a support mechanism for the firing hand by wrapping the fingers of the nonfiring hand
around the firing hand. Two-hand grips are recommended for all pistol and revolver firing.
WARNING
IF THE NONFIRING THUMB IS PLACED IN THE REAR OF THE WEAPON THE RECOIL FROM
THE WEAPON COULD RESULT IN PERSONAL INJURY.
1.Fist grip. Grip the weapon as described in paragraph a above. Firmly close the fingers of the nonfiring hand over
the fingers of the firing hand, ensuring that the index finger from the nonfiring hand is between the middle finger of
the firing hand and the trigger guard. Place the nonfiring thumb alongside the firing thumb. (See Figure 2-2.)
NOTE: Depending upon the individual firer, he may chose to place his index finger of the nonfiring hand on
the front of the trigger guard of the M9 pistol since this weapon has a recurved trigger guard designed for
this purpose.
Figure 2-2. Fist grip.
1.Palm-supported grip. This grip is commonly called the cup and saucer grip. Grip the firing hand as described in
paragraph a above. Place the nonfiring hand under the firing hand, wrapping the nonfiring fingers around the back
of the firing hand. Place the nonfiring thumb over the middle finger of the firing hand. (See Figure 2-3.)
Figure 2-3. Palm-supported grip.
2.Weaver grip. Apply this grip the same as the fist grip. The only exception is that the nonfiring thumb is wrapped
over the firing thumb. (See Figure 2-4.)
Figure 2-4. Weaver grip
c. Isometric Tension. The firer raises his arms to a firing position and applies isometric tension. This is commonly
known as the push-pull method for maintaining weapon stability Isometric tension is when the firer applies forward
pressure with the firing hand and pulls rearward with the nonfiring hand with equal pressure. This creates an
isometric force but never so much to cause the firer to tremble. This steadies the weapon and reduces barrel rise
from recoil. The supporting arm is bent with the elbow pulled downward. The firing arm is fully extended with the
elbow and wrist locked. The firer must experiment to find the right amount of isometric tension to apply.
NOTE: The firing hand should exert the same pressure as the nonfiring hand. If it does not, a missed
target could result.
d. Natural Point of Aim. The firer should check his grip for use of his natural point of aim. He grips the weapon
and sights properly on a distant target. While maintaining his grip and stance, he closes his eyes for three to five
seconds. He then opens his eyes and checks for proper sight picture. If the point of aim is disturbed, the firer
adjusts his stance to compensate. If the sight alignment is disturbed, the firer adjusts his grip to compensate by
removing the weapon from his hand and reapplying the grip. The firer repeats this process until the sight alignment
and sight placement remain almost the same when he opens his eyes. This enables the firer to determine and use
his natural point of aim once he has sufficiently practiced. This is the most relaxed position for holding and firing
the weapon.
2-4. AIMING
a. Aiming is sight alignment and sight placement (see Figure 2-5). Sight alignment is the centering of the front blade in the
rear sight notch. The top of the front sight is level with the top of the rear sight and is in correct alignment with the eye.
For correct sight alignment, the firer must center the front sight in the rear sight. He raises or lowers the top of the front
sight so it is level with the top of the rear sight.
b. Sight placement is the positioning of the weapon's sights in relation to the target as seen by the firer when he aims the
weapon (see Figure 2-5). A correct sight picture consists of correct sight alignment with the front sight placed center
mass of the target. The eye can focus on only one object at a time at different distances. Therefore the last focus of the
eye is always on the front sight. When the front sight is seen clearly, the rear sight and target will appear hazy. Correct
sight alignment can only be maintained through focusing on the front sight. The firer's bullet will hit the target even if the
sight picture is partly off center but still remains on the target. Therefore, sight alignment is more important than sight
placement. Since it is impossible to hold the weapon completely still, the firer must apply trigger squeeze and maintain
correct sight alignment while the weapon is moving in and around the center of the target. This natural movement of the
weapon is referred to as wobble area. The firer must strive to control the limits of the wobble area through proper breath
control, trigger squeeze, positioning, and grip.
c. Sight alignment is essential for accuracy because of the short sight radius of the pistols and revolvers. For example, if a
1/10-inch error is made in aligning the front sight in the rear sight, the firer's bullet will miss the point of aim by about 15
inches at a range of 25 meters. The 1/10-inch error in sight alignment magnifies as the range increases--at 25 meters it is
magnified 150 times.
Figure 2-5. Correct sight alignment and sight picture.
d. Focusing on the front sight while applying proper trigger squeeze will help the firer resist the urge to jerk the trigger
and anticipate the actual moment the weapon will fire. Mastery of trigger squeeze and sight alignment requires practice.
Trainers should use concurrent training stations or have fire ranges to enhance proficiency of marksmanship skills.
2-5. BREATH CONTROL
The firer must learn to hold his breath properly at any time during the breathing cycle if he wishes to attain accuracy that will
serve him in combat. This must be done while aiming and squeezing the trigger. While the procedure is simple, it requires
explanation, demonstration, and supervised practice. To hold the breath properly the firer takes a breath, lets it out, then inhales
normally, lets a little out until comfortable, holds, and then fires. It is difficult to maintain a steady position keeping the front sight
at a precise aiming point while breathing. Therefore, the firer should be taught to inhale, then exhale normally, and hold his
breath at the moment of the natural respiratory pause (see Figure 2-6. ( Breath control, firing at a single target.) The shot must
then be fired before he feels any discomfort from not breathing. When multiple targets are presented, the firer must learn to hold
his breath at any part of the breathing cycle (see Figure 2-7). Breath control must be practiced during dry-fire exercises until
it-becomes a natural part of the firing process.
Figure 2-7. Breath control, firing at timed or multiple targets.
2-6. TRIGGER SQUEEZE
a. Improper trigger squeeze causes more misses than any other step of preparatory marksmanship. Poor shooting is
caused by the aim being disturbed before the bullet leaves the barrel of the weapon This is usually the result of the firer
jerking the trigger or flinching. A slight off-center pressure of the trigger finger on the trigger can cause the weapon to
move and disturb the firer's sight alignment. Flinching is an automatic human reflex caused by anticipating the recoil of the
weapon. Jerking is an effort to fire the weapon at the precise time the sights align with the target.
NOTE: See problems in target engagement, paragraph 2-7.
b. Trigger squeeze is the independent movement of the trigger finger in applying increasing pressure on the trigger straight
to the rear, without disturbing the sight alignment until the weapon fires. The trigger slack, or free play, is taken up first,
and the squeeze is continued steadily until the hammer falls. If the trigger is squeezed properly, the firer will not know
exactly when the hammer will fall; thus, he does not tend to flinch or heel, resulting in a bad shot. Novice firers must be
trained to overcome the urge to anticipate recoil. Proper application of the fundamentals will lower this tendency.
c. To apply correct trigger squeeze, the trigger finger should contact the trigger between the tip of the finger to the
second joint (without touching the weapon anywhere else). Where contact is made depends on the length of the firer's
trigger finger. If pressure from the trigger finger is applied to the right side of the trigger or weapon, the strike of the bullet
will be to the left. This is due to the normal hinge action of the fingers. When the fingers on the right hand are closed, as in
gripping, they hinge or pivot to the left, thereby applying pressure to the left. (With left-handed firers, this action is to the
right.) The firer must not apply pressure left or right but increase finger pressure straight to the rear Only the trigger
Linger must perform this action. Dry-fire training improves a firer's ability to move the trigger finger straight to the rear
without cramping or increasing pressure on the hand grip.
1.The firer who is a good shot holds the sights of the weapon as nearly on the target center as possible and
continues to squeeze the trigger with increasing pressure until the weapon fires.
2.The soldier who is a bad shot tries to "catch his target" as his sight alignment moves past the target and fires the
weapon at that instant. This is called ambushing, which causes trigger jerk.
d. Follow-through is the continued effort of the firer to maintain sight alignment before, during, and after the round has
fired. The firer must continue the rearward movement of the finger even after the round has been fired. Releasing the
trigger too soon after the round has been fired results in an uncontrolled shot, causing a missed target.
NOTE: The trigger squeeze of the M9 pistol, when fired in the single-action mode, is 5.50 pounds; when fired
in double-action mode, it is 12.33 pounds. The firer must be aware of the mode he is firing in. He must also
practice squeezing the trigger in each mode to develop expertise in single-action and double-action target
engagements.
2-7. TARGET ENGAGEMENT
To engage a single target, the firer applies the method discussed in paragraph 2-6 when multiple targets are engaged. The
closest and most dangerous multiple target in combat is engaged first and should be fired at with two rounds. This is commonly
referred to as a double tap. The firer then traverses and acquires the next target, aligns the sights in the center of mass, focuses
on the front sight, applies trigger squeeze, and fires. The firer ensures his firing arm elbow and wrist are locked during all
engagements. If the firer has missed the first target and has fired upon the second target, he shifts back to the first and engages
it. Some problems in target engagement are as follows:
a. Recoil Anticipation. When a soldier first learns to shoot, he may begin to anticipate recoil. This reaction may cause him
to tighten his muscles during or just before the hammer falls. He may fight the recoil by pushing the weapon downward in
anticipating or reacting to its firing. In either case, the rounds will not hit the point of aim. A good method to show the
firer that he is anticipating the recoil is the ball-and-dummy method (see paragraph 2-16).
b. Trigger Jerk. Trigger jerk occurs when the soldier sees that he has acquired a good sight picture at center mass and
"snaps" off a round before the good sight picture is lost. This may become a problem, especially when the soldier is
learning to use a flash sight picture (see paragraph 2-9).
c. Heeling. Heeling is caused by a firer tightening the large muscle in the heel of the hand to keep from jerking the trigger.
A firer who has had problems with jerking the trigger tries to correct the fault by tightening the bottom of the hand, which
results in a heeled shot. Heeling causes the strike of the bullet to hit high on the firing hand side of the target. The firer can
correct shooting errors by knowing and applying correct trigger squeeze.
2-8. POSITIONS
The qualification course is fired from a standing kneeling, or crouch position. All of the firing positions described below must be
practiced so they become natural movements, during qualification and combat firing. Though these positions seem natural,
practice sessions must be conducted to ensure the habitual attainment of correct firing positions. Assuming correct firing
positions ensures that soldiers can quickly assume these positions without a conscious effort. Pistol marksmanship requires a
soldier to rapidly apply all the fundamentals at dangerously close targets while under stress. Assuming a proper position to
allow for a steady aim is critical to survival.
a. Pistol-Ready Position. In the pistol-ready position, hold the weapon in the one-hand grip. Hold the upper arm close to the
body, and the forearm at about a 45ø angle. Point the weapon toward target center as you move forward (see Figure 2-8).
Figure 2-8. Pistol-ready position.
b. Standing Position Without Support. Face the target (see Figure 2-9). Place feet a comfortable distance apart, about shoulder
width. Extend the firing arm and attain a two-hand grip. The wrist and elbow of the firing arm are locked and pointed toward
target center. Keep the body straight with the shoulders slightly forward of the buttocks.
Figure 2-9. Standing position without support.
NOTE: During combat, there may not be time for a soldier to assume a position that will allow him to establish his
natural point of aim. Firing from a covered position may require the soldier to adapt his shooting stance to available
cover.
c. Kneeling Position. In the kneeling position, ground only the firing side knee as the main support (see Figure 2-10). Vertically
place the foot, used as the main support, under the buttocks. Rest the body weight on the heel and toes. Rest the nonfiring arm
just above the elbow on the knee not used as the main body support.
Use the two-handed grip for firing. Extend the firing arm, and lock the firing arm elbow and wrist to ensure solid arm control.
Figure 2-10. Kneeling position.
d. Crouch Position. Use the crouch position when surprise targets are engaged at close range (see Figure 2-11). Place the
body in a forward crouch (boxer's stance) with the knees bent slightly and
Figure 2-11. Crouch position.
trunk bent forward from the hips to give faster recovery from recoil. Place the feet naturally in a position that allows another
step toward the target. Extend the weapon straight toward the target, and lock the wrist and elbow of the firing arm. It is
important to consistently train with this position, since the body will automatically crouch under conditions of stress such as
combat. It is also a faster position from which to change direction of fire.
e. Prone Position. Lie flat on the ground, facing the target (see Figure 2-12). Extend arms in front with the firing arm locked.
The arms may have to be slightly unlocked for firing at high targets. Rest the butt of the weapon on the ground for single,
well-aimed shots. Wrap the nonfiring hand (fingers) around the fingers of the firing hand. Face forward. Keep the head down
between arms as much as possible and behind the weapon.
Figure 2-12. Prone position.
f. Standing Position With Support. Use available cover for support--for example, a tree or wall to stand behind (see Figure
2-13). Stand behind a barricade with the firing side on line with the edge of the barricade. Place the knuckles of the the
nonfiring fist at eye level against the edge of the barricade. Lock the elbow and wrist of the firing arm. Move the foot on the
nonfiring side forward until the toe of the boot touches the bottom of the barricade.
Figure 2-13. Standing position with support.
g. Kneeling Supported Position. Use available cover for support--for example, use a low wall, rocks, or vehicle (see Figure
2-14). Place the firing-side knee on the ground. Bend the other knee and place the foot (nonfiring side) flat on
Figure 2-14. Kneeling supported.
the ground, pointing toward the target. Extend arms alongside and brace them against available cover. Lock the wrist and
elbow of the firing arm. Place the nonfiring hand around the fist to support the firing arm. Rest the nonfiring arm just above the
elbow on the nonfiring-side knee.
Section II. COMBAT MARKSMANSHIP
After a soldier becomes proficient in the fundamentals of marksmanship, he progresses to advanced techniques of combat
marksmanship. The main use of the pistol or revolver is to engage the enemy at close range with quick, accurate fire. In
shooting encounters, it is not the first round fired that wins the engagement, but the first accurately fired round. The soldier
should use his sights when engaging the enemy, the only exception being if this would place the weapon within arm's reach of
the enemy.
2-9. TECHNIQUES OF FIRING
a. Hand-and-Eye Coordination.
(1) Hand-and-eye coordination is not a natural, instinctive ability for all soldiers. It is usually a learned skill obtained by
practicing the use of a flash sight picture (see paragraph b below). The more a soldier practices raising the weapon to eye level
and obtaining a flash sight picture, the more natural the relationship between soldier, sights, and target becomes. Eventually,
proficiency elevates to a point so that the soldier can accurately engage targets in the dark. Each soldier must be aware of this
trait and learn how to best use it. Poorly coordinated soldiers can achieve proficiency by being closely supervised. Everyone
has the ability to point at an object. Since pointing the forefinger at an object and extending the weapon toward a target are
much the same, the combination of the two are natural. Making the soldier aware of this ability and teaching him how to apply it
when firing results in success when engaging enemy targets in combat.
(2) The eyes focus instinctively on the center of any object observed. After the object is sighted, the firer aligns his sights on the
center of mass, focuses on the front sight, and applies proper trigger squeeze. Most crippling or killing hits result from
maintaining the focus on the center of mass. The eyes must remain fixed on some part of the target throughout firing.
(3) When a soldier points, he instinctively points at the feature on the object on which his eyes are focused. An impulse from the
brain causes the arm and hand to stop when the finger reaches the proper position. When the eyes are shifted to a new object
or feature, the finger, hand, and arm also shift to this point. It is this inherent trait that can be used by the soldier to rapidly and
accurately engage targets. This instinct is called hand-and-eye coordination.
b. Flash Sight Picture. Usually when engaging an enemy at pistol/revolver ranges, the firer has little time to ensure a correct sight
picture. The quick-kill (or natural point of aim) method does not always ensure a first-round hit. A compromise between a
correct sight picture and the quick-kill method is known as a flash sight picture. As the soldier raises the weapon to eye level,
his point of focus switches from the enemy to the front sight, ensuring that the front and rear sights are in proper alignment left
and right, but not necessarily up and down. Pressure is applied to the trigger as the front sight is being acquired, and the
hammer falls as the flash sight picture is confirmed. Initially, this method should be practiced slowly, gaining speed as
proficiency increases.
c. Quick-Fire Point Shooting. This is for engaging an enemy at less than 5 yards. It is also useful for night firing. The weapon
should be held in a two-hand grip. It is brought up close to the body until it reaches chin level and is then thrust forward until
both arms are straight. The-arms and body form a triangle, which can be aimed as a unit. In thrusting the weapon forward, the
firer can imagine that there is a box between him and the enemy, and he is thrusting the weapon into the box. The trigger is
smoothly squeezed to the rear as the elbows straighten out.
d. Quick-Fire Sighting. This is used when engaging an enemy at 5 to 10 yards away. It is used only when there is no time
available to get a full picture. The firing position is the same as for quick-fire point shooting. The sights are aligned left and right
to save time, but not up and down. The firer must determine in practice what the sight picture will look like and where the front
sight must be aimed to hit the enemy in the chest.
2-10. TARGET ENGAGEMENT
In close combat, there is seldom time to precisely apply all of the fundamentals of marksmanship. When a soldier fires a round
at the enemy, many times he will not know if he hit his target. Therefore, two rounds should be fired at the target. This is called
a double tap. If the enemy continues to attack, two more shots should be placed in the pelvic area to break the body's support
structure, causing the enemy to fall.
2-11. TRAVERSING
a. Traversing 360ø. In close combat, the enemy may be attacking from all sides. The soldier may not have time to constantly
change his position to adapt to new situations. The purpose of the crouching or kneeling traverse 360ø is to fire in any direction
without moving the feet. The firer remains in the crouch position with feet almost parallel to each other. The following
instructions are for a right-handed firer. The two-hand grip is used at all times except for over the right shoulder. Turning will be
natural on the balls of the feet.
(1) Over the left shoulder (see Figure 2-15): The upper body is turned to the left, the weapon points to the left rear with the
elbows of both arms bent. The left elbow will naturally be bent more than the right elbow.
(2) Traversing to the left (see Figure 2-16): The upper body turns to the right, and the right firing arm straightens out. The left
arm will be slightly bent.
(3) Traversing to the front (see Figure 2-17): The upper body turns to the front as the left arm straightens out. Both arms will be
straight forward.
(4) Traversing to the right (see Figure 2-18): The upper body will turn to the right as both elbows bend. The right elbow will
naturally bend more than the left.
Figure 2-15. Traversing Figure 2-16. Traversing over the left to the left. shoulder.
Figure 2-17. Traversing Figure 2-18. Traversing to the front. to the right.
(5) Traversing to the right rear (see Figure 2-19): The upper body continues to turn to the right until it reaches a point that it
cannot go further comfortably. Eventually the left hand will have to release itself from the fist grip and the firer will be shooting to
the right rear with the right hand.
Figure 2-19. Traversing to the right rear.
b. Kneeling 360ø Traverse. The following instructions are for right-handed firers. The hands are in a two-hand grip at all times.
The unsupported kneeling position is used. The rear foot must be positioned to the left of the front foot.
(1) Traversing to the left side (see Figure 2-20): The upper body turns to a comfortable position toward the left. The weapon is
aimed to the left. Both elbows are bent with the left elbow naturally bent more than the right elbow.
(2) Traversing to the front (see Figure 2-21): The upper body is turned to the front, and a standard unsupported kneeling
position is assumed. The right firing arm is straight, and the left elbow is slightly bent.
(3) Traversing to the right side (see Figure 2-22): The upper body turns to the right as both arms straighten out.
(4) Traversing to the rear (see Figure 2-23): The upper body continues to turn to the right as the left knee is turned to the right
and placed on the ground. The right knee is lifted off the ground and becomes the forward knee. The right arm is straight, while
the left arm is bent. The direction of the kneeling position has been reversed.
Figure 2-20. Traversing Figure 2-21. Traversing to the left, to the front, kneeling. kneeling.
Figure 2-22. Traversing Figure 2-23. Traversing to the right, to the rear, kneeling. kneeling.
(5) Traversing to the new right side (see Figure 2-24): The upper body continues to the right. Both elbows are straight until it
reaches a point that it cannot comfortably to further. Eventually, the left hand must be released from the fist grip, and the firer
will be firing to the right with the one-hand grip.
Figure 2-24. Traversing to the new right side, kneeling.
c. Training Method. This method can be taught anywhere without a weapon by the firer simulating a two-hand grip. The firer
should be familiar with firing in all five directions.
2-12. COMBAT RELOADING TECHNIQUES
Reloading was an overlooked problem for many years until it was discovered that soldiers were being killed due to dropping of
magazines, shaking hands, placing magazines in backward, and placing empty magazines back into the weapon. The stress state
induced by a life-threatening situation causes soldiers to do things they would not otherwise do. Consistent, repeated training is
needed to avoid such mistakes.
NOTE: These procedures should only be used in combat, not on firing ranges.
STEP 1: Develop a consistent method for carrying magazines in the ammunition pouches. All magazines should face
down with the bullets facing forward and to the center of the body.
STEP 2: Know when to reload. When possible, count the number of rounds fired. However, it is possible to lose count
in close combat. If this happens, there is a distinct difference in recoil of the pistol when the last round has been fired.
Change magazines when two rounds may be left--one in the magazine and one in the chamber. This prevents being
caught with an empty weapon at a crucial time. Reloading is faster with a round in the chamber since time is not needed
to release the slide.
STEP 3: Obtain a firm grip on the magazine. This precludes the magazine being dropped or difficulty in getting the
magazine into the weapon. Ensure the knuckles of the hand are toward the body while gripping as much of the magazine
as possible. Place the index finger high on the front of the magazine when withdrawing from the pouch. Use the index
finger to guide the magazine into the magazine well.
STEP 4: Know which reloading procedure to use for the tactical situation. There are three systems of reloading: rapid,
tactical, and one-handed. Rapid reloading is used when the soldier's life is in immediate danger, and the reload must be
accomplished quickly. Tactical reloading is used when there is more time, and it is desirable to keep the replaced
magazine because there are rounds still in it or it will be needed again. One-handed reloading is used when there is an
arm injury.
a. Rapid Reloading.
Place your hand on the next magazine in the ammunition pouch to ensure there is another magazine.
Withdraw the magazine from the pouch while releasing the other magazine from the weapon. Let the replaced magazine
drop to the ground.
Insert the replacement magazine, guiding it into the magazine well with the index finger.
Release the slide, if necessary.
Pick up the dropped magazine if time allows. Place it in your pocket, not back into the ammunition pouch where it may
become mixed with full magazines.
b. Tactical Reloading.
Place your hand on the next magazine in the ammunition pouch to ensure there is a remaining magazine.
Withdraw the magazine from the pouch.
Drop the used magazine into the palm of the nonfiring hand, which is the same hand holding the replacement magazine.
Insert the replacement magazine, guiding it into the magazine well with the index finger.
Release the slide, if necessary.
Place the used magazine into a pocket. Do not mix it with full magazines.
c. One-Hand Reloading.
(1) With the right hand.
Push the magazine release button with the thumb.
Place the safety ON with the thumb if the slide is forward.
Place the weapon backwards into the holster.
NOTE: If placing the weapon in the holster backwards is a problem, place the weapon between the calf and thigh to
hold the weapon.
Insert the replacement magazine.
Withdraw the weapon from the holster.
Remove the safety with the thumb if the slide is forward, or push the slide release if the slide is back.
(2) With the left hand.
Push the magazine release button with the middle finger.
Place the safety ON with the thumb if the slide is forward. With the .45-caliber pistol, the thumb must be switched to the
left side of the weapon.
Place the weapon backwards into the holster.
NOTE: If placing the weapon in the holster backwards is a problem, place the weapon between the calf and thigh to
hold the weapon.
Insert the replacement magazine.
Remove the weapon from the holster.
Remove the safety with the thumb if the slide is forward, or push the slide release lever with the middle finger if the slide
is back.
2-13. POOR VISIBILITY FIRING
Poor visibility firing with any weapon is difficult since shadows can be misleading to the soldier. This is mainly true during EENT
and EMNT (a half hour before dark and a half hour before dawn). Even though the weapon is a short-range weapon, the hours
of darkness and poor visibility further decrease its effect. To compensate, the soldier must use the three principles of night
vision.
a. Dark Adaptation. This process conditions the eyes to see during poor visibility conditions. The eyes usually need about 30
minutes to become 98- percent dark adapted in a totally darkened area.
b. Off-Center Vision. When looking at an object in daylight, a person looks directly at it. However, at night he would see the
object only for a few seconds. To see an object in darkness, he must concentrate on it while looking 6ø to 10ø away from it.
c. Scanning. This is the short, abrupt, irregular movement of the firer's eyes around an object or area every 4 to 10 seconds.
When artificial illumination is used, the firer uses night fire techniques to engage targets, since targets seem to shift without
moving.
NOTE: For more detailed information on the three principles of night vision, see FM 21-75.
2-14. NUCLEAR, BIOLOGICAL, CHEMICAL FIRING
When firing under NBC conditions with a pistol or revolver, the firer should use optical inserts, if applicable. Firing in MOPP1
through MOPP3 levels should not be a problem for the firer. Unlike wearing a protective mask while firing a rifle, the firer's
sight picture will be acquired the same as with or without a protective mask. MOPP4 is the only level that may present a
problem for a firer since gloves are worn. Gloves may require the firer to adjust his grip to attain a proper grip and proper
trigger squeeze. Firers should practice firing in MOPP4 to become proficient in NBC firing.
Section III. COACHING AND TRAINING AIDS
2-15. COACHING
a. Throughout preparatory marksmanship training, the coach-and-pupil method of training should be used. The proficiency of a
pupil depends on how well his coach performs his duties. The coach assists the firer by correcting errors, ensuring he takes
proper firing positions, and ensuring he observes all safety precautions. The criteria for selecting coaches are a command
responsibility; coaches must have experience in pistol marksmanship above that of the student firer.
b. Duties of the coach during instruction practice and record firing include:
(1) Checking that the--
(a) Weapon is cleared.
(b) Ammunition is clean.
(c) Magazines are clean and operational.
(2) Observing the firer to see that he--
(a) Takes the correct firing position.
(b) Loads the weapon properly and only on command.
(c) Takes up the trigger slack correctly.
(d) Squeezes the trigger correctly (see paragraph 2-7)
(e) Calls the shot each time he fires (except for quick fire and rapid fire).
(f) Holds his breath correctly (see paragraph 2-5).
(g) Lowers his weapon and rests his arm when he does not fire a round within five to six seconds.
(3) Having the firer breathe deeply several times to relax if he is tense.
2-16. BALL-AND-DUMMY METHOD
In this method the coach loads the weapon for the firer. He may hand the firer a loaded weapon or an empty one. When firing
the empty weapon, the firer observes that in anticipating recoil he is forcing the weapon downward as the hammer falls.
Repetition of the ball-and-dummy method helps to alleviate recoil anticipation.
2-17. CALLING THE SHOT
To call the shot is to state where the bullet should strike the target according to the sight picture at the instant the weapon
fires--for example: "high," "a little low," "to the left," "to the right," or "bull's-eye." If the firer does not call his shot correctly in
range firing, he is not concentrating on sight alignment. Consequently, he does not know what his sight picture is as he fires.
Another method of calling the shot is the clock system--for example. a three-ring hit at 8 o'clock, a four-ring hit at 3 o'clock.
Another method is to provide the firer with a target center (placed beside him on the firing line). As soon as the shot is fired, the
firer must place a finger on the target face or center where he expected the round to hit on the target. This method avoids
guessing and computing for the firer. The immediate placing of the finger on the target face gives an accurate call. If the firer
does not call his shot correctly, he is not concentrating on sight alignment and trigger squeeze. Thus, he does not know that his
sight picture is as the weapon fires.
2-18. PENCIL TRIANGULATION EXERCISE
The pencil triangulation exercise (see Figure 2-25) is conducted only with an unloaded and properly cleared M1911A1 caliber
.45 pistol. It will not work with an M9 pistol; however, coaches may have students dry fire the M9 while he observes the firers
to see if the front sight dips or jumps when the hammer falls. The pencil triangulation exercise consists of firing a pencil or
pointed dowel point-blank at a miniature target. It combines position, grip, sight alignment, breathing, and trigger squeeze into a
single practical work exercise. At the same time, it measures the firer's performance without the effects of recoil. This practical
work is designed to teach and develop correct shooting habits. It can be conducted indoors or out, which makes an ideal
exercise where range facilities are limited or when weather is poor.
Figure 2-25. Pencil triangulation exercise.
a. Equipment.
(1) One dowel or lead pencil for every two students. This pencil should be at least 6 inches long and wrapped with masking or
cellophane tape. The tape wrappings form two bushings that fit the inside diameter of the weapon's barrel.
(2) One miniature bull's-eye sheet for every two students. The bull's-eye sheet can be copied, drawn, or stamped by using the
eraser of a pencil and ink pad. The bull's-eyes should not be larger than 1/8 inch and at least 1 inch apart.
b. Conduct of the Exercise. The instructor explains and demonstrates the details of the exercise before practical work by the
students. The firer should begin by using a two-hand grip, progressing to the one-hand grip as his skills increase.
(1) The firer faces the target and takes up a good shooting position. This position is close enough to the miniature bull's-eye so
when the pencil is inserted into the barrel, with the firer's arm extended and the sights aimed at the miniature bull's-eye, the point
of the pencil is within l inch of the target. The bull's-eye sheet should be affixed to a target, or any type support, and should be
shoulder-high to the firer.
(2) The firer inserts the pencil into the muzzle of the barrel, eraser end first, and cocks the hammer. He grips the weapon
properly, extends the shooting arm, aims the weapon at the miniature bull's-eye, squeezes the trigger, and the hammer falls. The
hammer strikes the firing pin, which in turn strikes the rubber eraser of the pencil, driving it out of the barrel and causing it to
make a pencil dot l/2 inch below the bull's-eye (if the firer had the correct sight alignment and trigger squeeze).
(3) The firer continues this exercise until he has fired a group of five pencil marks below each target. The object of the exercise
is to keep the five pencil marks in a group as small as the 1/8-inch bull's-eye, 1/2 inch directly below the bull's-eye. With
practice, many firers can hit the same mark with the pencil. This indicates that the firer is properly performing the fundamentals
of marksmanship each time.
2-19. SLOW-FIRE EXERCISE
a. This is a dry-fire exercise. The slow-fire exercise is one of the most important exercises for both amateur and competitive
marksmen. Coaches should ensure soldiers practice this exercise as much as possible. To perform the slow-fire exercise, the
firer assumes the standing position with the weapon pointed at the target. The firer should begin by using a two-hand grip,
progressing to the one-hand grip as his skill increases. He takes in a normal breath and lets part of it out, locking the remainder
in his lungs by closing his throat. He then relaxes, aims at the target, takes the correct sight alignment and sight picture, takes up
the trigger slack, and squeezes the trigger straight to the rear with steady, increasing pressure until the hammer falls, simulating
firing.
b. If the firer does not cause the hammer to fall in 5 or 6 seconds, he should come to the pistol ready position, and rest his arm
and hand. He then starts the procedure again. The action sequence that makes up this process can be summed up by the key
word BRASS. It is a word the firer should think of each time he fires his weapon:
Breathe--Take a normal breath, let part of it out, and lock the remainder in the lungs by closing the throat.
Relax--Relax the body muscles.
Aim--Take correct sight alignment and sight picture, and focus the eye at the top of the front sight.
Slack--Take up the trigger slack.
Squeeze--Squeeze the trigger straight to the rear with steadily increasing pressure without disturbing sight alignment until the
hammer falls.
c. Coaches should observe the front sight for erratic movements during the application of trigger squeeze. Proper application of
trigger squeeze allows the hammer to fall without the front sight moving. A small bouncing movement of the front sight is
acceptable. Firer's should call the shot by the direction of movement of the front sight (high, low, left, or right).
2-20. AIR-OPERATED PISTOL, .177 MM
The air-operated pistol is used as a training device to teach the soldier the method of quick fire, to increase confidence in his
ability, and to afford him more practice firing. A range can be set up almost anywhere with a minimum of effort and
coordination, which is ideal for USAR and NG. If conducted on a standard range, live firing of pistols and revolvers can be
conducted along with the firing of the .177-mm air-operated pistol. Due to light recoil and little noise of the pistol, the soldier
can concentrate on fundamentals. This helps build confidence, because the soldier can hit a target faster and accurately. The
air-operated pistol should receive the same respect as any firearm. A thorough explanation of the weapon and a safety briefing
are given to each soldier.
2-21. QUICK-FIRE TARGET TRAINING DEVICE
The QTTD (see Figures 2-26 and 2-27) is used with the .177-mm air-operated pistol. Figure 2-26. The quick-fire target
training device.
PHASE I. From 10 feet, five shots at a 20-foot miniature E-type silhouette. After firing each shot, the firer and coach discuss
the results and make corrections.
PHASE II. From 15 feet, five shots at a 20-foot miniature E-type silhouette. The same instructions apply to this exercise as for
PHASE I.
Figure 2-27. Dimensions for the QTTD.
PHASE III. From 20 feet, five shots at a 20-foot miniature E-type silhouette. The same instructions apply to this exercise as for
PHASES I and II.
PHASE IV. From 15 feet, six shots, at two 20-foot miniature E-type silhouettes.
(1) This exercise is conducted the same as the previous one, except that the firer is introduced to fire distribution. The targets
on the QTTD are held in the up position so they cannot be knocked down when hit.
(2) The firer first engages the 20-foot miniature E-type silhouette on the extreme right of the QTTD (see Figure 2-28). He then
traverses between targets and engages the same type target on the extreme left of the QTTD. The firer again shifts back to
reengage the first target. The procedure is used to teach the firer to instinctively return to the first target if he misses it with his
first shot.
Figure 2-28. Miniature E-type silhouette for use with QTTD.
Figure 2-28. Miniature E-type silhouette for use with QTTD (continued).
Figure 2-28. Miniature E-type silhouette for use with QTTD (continued).
(3) The firer performs this exercise twice, firing three shots each time. Before firing the second time, the coach and firer should
discuss the errors made during the first exercise.
PHASE V. Seven shots fired from 20, 15, and 10 feet at miniature E-type silhouettes.
(1) The firer starts this exercise 30 feet from the QTTD. The command, MOVE OUT, is given, and the firer steps out at a
normal pace with the weapon held in the ready position. Upon the command, FIRE (given at the 20-foot line), the firer assumes
the crouch position and engages the 20-foot miniature E-type silhouette on the extreme right of the QTTD. He then traverses
between targets, engages the same type target on the extreme left of the QTTD, and shifts back to the first target. If the target is
still up, he engages it. The firer then assumes the standing position and returns the weapon to the ready position. Upon
completion of each exercise, the coach makes corrections as the firer returns to the standing position.
(2) On the command, MOVE OUT, the firer again steps off at a normal pace. Upon the command, FIRE (given at the 15-foot
line), he engages the 15-foot targets on the QTTD. The same sequence of fire distribution is followed as with the previous
exercise.
(3) During this exercise, the firer moves forward on command, until he reaches the 10-foot line. At the command, FIRE, the
firer engages the 10-foot miniature E-type silhouette in the center of the QTTD.
2-22. RANGE FIRING COURSES
Range firing is conducted after the firers have satisfactorily completed preparatory marksmanship training. The range firing
courses are:
a. Instructional firing is practice firing on a range, using the assistance of a coach.
(1) All personnel authorized or required to fire the pistol or revolver receive 12 hours of preliminary instruction that includes the
following:
Disassembly and assembly (does not apply to revolver).
Loading, firing, unloading, and immediate action.
Preparatory marksmanship.
Care and cleaning.
(2) The tables fired for instructional practice are prescribed in the combat pistol qualification course in Appendix A and in the
revolver qualification course in Appendix C. During the instructional firing, the CPQC or RQC is fired with a coach or
instructor.
NOTE: The RQC is fired on the same range as the CPQC; for a picture of the CPQC see FM 25-7.
b. The CPQC stresses the fundamentals of quick fire. It is the final test of a soldier's proficiency and the basis for his
marksmanship classification. After the soldier has completed the instructional practice firing he will shoot the CPQC for record.
A detailed description of the CPQC tables, standards, and conduct of fire is in Appendix A.
NOTE: The alternate pistol qualification course (APQC) or alternate revolver qualification course (ARQC) can be
used for sustainment/ qualification if the CPQC is not available (see Appendix B and Appendix D).
c. The military police firearms qualification course is a practical course of instruction for police firearms training (see FM
19-10).
Section IV. SAFETY
Safety must be observed during all marksmanship training. Listed below are the precautions for each phase of training. It is not
intended to replace AR 385-63 or local range regulations. Range safety requirements vary according to the requirements of the
course of fire. It is mandatory that the latest range safety directives and local range regulations be consulted to determine
current safety requirements.
2-23. REQUIREMENTS
a. A red flag is displayed prominently on the range during all firing.
b. Weapons must be handled carefully and are never pointed at anyone except the enemy in actual combat.
c. A weapon is always assumed loaded until it has been thoroughly examined and found to contain no ammunition.
d. Firing limits are indicated by red-and-white-striped poles visible to all firers.
e. Obstructions should never be placed in the muzzle of any weapon about to be fired.
f. Weapons are kept in a prescribed area with proper safeguards.
g. Smoking is not allowed on the range near ammunition, explosives, or flammables.
2-24. BEFORE FIRING
a. All prescribed roadblocks and barriers are closed, and guards are posted.
b. All weapons are checked to ensure they are clear of ammunition and obstructions, and slides are locked to the rear.
c. All firers are briefed on the firing limits of the range and firing lanes. They must keep their fires within prescribed limits.
d. All firers are instructed on how to load and unload the weapon, and on safety features.
e. All personnel are briefed on all safety aspects of fire and range pertaining to the conduct of the courses
f. No one moves forward of the firing line without permission of the tower operator, safety officer, or OIC.
g. Weapons are loaded and unlocked only on command from the tower operator except during the conduct of the courses
requiring automatic magazine changes.
h. Weapons are not handled except on command from the tower operator.
i. Firers must keep their weapons pointed downrange when loading, preparing to fire, or firing.
2-25. DURING FIRING
a. A firer does not move from his position until his weapon has been cleared by safety personnel, and it has been placed in its
proper safety position. An exception is the assault phase.
b. During Table 5 of the CPQC, firers remain on line with other firers on their right or left.
c. Firers are careful to fire in their own firing lane and not to point the weapon into an adjacent lane, mainly during the assault
phase.
d. The air-operated pistol is treated as a loaded weapon. Firers observe the same safety precautions as with other weapons.
e. All personnel wear helmets during live-fire exercises.
f. The weapon is held in the raised position except when preparing to fire. It is then held in the ready position, pointed
downrange.
2-26. AFTER FIRING
a. Safety personnel inspect all weapons to ensure they are clear. A check is conducted to determine if any brass or live
ammunition is in possession of soldiers.
b. Once cleared, pistols are secured with the slides locked to the rear, and revolvers with cylinders open.
2-27. INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICE AND RECORD QUALIFICATION FIRING
During these phases of firing, safety personnel ensure that the--
a. Firer understands the conduct of the exercise.
b. Firer has the required ammunition, and understands the commands for loading and unloading.
c. Firer complies with all commands from the tower operator.
d. Proper alignment is maintained with other firers while moving downrange.
e. Weapon is always pointed downrange.
f. Firer fires within the prescribed range limits.
g. Weapon is cleared after each phase of firing, and the tower-operator is aware of the clearance.
h. Malfunction or failure to fire, due to no fault of the firer, is reported immediately. On command of the tower operator, the
weapon is cleared and action is taken to allow the firer to continue with the exercise.
NOTE: For training and qualification standards see Appendixes A through E.
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A Guide to Organizing Neighborhoods for Preparedness, Response and Recovery
- Volunteer Center of Marin County, CA
http://www.preparenow.org/marin-g.html
Developed by:
Volunteer Center of Marin
650 Gallinas Ave.
San Rafael, CA 94903-3620
(415) 491-8915
With a grant from: Northern California Disaster Preparedness Network
Index:
Organization/Structure Progression Guide
Using This Guide
First Things First. Make Lists! Get information! Don't Reinvent the Wheel!
After That
Setting up the First Neighborhood Meeting
Parts of the First Neighborhood Meeting
List of Materials for Neighborhood Meetings
The Second Neighborhood Meeting
Appendix
Disaster Resource Directory
Community disaster Councils/Neighborhood Disaster Committees
Job Position Descriptions
Suggestions for Slide Show at First Neighborhood Meeting
Organization/Structure Progression Guide
Local Neighborhood forms neighborhood Disaster Committee which includes a Chairperson and other neighborhood members who develop a Neighborhood Disaster Plan which includes a Neighborhood Coordinator who oversees Neighborhood Liaisons and Neighborhood Teams
Organized Neighborhoods form the basis for a Community Disaster Council which includes a Chairperson and representatives from Neighborhoods, local government, community agencies, etc. who develop a Community Disaster Plan which includes Community Coordinators, Liaisons and Teams/Divisions
Local Government/Fire Departments develop a Disaster Plan which utilizes Incident Command System (ICS) and Standardized Emergency Management System (SEMS) which centers authority in an Incident Commander who oversees Divisions which include Operations who appoints and oversees Designated Community Coordinator who works with Community Disaster Council Neighborhood Disaster Committee
Using This Guide
Welcome !!
This guide was designed to help you organize your neighborhood, using resources in your community, while avoiding the usual pitfalls and/or reinventing the wheel.
Materials in this Guide can be reprinted with credit to the Northern California Disaster Preparedness Network and the Volunteer Center of Marin.
As you use this Guide and develop new or adapted materials for neighborhoods or volunteers, please send a sample to the Volunteer Center of Marin, 650 Las Gallinas, San Rafael, CA 94903. We'd love to see what it evolves into!!
Some Helpful Definitions:
(it might help to refer to previous page - Organization/Structure Progression Guide)
Community: Any contiguous area where people live and work, whether defined by government or not. This includes apartment complexes, condominiums, regional neighborhood areas, office buildings, towns.
Community Disaster Council: A larger network of community representatives from neighborhoods, businesses, local organization and community groups who work together before and after a disaster to meet the disaster needs of a community. This includes representation from organized neighborhoods within its boundaries.
Community Disaster Plan: An organized, written plan for disaster preparedness, response and recovery within a community, implemented through support of neighborhoods and neighborhood plans.
Neighborhood: A smaller area, determined by city blocks, natural terrain, social or cultural enclaves or any other way its residents consider themselves as a "group." There are no rules, but time of a disaster by one or two people.
Neighborhood Disaster Committee: A "disaster council" within a neighborhood that finds itself individually organized within a larger, unorganized community.
Neighborhood Disaster Plan: An organized, written and implement plan of disaster preparedness, response and recovery for a neighborhood, involving neighborhood coordinators, liaisons and teams.
Neighborhood Coordinator: Person designated as the neighborhood "leader" for the disaster plan, and acts as the liaison between that neighborhood and other neighborhoods and the larger Community Disaster Council. If there is not a Community Disaster Council, this person would be the chair of the Neighborhood Disaster Committee.
Neighborhood Liaison: Person designated to work within the neighborhood or some part of it, with the existing neighbors, with new neighbors, conducting disaster assessments during a disaster, and reporting to the neighborhood coordinator.
Neighborhood Teams: Groups of neighbors organized and trained to fulfill a specific purpose during a disaster - i.e.: first aid or search & rescue.
Disaster Resource Directory: A written record of all pertinent priority disaster response information used by the neighborhood coordinators and liaisons during a disaster.
Player: A "playful" word to describe any person with a major part in planning and/or response in the local disaster project.
Other resources:
There are many good disaster preparedness publications that provide information about organizing neighborhoods. Even so, many address only one type of disaster, and none of them address everything. One very comprehensive and helpful manual is "Organizing Neighborhoods for Earthquake Preparedness", from the California Office of Emergency Services. Another is "Problems and Pitfalls of Organizing a Neighborhood" from Personal Emergency Preparedness Planning in Pacifica, CA.
Remember - Projects Have Life cycles
A neighborhood disaster preparedness project is never complete. It is a process, always evolving to adapt to changes in people's lives. The project will always be in flux because of its nature, its volunteers, and changing technology.
Volunteer Management
Members of your neighborhood who participate in this project will do so as volunteers. Managing volunteers takes special awareness and skill, and nonprofit organizations around the country have developed techniques, materials, and insights on how to do this well. The basic components of a good volunteer program are:
1 . setting the climate of the organization so volunteers are valued;
2. defining the work that volunteers are needed for; writing job descriptions;
3 . recruiting volunteers;
4. orientation and training for volunteers;
5 . supervising volunteers in their ongoing work;
6. volunteer recognition;
7. evaluation of volunteers performance;
8. evaluation of the overall volunteer program.
These eight steps are an integrated cycle. For a strong and growing program, no step can be omitted. They are also a sequence. For example, volunteer recruitment should come after the work has been defined, and after the organization has reflected on the role that volunteers do and will hold. For more information about volunteer management practices, contact your local Volunteer Center. In the San Francisco Bay Area, call 1-800-123CARE to locate your local Volunteer Center.
Don't Forget to Celebrate!
It is very important to remember and acknowledge your group's accomplishments. Even small steps accomplished today will alleviate a little of the fear of a disaster, build a bit more confidence in handling an emergency, add to the ability to share disaster education, and make households and neighborhoods more self sufficient to deal with the first hours or weeks of a disaster.
Sometimes the scope of disaster preparedness can be overwhelming and create a sense of helplessness in people - even those who are participating in neighborhood preparedness efforts. Ceremonies and bench marking events are important components of any neighborhood disaster preparedness project. In addition to acknowledging individual and collective successes, they affirm our hopes and our reasons for being active in the project. Remember to recognize the accomplishments of volunteers, publicly acknowledge the group's progress, note special efforts of public safety officials, and mark anniversaries and special dates in your neighborhood.
Thanks For Your Work!
When you took on the task of preparing your neighborhood for disaster, you undertook a life-giving effort. Disaster preparedness, and readiness to respond to disasters, will result in reduced property damage, fewer injuries, and saved lives. The individuals and families who live in your neighborhood are already safer and better prepared because of the work you have done thus far.
Thank You !!
First Things First
Make Lists! Get information! Don't Reinvent the Wheel!
Before you start to organize your neighborhood, you need to do some research and find out what is already being done. This will save efforts, particularly if there are existing organizations that can support your efforts. It will also avoid misunderstandings with other emergency response groups.
Through this research, you will gain important knowledge about major players in your community and county and how they can help your neighborhood become prepared. You will be building your own disaster network.
Start by making phone calls and contact the following departments. When you make contact, be sure to record names, positions, telephone numbers, and other helpful information for future reference. This will become part of your Disaster Resource Directory.
A. Local fire department or district.
B. The County's Office of Emergency Services.
C. The local Red Cross office.
D. A local chapter of RACES (Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Services).
E. The local Humane Society.
A. Call the local fire department or district
Your local fire department is an important player in any community disaster plan. In an unincorporated area, the fire department usually becomes the authoritative body during a disaster for incorporated towns or cities the fire department may take direction from the city or town governments.
Once you begin to have neighborhood organizing meetings, it is critical to have fire department representatives participate. Their authority and needs are the "carrots" that will your neighbors to meetings. When we say to a meeting of West Marin residents, "Our community has four fire-fighter/paramedics to cover 43 square miles". people are more apt to recognize the importance of increasing their own self-sufficiency and developing community organizations.
1 . Does the fire department have a disaster plan or program that includes organizing neighborhoods? If so, how can you become part of that program?
2. Are there other disaster preparedness groups, Community Disaster Councils or organized neighborhoods within the fire district? If so, how can you contact them to learn about their activities?
3 . If the fire department does not have a program or plan for neighborhoods, would they be willing to meet and talk with you about preparing your community for disaster?
4. Would someone from the fire department participate in your neighborhood meetings?
5 . Does the fire department offer disaster training for neighborhoods? If so, what kind of training, where, when, and at what cost?
⦁ There is a project for Neighborhood Community Emergency Response Team training that has become popular in the San Francisco Bay Area since the Loma Prieta earthquake in1989. It is often shortened to NERT or CERT, or even HEART (an individual program developed by the Novato Fire Protection District in Novato, California). The common element in all these programs is organized for neighborhood groups. It is most often offered by the local fire department.
⦁ Another kind of training often provided by the fire department for neighborhoods was legislated in California in 1995, and is called SEMS (Standardized Emergency Management System). An explanation is included in the appendix.
6. Can the fire department provide disaster pamphlets, videotapes, or other resources for use at the community meetings? Are these available in other languages as well as English?
B. Call the County's Office of Emergency Services (OES).
Your county's OES works with governments, agencies, and groups within the county to promote
and assist in developing disaster preparedness. They may be part of the county fire or sheriff's department.
During a disaster, County OES coordinates the response of government agencies. Depending upon the magnitude of the disaster, it can call on state and federal levels for additional relief assistance. This could include the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA).
I . Does the county OES program include organizing neighborhoods for disaster? If so, what kind of training, where, when, and at what cost?
2. Can OES speak at neighborhood meetings?
3 . Can OES provide disaster pamphlets, videos, or other materials for use in the community? Are these available in different languages?
4. Does OES know of disaster related organizations or groups within the county that meet regularly to share disaster information? If so, who, where and when? Could a representative of your community attend those meetings? Are there other disaster preparedness groups, Community Disaster Councils or organized neighborhoods within the county? If so, how can you contact them to learn about their activities?
5 . Has this OES office identified any potential hazards in your community (flood zones, earthquake faults, chemical companies etc.)? If so, can this information be made available for use in your community?
6. What government agencies does OES coordinate with during a disaster?
C. Call local American Red Cross chapter.
The American Red Cross (ARC) is mandated by the federal government to respond to the needs of citizens during a disaster. The local ARC chapter usually meets the day-to-day disaster needs of the county such as family fires, small disasters, safety and disaster training, and other services. If the local ARC chapter is small and unable to fill some of these needs they usually ask for expertise from another ARC chapter or the ARC regional office. If a major emergency occurs, trained Red Cross volunteers will be recruited from outside of the area to help with the response.
1. Can the local ARC provide speakers for neighborhood meetings?
2. What ARC Disaster Training do they offer? When and where? Would they provide these training workshops in your neighborhood? Do they charge for disaster services?
3. Can the ARC provide disaster pamphlets, videos, etc. to the community? Are these available in different languages?
4. Has the ARC designated any sites in your community to be designated shelters during a disaster? If so, which buildings or locations?
D. Call local RACES chapter.
RACES (Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Services) is a national volunteer organization that is authorized by the federal government to provide emergency communications for government agencies during a disaster. Local RACES members usually work in the field and through the county Office of Emergency Services. Members can and do work within communities and neighborhoods during disasters.
1 . Does RACES have any member operators in your area, community, or fire district? Who are they? Can you contact them to introduce yourself and tell them about the plans for a community disaster preparedness program?
2. Does RACES offer training for new amateur radio operators? If so, where, when, and at what cost?
3 . Would a RACES representative participate in a community meeting?
4. How does RACES fit into the overall county or community disaster plan?
E. Call local Humane Society.
Some Humane Societies have developed plans for the rescue of pets and large animals during a disaster. "Animal Rescue Kouncil" or ARK is the name of a project formed by the Marin County Humane Society to meet the needs of both preparedness and rescue. They have also developed a guide for larger, barnyard animals.
1 If the Humane Society has a disaster program for animals, can they provide you with written information to be distributed at a neighborhood meeting?
2. Would a representative of the Humane Society speak at a neighborhood ?
3 . Do they train others to help with animal rescue during disaster?
4. If currently have no program, would they be willing to prepare some information that would be useful to persons interested in caring for their pets and/or livestock during a disaster
After That
All the above research will result in a lot of useful information in organizing your neighborhood. The next step is to
A. organize the information;
B. build a start-up team to help;
C. define neighborhoods within your community; and
D. set the first neighborhood meeting.
A. Organize and Ponder the Information from Your Research
Most of the information gathered will be valuable in proceeding with neighborhood organization. Review what has been gathered, and begin to think about the implications for your community. Is there a Community Disaster Council with which your neighborhood can connect with? Is there organized neighborhood training available through the local fire department or county OES? You have probably learned that some agencies and organizations have paid staff to help organize disaster preparedness and some have dedicated volunteers.
You have also learned that your geographic location determines the potential, inherent types of disasters your community needs to prepare for. Wildfires may be the greatest threat to some communities; flooding will be of greater concern to others. There may be more than one threat to your community. This information determines which threats to emphasize when organizing your community - or you can play it safe and emphasize everything.
The end goal for all communities is to be prepared to meet a disaster, but each neighborhood will get there a little differently. Recognize that local governments differ in their plans and level of activities, due to differences in structure, assignment of personnel, and the demands of higher priority community issues. Although all government entities are required to have written disaster plans, some are more active than others. Some plans include community involvement and others don't. However, since the Loma Prieta earthquake of 1989, government agencies are showing increased awareness and interest in volunteer involvement in disaster preparedness and response. Governments are recognizing that trained volunteers will enlarge their work force following a disaster, and they are beginning to understand that it is better to establish community networks before a disaster.
You've learned a great deal from your initial research. You may feel elated or discouraged with all this information. Remember that organizing a neighborhood is an ambitious endeavor. It will take time, patience, persistence, and it will be an on-going job.
The rewards, however, are great. Having a neighborhood that is self sufficient is a comfort to all those involved. New friends are made, ideas are shared, problems are jointly solved, and a new sense of community comes into being.
B. Build a Start- Up Team
1. Enlist some help from your friends!
Draft two or three neighbors as you begin to shape goals and plan for the first meetings. Preparedness works when many neighbors take it to heart and feel ownership in the project. Don't try to do all the work by yourself - remember that a leader's job is to excite others with the vision of what is possible.
2. Set realistic goals
Keep it simple! Your goals should be a reflection of your neighborhood's needs, and attainable with a reasonable amount of work.
C. Determine the Boundaries of Your Neighborhood Within Your community
Neighborhoods can be defined by city blocks, streets, natural terrain, social or cultural enclaves. There are no rules, but the number of homes that establish a community should physically allow for an easy survey at the time of a disaster. Be sure the area is easy to walk in a short time because the information collected after a disaster may have to be quickly turned over to care-givers such as paramedics and fire personnel.
Detailed maps used by the county and town fire department and paramedics (usually called "Run Maps", a sample is included in the appendix), have been most useful in desire and identifying neighborhoods. They are usually free, are easy to obtain and already used by fire departments and paramedics. Organized communities can use these maps to show items such as propane tank locations, water tanks, swimming pools, or other resources that might have a positive or negative effect on a community during a disaster.
D. The First Meeting Now you are ready for the next step -- setting up the first neighborhood meeting.
Setting Up The First Neighborhood Meeting
Why Meetings?
The first step in developing a good community disaster organization is to prepare each household for disaster. Unless the majority of households are prepared it will be difficult but not impossible, to have a self-sufficient, organized neighborhood. A neighborhood meeting is the easiest way to start.
Setting up the First Neighborhood Meeting
1. Time and Place
With your start up team select a time and location when a good number of your neighbors can gather. Neighborhood meetings work best if held within the neighborhood and in a neighbor's home rather than in restaurants or public buildings. People attend and share information more openly in a less formal setting, which sets the tone for friendliness and cooperation. Some neighbors are hesitant to host a meeting in a small house - but remember small areas tend to help people talk to one another!
Neighborhoods could make the meeting more of a social occasion - like Saturday morning coffee or a Sunday afternoon barbecue - rather than a business function.
2. Recruit A Meeting Host
The host's role is to invite individuals to the meeting, share his or her personal interest in the need
for neighborhood disaster preparedness, and make everyone feel welcome. Even if the event must
be held at a community building, designate someone as host.
Recruiting a host for the initial community meeting can sometimes be discouraging, and creativity is necessary. Keep your ears and eyes open at other community functions for potential meeting hosts. Ask leaders in a homeowners association or community watch group to help. Divide the responsibilities of hosting a meeting - one person takes care of invitations, another offers their home, and another provides refreshments. Remind neighbors that by hosting a meeting they provide a very necessary and important service to their community - as well as getting to know their neighbors better!
3. Distribute Invitations
The most effective way to invite neighbors to a meeting is to hand deliver a written invitation. When the host hands an invitation directly to an adult household member, rather than mailing them or leaving them on the doorsteps, most neighbors will attend. This distribution process begins the process of neighborhood identification and recognition prior to the meeting.
Invitations should be distributed no less than three weeks prior to the meeting date. It is important to arrange for telephone or personal follow-up about three days before the meeting, to confirm attendance or persuade the uncertain.
Invitations should be simple and emphasize why it is important to attend the meeting - to learn about household and community self sufficiency, to meet local fire persons and paramedics, to get
to know neighbors, and to learn about available community resources. A sample invitation is in the Appendix-
Agenda and Objectives at the First Neighborhood Meeting
The goal of the first meeting is to get your neighbors together, to build on the interest in disaster preparedness, and start recruiting people who have disaster related skills to help with the organizing.
There will always be neighbors who choose not to become involved. You cannot force people to be prepared, but what you can and should do is keep them informed.
Suggested outline of topics for the first meeting (most of these are described in detail in the next section):
Introductions and socialization
Presentation by local fire department representatives
Slide show
Distribute Household Packets
Discussion of preparedness goals
Description of volunteer roles, recruitment of volunteers
Decide on next steps and next meeting
Suggested objectives for the first meeting:
Create a sense of urgency for developing personal preparedness in-ins in each household and in the neighborhood
Distribute Household Packets to each household in the community. Make sure households that were absent also get information and materials
Recruit volunteers for neighborhood coordinator and liaisons. If this project covers a large area with a number of neighborhoods, it may be necessary to recruit additional volunteer to coordinate the different neighborhoods
Recruit volunteers to start Neighborhood Disaster Committee, or act as liaison to the Community Disaster Council
Set a date for the second meeting
Tips on Having a Successful Meeting
Record the meeting for future reference by taking notes or using a tape recorder. (This becomes part of your Disaster Resource Directory.)
Make sure everyone has signed in, and received a household packet (included in Appendix)
Always ask if there are additional questions, but don't let questions or stories take over
Present a quick outline of what you envision as the neighborhood's disaster goals. Remember not to state your ideas as concrete. Try to get others to talk about their visions and ideas. Input from neighbors make this truly a community endeavor
Don't distinguish between owners and renters. AR residents of a community need to be included in disaster plans and community meetings
The maximum length for an evening meeting should be about one and a half hours, and include the presentation, questions and the start of organizing
Invitations should be distributed early! The only time to expect a good turnout for a meeting scheduled in less time is one hastily scheduled immediately after a disaster
Neighbors who attend initial disaster preparedness meetings can become quickly overwhelmed by all the information. Additions handouts should address specific audiences children, people with disabilities, and animals (included in Appendix)
Absentee owners - people who own property in the community but do not inhabit their property on a full time basis - should be notified about the initial community meeting and any further disaster plans within the community. If possible, provide them with the name of the community liaisons, a map of the community, and a Household Packet. Advise absentee owners to designate a neighbor to look after their property during a disaster if they are absent, and prepare their property appropriately for a disaster in case they are present
Thank-you's!
Remember to write thank you letters. Volunteers can not be thanked enough! Send notes to the meeting host, the recruited community liaisons and all others who responded to the call for volunteers. It's a good idea to include the date of the next meeting in this letter, and any duties outlined for specific positions.
Parts of the First Neighborhood Meeting
Fire Department/District Presentation
Besides being an important player in a neighborhood disaster plan, and the "carrot" that will attract your neighbors to a meeting, the local fire department will cause your neighbors to take a much more serious look at that they need to do for their own survival, by helping them realize the limitations of disaster response personnel and equipment available to your community in a major emergency.
Fire personnel or paramedics can describe the location of responding stations, the number of personnel on each duty shifts, the physical area of their services, their roles and services during different levels of emergencies, and the value of neighborhood participation in their disaster plan.
Slide Show
Your neighbors will respond to slides and a narrative about their community and its resources. A local slide show is much more effective than a commercial disaster video - not that commercial videos are inferior in any way. They can and do provide compelling additional information However, showing both a slide show and a video may take more than the allotted meeting time. Use a localized slide show for the first community meeting and commercial videos as the subject of future meetings. Examples of what to include in a localized slide show are included in the Appendix.
Distribute the Household Packets
The goal of the Household Packet is to distribute a packet of information to each household that is not threatening, easy to read and identify, and contains comprehensive disaster preparedness information. The one included in the Appendix was developed after reviewing available disaster brochures and publications Your neighborhood's Household Packet can use these pieces or something else. Whichever is used in the packet, be sure they reflect the community's needs in a simple but comprehensive way.
Discussion of Neighborhood Disaster Preparedness Goals
These are suggestions of goals to discuss at the first neighborhood meeting.
All households will be prepared for disaster with:
⦁ a personal household plan
⦁ neighborhood disaster training completed (first aid/rescue)
⦁ supplies in place (home & car)
Our neighborhood will be self sufficient and will have:
⦁ A connection to a Community Disaster Council or formation of a Neighborhood Disaster Committee;
⦁ One Neighborhood Coordinator and at least one Neighborhood Liaisons
⦁ Teams of volunteers for:
⦁ First Aid, Medical, & Stress Managers
⦁ Search and Rescue
⦁ Safety and Utilities
⦁ Care of People with Special Needs
⦁ Shelter & Feeding
⦁ Communications
⦁ Active linkage to local fire department/government
To accomplish our goals, our neighborhood will involve lots of volunteers (so no one person feels like they have to do it all!) who are good spirited, supportive of each other, and remain committed to fulfilling the disaster needs of our community.
Description of Volunteer Roles; Recruitment of Volunteers;
Using the Job Position Descriptions describe the role of neighborhood coordinator and neighborhood liaison. Ask for volunteers. A one-year commitment is necessary for all positions. If possible, do not allow the meeting to end without having these positions filled. If you have to, ask for a temporary candidate until a permanent candidate is found.
Ask liaisons to take household packets to neighbors who did not attend the meeting and to give each a brief report of the meeting. Do not leave these on the door step - hand them directly to an adult household member.
Ask liaisons to pick-up Neighborhood Disaster Registry forms from non-attending neighbors on a set date before the next meeting.
Describe the other teams and ask for volunteers.
Set a date/agenda for the next meeting.
The second meeting should build on the first one. Neighbors who volunteered for positions should be at each meeting, as well as all others who wish to help organize the community. Information from the completed Neighborhood Disaster Registries (Part of the Household Packet) will be needed at the next meeting, so consider that in scheduling the meeting date. If possible, do not end the first meeting before a date for a the next meeting has been set. Don't forget to thank all participants and volunteers.
List of Materials for Neighborhood Meetings
Before the Meeting
⦁ Invitations.
⦁ Map of community showing the designated area included in the "neighborhood".
⦁ Confirm the meeting date, time and location with the meeting host.
At the first neighborhood meeting
⦁ Name tags and marking pens.
⦁ Sign-up sheet.
⦁ Pens and pencils.
⦁ Household Packets, one per household.
⦁ Additional Handouts.
⦁ Extra maps of the community.
⦁ Slide Show, projector and screen
After the meeting:
⦁ Thank you letter to host .
⦁ Packets for specific volunteers including:
⦁ Thank you letter.
⦁ List of duties and responsibilities.
⦁ Map of area.
⦁ Notice of next meeting.
⦁ Notice of next meeting to all those who have volunteered for other roles.
Record or minutes of meeting.
Absentee Owners Packet
⦁ Letter explaining community organization
⦁ Map
The Second Neighborhood Meeting
Organizational Items
Before the second meeting
⦁ Remind your neighbors, volunteers and anyone who attended the first meeting of the date and time of this meeting at least three days before.
⦁ Make a list of all materials you will need for the meeting.
⦁ Make copies for each attendee of any information that needs to be shared at the meeting including maps, parts of documents, etc.
During the second meeting:
⦁ Recruit a co-chair and someone to record.
⦁ Make sure that all attendees have a chance to participate and that one person does not dominate the meeting.
⦁ Keep the participation on track.
⦁ Remember that it is still important to hear all ideas, and that anything that happens at these meetings can be changed. It is important to be flexible.
Agenda for the Second Neighborhood Meeting
⦁ Determine the need for a Neighborhood Disaster Committee, or participation in the Community Disaster Council;
⦁ Start developing a simple neighborhood disaster plan - how it will function and who will do what,
⦁ Determine needed teams and outline their responsibilities.
1. Neighborhood Disaster Committee
If your neighborhood is individually organized and prepared in the midst of an unorganized and unprepared community - you should have your own Neighborhood Disaster Committee. Read the section on Community Disaster Councils/Neighborhood Disaster Committees for more information.
The Neighborhood Disaster Committee should be comprised of members of the neighborhood, especially people with skills to coordinate teams, and others who can support the functions of the
neighborhood organization. Every member should have a distinct role, and it should be for the benefit of the neighborhood, not the individual.
2. Developing a Neighborhood Disaster Plan
Keep it simple! If your fire department and/or local government has a disaster plan and it is available to you, use it as a guide. If your community is organized and already fits into the community disaster plan, that plan will help determine what needs remain for inclusion into your neighborhood plan. You may also have access to other disaster plans from the organizations you contacted at the beginning of this project.
⦁ The goals set at the first meeting can help structure a neighborhood disaster plan. Keep the focus on what the Neighborhood Disaster Committee's functional role will be before and during a disaster. There is a sample disaster plan in the Appendix
⦁ Form a committee to develop the plan and suggest that a date be set for completion.
3. Establishing Teams and Their Responsibilities
The position of Neighborhood Coordinator and Liaison(s) may have been filled at a previous meeting. Now, neighbors are needed to fill team positions and work on the details of their duties. Refer to the completed Community Disaster Registry forms (from the Household Packets) to find skilled people. Recruiting will be an on-going process because neighbors move in and out of the community. (Hint: If possible, try to get outgoing neighbors to replace themselves).
The positions and teams (see section on Job Position Descriptions) are workable in disaster situations. Your community may demand additional positions and duties. Just remember to keep it simple. Positions and duties always need to reflect the needs of the community. If they don't do that they are superfluous.
Before the Second Meeting Ends
⦁ Recap the meeting and call for questions or comments.
⦁ Make sure volunteers are clear about and comfortable with their responsibilities.
⦁ Ask for additional ideas for the next agenda, (i.e.: an annual community disaster fair);
⦁ Set a date for next meeting.
Neighbors who participate in these programs are just as busy as you are, and only want to meet when there is a good reason to do so. So, don't schedule meetings unless there is a reason.
By the end of the second neighborhood meeting your neighborhood has started developing an organizational structure to fit its unique needs to prepare for and respond emergencies and disasters. This is a big accomplishment.
What happens next is entirely up to you and your neighbors.
Be creative. What would you like to see happen?
Appendix
Disaster Resource Directory
Disaster Resource Directory (DRD): A written record of all pertinent and priority disaster response information used by the neighborhood coordinators and liaisons during a disaster.
There are two kinds of information that is collected about neighborhood disaster preparedness, and during the process of organizing your neighborhood:
• Planning Pieces, gathered and used in preparing for a disaster: The non-priority Planning Pieces can occupy a file cabinet, or several binders, depending on the amount of information gathered. Information could include disaster products and vendor information, neighborhood meeting notes, disaster training classes, fund raising efforts, and so on.
• Priority Information, used at the time of a disaster response: The Priority Pieces, however, must be in an easily recognized, easy to use 3-ring binder or notebook. The binder must be hard copies of information - typed, computer printouts or photocopies. Most importantly, it needs to be immediately and easily accessible to the Disaster Coordinator and Disaster Liaisons. This is your Disaster Resource Directory.
I. What To Include in a DRD
A DRD is a record of all pertinent information that could or would have an impact on a particular neighborhood during a disaster. It should include
⦁ the neighborhood disaster plan, and a roster of its members; 0 how to contact your coordinator, liaisons and team leaders;
⦁ a list of both local and out of area responders;
⦁ completed Neighborhood Disaster Registry forms;
⦁ memorandums of understanding (MOU's) with the community;
⦁ rosters of neighborhood organizations;
⦁ maps;
⦁ disaster related agencies;
⦁ lists of supplies, equipment, and facilities used by the neighborhood, as well as instructions for their use.
As information is collected, weigh its importance. For example, it may not important to list how to administer first aid, but it is important to list the people in the community who have medical training, what their specialties are, and how to reach them. Likewise, it is important to have instructions, floor plans, staffing information and contacts for the use of donated facilities (a school or church used as a shelter), or the location of water storage tanks and their keys for shut-off. If a piece of information is one of the keys to the function of preparedness and/or response it should to ,be included in the DRD.
Remember to keep all sections of the DRD well-delineated, simple to read and up-to-date. Your goal should be to provide your neighborhood and its disaster personnel with a workable document.
II. Printed vs. Computerized DRD's
In this exciting time of electronic development, many of us tend to rely on computers to store information. Without question, the computer is an exceptional and valuable tool for storing tins kind of information and for updating and printing. However, in many disasters, particularly in rural area , power outages occur and in some cases last for long periods of time. Battery power is used up quickly. If all disaster resource information is stored exclusively on computers and there is not the luxury of generator capabilities during an power outage, the information can not be accessed in a timely manner. Computers are also subject to disaster damage (physical, power surges, etc.).
A printed directory allows the information to always be at hand. During a disaster, it provides the information to aid in a response or relief function regardless of whether the computer is working or even if there is a shortage of computers. A printed DRD is also an easy way to provide information to all the important players - including those who aren't computer literate or don't have access to a computer.
During a disaster, all players need to have accurate information readily available. With printed directories, volunteers with a wide range of backgrounds can assist with information functions.
III. Putting a Disaster Resource Directory Together
Don't Wait - Start Now
As disaster plans, players, supplies, equipment, and facilities, are acquired for the community, record of each should be developed, stored in a database and printed for distribution. It is important to start your disaster resource directory as soon as the fast relevant information is available. Information that is not recorded and printed has no use except to the person who collected it. In a disaster situation that person may not be available to share as a resource. It is not important if the DRD has only a small amount of information. What is important is the ability to access the information when needed.
Updating should be done as necessary - at a minimum once a year. As disaster players come into the project, they can help with the process of adding, expanding, and correcting information.
IV. Distribution of Disaster Resource Directories
The DRD's should be distributed to the major disaster players of the neighborhood - disaster council/committee members, neighborhood coordinators/liaisons, fire departments, any key community groups or agencies, and individuals who have a vested interest in the planning and response for your community.
Having this resource at their disposal for meetings, training and drills will help the neighborhood coordinators and players to become familiar with all parts of the project and not just their particular assigned section. In this way, all disaster volunteers and key players will be better informed about available resources. At the time of a disaster, they will know how and where to obtain resources to meet the needs of the community.
Community Disaster Council Neighborhood Disaster Committee
Definition
Community Disaster Council: A larger network of community representatives from neighborhoods, businesses, local organization and community groups who work together before and after a disaster to meet the disaster needs of a community. This includes representation from organized neighborhoods within its boundaries.
Neighborhood Disaster Committee: A "disaster council" within a neighborhood that finds itself individually organized within a larger, unorganized community.
⦁ A Disaster Council/Committee can be the impetus for the preparedness of a neighborhood or its larger community.
⦁ It can help make disaster recovery a well-run and efficient effort which helps all segments of the community by taking a leadership role from the beginning of disaster preparedness to the finalizing of disaster clean-up and collecting recuperative funds.
⦁ It should be autonomous - with no other duties or roles except to develop in a timely and non-political manner a comprehensive disaster preparedness plan and how to implement it.
Tasks of a Local Disaster Council/Committee
Act as a networking body between the neighborhood/community and the public safety (fire, police and medical) and/or local government for disaster preparedness, response and recovery;
Take a leadership role in identifying and providing preparedness needs of the neighborhood/community;
Have an active or supporting role in creating a disaster plan to represent the needs of the neighborhood/community.;
Oversee the community/neighborhood disaster plan, that it is comprehensive and functional through regularly scheduled drills;
Act as a support to the neighborhoods/community, local government and public safety agencies (fire, police, and medical) during a disaster;
Develop a disaster needs assessment for the neighborhood/community, including people skills, supplies, and equipment;
Recruit skilled and non-skilled volunteers, compiling this information, providing needed training and placing volunteers in appropriate positions/divisions within the disaster plan and Disaster Council/Committee functions;
Help coordinate the skilled members (both neighborhood and public safety) responding to a disaster;
Raise funds to meet disaster preparedness needs (education, training, supplies, equipment, etc.), and have the ability to purchase disaster related items, inventory, and provide appropriate storage as necessary;
Meet as appropriate, until the structure of organization and support systems are completed and functional. Meetings, drills, and related work should continually reflect the need to maintain and update all aspects of the project.
Forming A Disaster Council/Committee
Determine the physical area limitation (neighborhood, town, district, government body, etc.) that the Disaster Council/Committee will coordinate.
Identify and record all current government disaster responders within tins area -fire, paramedics, public works, and their affiliation. (Review the "First Things First" section about phone calls.)
Identify and record individuals, groups or organizations in the identified area who could be called upon to respond during a disaster - i.e.; community organizations, medical and mental health personnel, ham radio (RACES) operators, heavy equipment operators, care givers for people with special needs, animal rescuers, or child care providers.
Identify and record government or non government agencies and businesses that are within or adjacent to the area who could be impacted during a disaster, such as schools, skilled nursing facilities, national/state parks, hazardous materials plants, etc.
Recruiting Members for a Local Disaster Council/Committee
Because of the magnitude of the tasks described above, it is extremely important to have a Disaster Council/Committee which is representative of the neighborhoods, groups, organizations, public safety and businesses in your area. Because of the involvement of these groups at the time of a disaster, they should play a major part in planning decisions, mitigation for preparedness, and response at the time of a disaster. By leaving out groups who have active roles in disaster, your response, planning, and coordination will be weakened. Roles planned for them may differ from their capabilities, which can include manpower, supportive equipment, and supplies - these items can also be overlooked, undocumented, or inappropriate. During your recruiting, make sure that the individual who is being asked to serve is aware and can fulfill the responsibilities that will occur during their participation. If the individual cannot fully participate it would be better to look further to fill the position.
Job Position Description/Duties
⦁ Neighborhood Coordinator (B-3)
⦁ Neighborhood Liaison (B-3)
⦁ Neighborhood Teams
⦁ First Aid/Medical/Stress Management
⦁ Neighbors with Special Needs
⦁ Search & Rescue/Safety & Utilities
⦁ Shelter & Feeding
⦁ Communications
⦁ Animal Rescue
Neighborhood Coordinator: Person designated as the neighborhood -leader" for the disaster plan, and acts as the liaison between that neighborhood and other neighborhoods and the larger Community Disaster Council. If there is not a Community Disaster Council, this person would be the chair of the Neighborhood Disaster Committee.
Before a Disaster
Co-chairs the Neighborhood Disaster Committee;
Develops a working relationship with the local fire department/government official in charge of disaster response;
Contacts Neighborhood Liaisons on a regular basis to encourage and help them schedule neighborhood meetings with the fire department and other organizations.
Keeps the Neighborhood Liaison positions filled. If a Neighborhood Liaison needs to resign, the Neighborhood Coordinator asks them to replace themselves. If this is not possible, the Neighborhood Coordinator keeps a list of potential candidates and recruits replacement.
Has "Household Packets"and neighborhood maps available for Neighborhood Liaisons.
Makes sure information gathered and identified by Neighborhood Liaisons is tracked and recorded in the Disaster Resource Directory.
Responsible for relaying pertinent neighborhood disaster information to the local fire department and/or appropriate agency.
During a Disaster
Responsible for relaying disaster information gathered from the neighborhood to the local fire department and/or appropriate agency as soon as possible.
Gathers information, supports the Neighborhood Liaisons and all organized team.
Holds a debriefing for Neighborhood Liaisons and team leaders at the end of each day's disaster response, if this is not already being done by the fire department/local government.
Neighborhood Liaison: Person designated to work within the neighborhood or some part of it, with the existing neighbors, with new neighbors, conducting disaster assessments during a disaster, and reporting to the neighborhood coordinator.
Before a Disaster:
Sponsors a neighborhood meeting once a year. Helps neighbors meet each other, develop "Buddy Systems", and make renewed commitments to their community. If an annual meeting is not possible, the Neighborhood Liaison surveys the neighborhood to find new residents, new skills, location of new homes and buildings, supplies and equipment, and vigorously encourages new residents to make/test a household plan.
Recruits neighbors with disaster related skills for Teams/Divisions.
Makes sure each household has a "Household Packet", and that the "Neighborhood Disaster Registry" is completed and picked up. Maintains one Neighborhood Disaster Registry form and gives a copy to the Coordinator
Notes potential problems in area, such as people with chronic illnesses, latch-keys kids, elderly living alone, etc.
Encourages all household to have visible (day and night) house numbers or other identification.
Learns how to use the "Neighborhood Damage/Needs Assessment Work Sheet during a disaster.
Gives appropriate information to the Neighborhood Coordinator and/or Neighborhood Disaster Committee for entry into the local Disaster Resource Directory.
During a Disaster
Conducts a damage assessment (damage survey) of the neighborhood using "Neighborhood Damage/Needs Assessment Work Sheet" or similar form and relays the information as soon as possible to the Neighborhood Coordinator, other teams and/or fire department or appropriate response agency. Status of the neighborhood - good or bad - needs to be ascertained and passed on as soon as possible.
Helps however necessary to stabilize neighborhood. Notes dire situations in red (red pen on the disaster survey forms or red flags/tape at locations).
Conducts a neighborhood survey, even if there isn't an obvious disaster with obvious disastrous effects. For example - what may seem like a regular winter storm at one end of the neighborhood may be a bad winter storm at the other end, with downed power-lines and trees that impede the arrival of emergency responders.
Re-survey, if necessary or if asked. For example - a daylight as opposed to middle-of-the night survey, or earthquake after -shocks.
Remains on call to answer questions, informs the Neighborhood Coordinator, fire department and/or appropriate agency know his/her whereabouts every couple hours.
Attends debriefing at the end of each day's disaster response.
Acts as Neighborhood Coordinator if there isn't one (or he/she is on vacation!)
Neighborhood Teams: Groups of neighbors organized and trained to fulfill a specific purpose during a disaster - i.e.: first aid or search & rescue. Sometimes, teams fall under the authority of a Community Disaster Council rather than a Neighborhood Disaster Committee, and members are recruited from each neighborhood.
Valuing Teamwork
"Team" means working together. Team members need to remember that they will be putting other people at risk if they work alone. If you work alone and are injured you have no one to go for help.
Teamwork gets the job done in the most immediate and effortless way. Ego has no place in saving lives or disaster preparedness and response,
Team members need to take care of their mental health as well as their physical health. Don't take risks, don't work too long. Take breaks, eat and drink appropriately. Dress for the elements. Review your attitude. Keep a sense of humor and show respect and gratitude to your fellow workers. First Aid, Medical, Stress Management Team
Before a disaster
Recruit additional members with medical skills (refer to Neighborhood Disaster Registries)
Train as necessary for these positions. Coordinate disaster classes in First Aid and CPR for the neighborhood.
Develop a functional plan for this team for use during a disaster. Work with other teams to avoid duplication and holes.
Drill every six months and update skills as necessary.
Identify and inventory equipment and supplies. Develop a method of rotate and replace supplies as necessary.
Report information about team members, activities, supplies, equipment and needs to the Neighborhood Coordinator, Neighborhood Disaster Committee and appropriate agencies. Keep the Disaster Resource Directory up to date with activities.
During a disaster
Coordinate first aid and medical response, if appropriate, with the survey information gathered by the Neighborhood Liaisons.
Administer first aid as necessary. Keep records of what was done and when. If situation becomes too large for the team to handle, notify the Neighborhood Coordinator or fire department as soon as possible.
Notify appropriate teams as soon as possible of additional needs, i.e.: fire, search and rescue, safety and utilities, paramedics, or stress management.
Arrange to transport the injured when necessary and as soon as possible. Record this information.
Try to nuke injured neighbors comfortable while waiting for further help. Have an uninjured neighbor stay with them in the interim.
Keep Neighborhood Liaisons, Neighborhood Coordinator and/or other appropriate teams or agencies informed of actions. Record what actions you took as soon as possible for the Neighborhood Coordinator to use in making family contacts, reporting to other agencies, etc.
Attend debriefing at the end of each day's disaster response.
Neighbors with Special Needs Team (elderly, people living alone, latch-key kids, people with disabilities)
Before a disaster.
Recruit neighbors with recognized (licensed or degrees) skills. Use Neighborhood Disaster Registry to identify potential team members.
Use the completed "Neighborhood Disaster Registries" to identify neighbors with Special Needs. Meet with them individually and help them develop and test a disaster plan to fit their needs. Point out the advantages of having a "Buddy System" with their neighbors. Explain that this team may not be available immediately during a an emergency so they should not rely on its services.
Ask if there is a community organization (similar to the Independent Elders Project in Marin County) that can offer assistance and advice in their disaster planning.
Contact these neighbors every six months to see if their situation has changed. Also, check with the Neighborhood Liaison for new neighbors with Special Needs.
If appropriate and authorized, give information (bedridden, uses oxygen tank, etc.) about these neighbors and their location to the Fire Department, and other neighborhood teams for use during an evacuation
Report information about team members and their activities to the Neighborhood Liaisons and/ Neighborhood Coordinator for appropriate action. Keep the Disaster Resource Directory up to date.
Develop a functional plan for this team for use during a disaster. Work with other teams to avoid duplication.
Drill every six months and update skills as necessary.
During a disaster.
Coordinate response if appropriate with the survey information gathered by the Neighborhood Liaisons. Use your Plan.
Check each neighbor with Special Needs as soon as possible and lend whatever support you can.
If an evacuation is needed or has occurred, work with other neighborhood teams to make sure these neighbors have transport. Clarify what their destination will be. Record this information as soon as possible. Visit them, if possible, at the evacuation site and arrange for further needs. Do as much follow-up as appropriate.
Keep Neighborhood Liaisons, Neighborhood Coordinator and/or other appropriate teams or agencies informed of actions. Record what actions you took as soon as possible for the Neighborhood Coordinator.
Attend debriefing at the end of each day's disaster response.
Search and Rescue/Safety and Utilities
Before a disaster
Recruit neighbors with appropriate skills. Use Neighborhood Disaster Registry to identify potential team members.
Train as necessary for these positions. Fire department and local utility companies should be able to provide or help find appropriate training.
Develop a functional plan for this team for use during a disaster. Work with other teams of to avoid duplication and holes.
Ask the local fire department for their appraisal of your plan, because this team may work closely with the fire department in an emergency.
Test an evacuation plans for the neighborhood.
Ask every six months and update skills as necessary.
Survey the neighborhood for potential problems - hazardous chemicals, uncontrolled vegetation, old bridges, limited access, utilities (propane tanks), etc. Record this information in the functional plan and/or on neighborhood maps for use during an emergency.
Help the neighborhood to mitigate any identified problems.
Report information about team members and their activities to the Neighborhood Liaisons and/ Neighborhood Coordinator for appropriate action. Keep the Disaster Resource Directory up to date.
During a Disaster
Coordinate response if appropriate with the survey information gathered by the Neighborhood Liaisons. Use your Plan.
Check for possible missing persons and previously identified problem area . Mark all structures with identification tape appropriate to the circumstance.
Mitigate problems as soon as possible, calling for other teams or additional outside help through the Neighborhood Liaison or Coordinator. as needed
Work with other neighborhood teams as necessary.
If the team feels it is necessary to evacuate all or part of the neighborhood without a directive from an authoritative body, notify the fire department as soon as possible.
Keep Neighborhood Liaisons, Neighborhood Coordinator and/or other appropriate teams or agencies informed of actions. Record what actions you took as soon as possible for the Neighborhood Coordinator.
Attend debriefing at the end of each day's disaster response.
Shelter and Feeding
Before a disaster
Recruit neighbors with appropriate skills. Use Neighborhood Disaster Registry to identify potential team members.
Ask the local American Red Cross to provide "Community Shelter and Feeding" training to your neighborhood
Identify nearby Red Cross Shelters. If none are in the community, identify and obtain a building within the neighborhood or community that can be designated as a shelter. If this is not possible, it may be necessary to seek out and rely on homes in the neighborhood to be used as feeding stations and for shelter.
Inform the neighborhood/community about the shelter operations and locations.
Identify and inventory available resources, equipment and supplies. Identify needed equipment and supplies, costs and suppliers.
Drill every six months (For example: provide a meal for a group within your neighborhood, or at a find raiser). Check supplies for rotation or replacement.
Report information about team members and their activities to the Neighborhood Liaisons and/ Neighborhood Coordinator for appropriate action. Keep the Disaster Resource Directory up to date.
During a disaster
Coordinate with the Neighborhood Liaison and Coordinator to determine the need for opening a shelter and/or feeding station for victims and workers.
Notify Coordinator and Red Cross (if appropriate and possible) of decision. If opening a shelter or feeding station, notify the neighborhood and community.
If a shelter/feeding station is open, track all clients and record operations and supplies etc. Following Red Cross procedures will keep the shelter operations structured and organized.
Always be on call during a disaster as a shelter or feeding station may not be needed until a day or more into a disaster.
Keep Neighborhood Liaisons, Neighborhood Coordinator and/or other appropriate teams or agencies informed of actions. Record what actions you took as soon as possible for the Neighborhood Coordinator.
Attend debriefing at the end of each day's disaster response.
Communications
Before a disaster
Recruit neighbors with appropriate skills. Use Neighborhood Disaster Registry to identify potential team members.
Contact RACES and other communication entities to determine what types of communications are being used to communicate and what is best suited to your neighborhood/community. Consider roles for bicycles, runners, horses and the telephone.
Identify and inventory available equipment and resources. Determine needed equipment and resources, costs and suppliers.
Develop a phone tree to use if advanced warning is possible.
Report information about team members and their activities to the Neighborhood Liaisons and/ Neighborhood Coordinator for appropriate action. Keep the Disaster Resource Directory up to date.
During a disaster
Relay information, checking to be sure it is accurate, to the Neighborhood Liaison, Neighborhood Coordinator or others in charge, about the status of the neighborhood, teams/divisions, needed personnel, equipment and supplies etc., to the local fire department or appropriate agency.
Relay incoming information to the Neighborhood Coordinator and/or Neighborhood Liaison who can, in turn disseminate that information where needed.
Track and log, with the help of the Neighborhood Liaison or Coordinator, the number and location of evacuated/transported neighbors (medical and non-medical).
Track and report all weather information, as appropriate.
Log all communications.
Keep Neighborhood Liaisons, Neighborhood Coordinator and/or other appropriate teams or agencies informed of actions. Record what actions you took as soon as possible for the Neighborhood Coordinator.
Attend debriefing at the end of each day's disaster response.
Animal Rescue: The need for this team depends on the number and types of animals in your neighborhood.
Before a disaster
Recruit neighbors with appropriate skills. Use Neighborhood Disaster Registry to identify potential team members.
If there is a big animal population, hold a meeting with animal owners to discuss potential problems and plans. Consider creating two groups - one for small animals and one for larger, barnyard animals.
Encourage all animal owners to license or document their animals (micro chips don't get lost and they can be used on large animals as well as small).
Identify equipment to use during a disaster and make agreements to this effect with Owners.
Identify and record alternate shelters, pastures, barns etc., to meet the needs for animal evacuation. Remember that Red Cross Shelters do not accept animals other than seeing eye dogs. Work with the Shelter and Feeding team to develop shelter alternatives for clients with pets.
Identify and try to recruit the nearest veterinarians to participate on this team.
During a disaster
Coordinate response if appropriate with the survey information gathered by the Neighborhood Liaisons. Use your Plan.
Check with residents regarding the status of their animals.
Arrange for evacuation and sheltering as needed.
Arrange veterinarian care as needed.
Keep Neighborhood Liaisons, Neighborhood Coordinator and/or other appropriate teams or agencies informed of actions. Record what actions you took as soon as possible for the Neighborhood Coordinator.
Attend debriefing at the end of each day's disaster response.
Notify local Humane Society of lost animals.
Suggestions for Slide Show
Put together a slide show for the Neighborhood meetings. These are some suggestions:
Types of disasters:
⦁ Earthquakes, fires, floods, hazardous materials; and what actions to take.
⦁ Fault-lines, historical data, predicted time lines for future earthquakes, geological maps. Neighbors should be aware of disaster hazards in their larger community, too.
Past disaster destruction that has affected their local community
⦁ Local disasters or another area with similar conditions, what happened and what can happen.
⦁ Local fault-lines, dams, flood plains, wildland fire potential. Be aware of potential problems within your local community.
Resources within the local community and county.
⦁ Local fire station/department and the number of firefighters/paramedics present on any shift: Fire personnel or paramedics can describe the number of staff on each duty shifts, the physical area of their services, their roles and services during different levels of emergencies, and the value of community participation in their disaster plan. Your neighbors win take a much more serious look at what they need to do for their own survival during a disaster when they realize the limitations of the disaster response personnel and equipment that will be available in their community in a major emergency
⦁ The Emergency Operations Center (EOC) for the local jurisdictions and the Community Information Center for the local community are usually in different locations during a disaster so the public does not impinge on the work of safety agencies.
⦁ The location (if any) of designated Red Cross shelters, medical clinics, RACES (ham radio operators/office), the county's EOC.
⦁ Identify and define the roles of other disaster related agencies, i.e.: the local churches, the Salvation Army, the Humane Society, the food banks. These agencies can help individuals and communities to become self sufficient. These are opportunities for individuals and communities to participate in training, develop important networking structures, and to obtain certain disaster supplies and services, and educational materials at no cost
Training and drills in your local community, including First Aid, CPR, Search and Rescue, Red Cross disaster classes (Mass Care, Damage Assessment, etc.) Emphasize the importance of training, and identify the time and places of classes held within the community or how to find out. If people have limited time encourage them to begin their training with a First Aid class.
Making the Home Surroundings Safer:
⦁ Secured water heaters. Not only is this an additional safe (potable) water storage, fires started from overturned water heaters can cause more damage that the disaster itself
⦁ Retrofitted structure such as foundation tie-downs. Some insurance companies give premium discounts for retrofitting.
⦁ Secure and/or safely store movable items that could lead to injuries. Look for potential problems, such as large pieces of furniture that should be bolted to the walls, glass framed pictures above beds, kerosene lamps (filled) stored on top shelves, hanging plants. Be creative. You'll be surprised at what you find when you look.
⦁ Potential fire areas both in and out of the home buildings. Consider gas leaks and don't use candles or matches less you know there aren't any.
⦁ Fire extinguishers need to be serviced once a year, or the powder inside cakes and won't work. Buy ABC rated extinguishers with metal - not plastic - heads.
⦁ Smoke detectors. Change batteries every six months at day-light-savings time change
Household Plan.
The Household Packet contains information to help your neighbors get everyone in the household involved in disaster planning, including young children, old people, and animals!
⦁ The plan should include developing a buddy system with neighbors and agreements with absentee neighbors.
⦁ As the plan is developed, remember no one should work alone in a disaster.
⦁ If there are school age children in the household, encourage parents to ask about and understand their school's disaster plan.
⦁ Latch-key-kids, the elderly, people with disabilities, and pets will need special attention.
⦁ A good household plan should also include an evacuation plan. For example, keeping gas tanks as full as possible overcomes the problem of gas stations needing electricity to operate.
⦁ Including out-of area contacts and their telephone numbers provides a message center for family and friends.
⦁ Pay-phones sometimes work when other phone are not operating
⦁ Store important documents and cash (ATM's need electricity, too!) for easy accessibility.
Slides could show:
⦁ A family making a disaster plan. Keep the plan as simple and brief as possible. Holding family drills once a year for each type of disaster will members remember what to do when under the stress of an emergency.
⦁ Property plot plan showing house floor plan with locations of exits, fire extinguishers, supplies, and outside meeting place.
⦁ Utilities - natural gas, valve/propane tank, electrical panel, water meter. Although utilities shouldn't be turned off without good reason, it is important to know how to if you have to.
⦁ Storing supplies:
Purchasing a small amount of supplies each week is easy on the budget. Choose an appropriate and accessible place to store supplies - many people use either a large plastic garbage can or a number of small ones. Rotate food and water every six months - have a disaster dinner party with your neighbors!
⦁ Store foods that are part of your daily menu (bodies under stress have a hard time tolerating diet changes). Foods with high water content are a plus when there is a limited water supply.
⦁ Ideally, store one gallon of water per person (or pet) per day. Recycle bottled water every 6 months. Remember, a hot water heater contains a large amount of potable water. Stock water purification tablets.
⦁ Portable radio & flashlights, remember to store batteries separately.
⦁ Don't forget food, water, medications and supplies for pets.
⦁ First aid kits and sanitary supplies, personalized to individual household needs, including extra eye glasses, batteries, and medication and disposable diapers (these can also be used for bandages).
⦁ miscellaneous supplies: various-sized plastic bags (for sanitation, storage, shelter-they help retain body heat if used to cover the body), blankets, tools, socks, toys and games (always welcome in times of stress).
When you aren't home
Many of your neighbors are going to spend as much time in their cars and at work as they do at home. Encourage them to have disaster kits in their cars, in case they get stuck on the freeway, or at work, in case they can't get home for several days. Slides could show the freeway at rush hour, and a typical office.
Some notes from the editor
The Laptop Friendly Disaster Preparedness Library is my contribution to the war effort. As such I cannot over stress the importance of feedback from you regarding how to improve it. Please E-mail me at gamecampone@aol.com with your suggestions. Report even minor errors, as they reduce the credibility of the library.
I also want to add a couple of details about which I am knowledgeable, or which the other articles may not address:
KEYWORDS: pantry, food shortage, food storage, scurvy prevention, vitamins, food supply
I will share here one simple, quick trick about which I'm knowledgeable: Sprouting.
Sprouting is the most efficient way to make the most of any unprocessed seeds or beans you have access too, particularly wheat kernels. I highly recommend having a sack of wheat on hand and making wheat sprouts as part of your daily diet. In a crisis they could be indispensable. But even in daily life they provide a superior source of vegetables that you grow in less than 48 hours with only 15 minutes worth of total effort. They're a great lettuce substitute: better for you, better tasting with more foods, cheaper, easier to handle. Plus you don't have to go to the store to replace the perishable sprouts. You just grow more. I eat them twice a day on many things; wouldn't have it any other way.
1) Just take a jar, fill it a third of the way with ungrounded wheat
2) Rinse the wheat, drain then refill with water and soak the wheat for around 10 hours.
3) Drain, rinse again, drain again.
4) Let it sit for around 10 more hours, with a cloth cover over the lid.
5) Repeat steps 3 and 4 until the wheat sprouts a white "chute" that is just a little longer than the wheat kernel itself. This takes about a day and a half. It's ok to go longer, but the taste starts to get bitter.
6) Use the resulting sprouts as a lettuce substitute and more. You can tastefully add them to half the foods you eat!
You can use this process with beans, nuts lentils and most types of edible seeds. Most take longer than wheat sprouts. In the case of beans and nuts you have to steam the final product to eliminate toxins. At 5-15 cents a pound, bulk wheat is really the way to go.
- The Editor
Instructions I print out to go along with floppies:
LAPTOP FRIENDLY DISASTER SURVIVAL LIBRARY
Keyword searchable
Contents:
Johns Hopkins University Biowar FAQ http://hopkins-biodefense.org
American Red Cross Disaster Tips (approx. 150 pages from http://redcross.org)
U. S. Army Survival Manual FM 21-76 (Complete copy. From: http://155.217.58.58/cgi-bin/atdl.dll/fm/21-76/toc.htm )
Active First Aid The official first aid manual for PARASOL EMT, an Australian EMT training firm. Complete copy.
More data may have been added since this printing; open the document itself for details.
How to move this library from floppies to a single searchable document on your hard drive
1) Put the floppy entitled "disaster1.rtf" in your computer.
2) Open the file "disaster1" (If the document does not show in your "open file" dialogue box, look at the bottom of the dialogue box where it says "files of type." Click the tab on the right and select "all files." Disaster1 should show now).
3) After you've opened disaster1, open a new, separate, empty document.
4) Save the empty document to your hard drive (usually "C") as "disaster" (Save it as an .rtf aka rich text format file if you can)
5) Copy and paste all the data from "disaster1" into "disaster", the new document. (to do this go to disaster1 and move your mouse pointer to the menu in the upper left. click "edit." Then click "select all." Click "Edit," again, then click "copy." Now go to disaster1 and click "edit." Then click "paste." The data from disaster1 will now appear in disaster).
6) Close disaster1
7) Now follow the same process with the floppy called "disaster2" and any further floppies. Open it up, copy and paste its data into "disaster," after the data you already put there.
8) After you have all the floppies copied into "disaster," save "disaster" again. You now have a keyword-searchable database of critical disaster response information - your computer is now a survival tool!
Current end of the LAPTOP FRIENDLY DISASTER SURVIVAL LIBRARY
Report errors, suggest improvements or volunteer to assist this project by e-mailing me:
gamecampone@aol.com
- Dave Ridley, Editor
Link:
Survival Ring - Laptop Friendly Survival Library, November 6, 2001
The Verge - OLPC’s $100 laptop was going to change the world — then it all went wrong
